Ali

Ali ibn Abi Talib (Arabic: ‫ َﻋ ِﻠ ّﻲ ٱﺑْﻦ ا ِﺑﻲ َﻃﺎ ِﻟﺐ‬, ʿAlī ibn ʾAbī Ṭālib; 13
September 601 – 29 January 661)[2][3] was a cousin and son-in-law
of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, who ruled as the fourth caliph
from 656 to 661, but is regarded as the rightful immediate
successor to Muhammad as an Imam by Shia Muslims.
 Ali ibn Abi Talib
‫ﻋَ ِﻠ ّﻲ ٱ ْﺑﻦ ا ِﺑﻲ َﻃﺎ ِﻟﺐ‬
Haydar
Abu Turab
Al-Murtaza
Amir al-Mu'minin

Calligraphic representation of Ali's name in Rashidun form

4th Caliph of the Rashidun Caliphate
(Sunni View)
Reign 656–661[1]

Predecessor Uthman ibn Affan

Successor Hasan ibn Ali

1st Imam of Shia Islam
Reign 632–661

Successor Hasan ibn Ali (2nd Imam)

 ( )

Born 15 September 601 (13 Rajab 21

BH)[1][2][3]
Mecca, Hijaz, Arabia[1][4]

Died 29 January 661 (21 Ramadan

AH 40)
(aged 59)[2][3][5][6]
Kufa, Mesopotamia, Rashidun
Caliphate

Burial Imam Ali Mosque, Najaf, Iraq

Spouses Fatimah
Umamah bint Zainab
Umm ul-Banin
Leila bint Masoud
Asma bint Umays

Khawlah bint Ja'far

Al Sahba' bint Rabi'ah

Issue Descendants of Ali

Al-Hasan
 Al-Husayn
Zaynab
Umm Kulthum
Muhsin
Muhammad
Abbas
Ruqayya
Abdullah
Hilal
Muhammad ibn Abu Bakr (stepson)

Full name

ʿAlī ibn ʾAbī Ṭālib Arabic: ‫ﻋَ ِﻠ ّﻲ ٱﺑْﻦ ا ِﺑﻲ َﻃﺎ ِﻟﺐ‬

Tribe Quraysh (Banu Hashim)

Father Abu Talib ibn 'Abd al-Muttalib

Mother Fatimah bint Asad

Religion Islam
Ali was born inside the sacred sanctuary of the Kaaba in Mecca, the
holiest place in Islam, to Abu Talib[7] and Fatimah bint Asad.[1][8] He
was the first male who accepted Islam under Muhammad's
watch.[9][10] Ali protected Muhammad from an early age[11] and took
part in almost all the battles fought by the nascent Muslim
community. After migrating to Medina, he married Muhammad's
daughter Fatimah.[1] He was appointed caliph by Muhammad's
companions in 656, after Caliph Uthman ibn Affan was
assassinated.[12][13] Ali's reign saw civil wars and in 661, he was
attacked and assassinated by a Kharijite while praying in the Great
Mosque of Kufa.[14][15][16]

Ali is important to both Shias and Sunnis, politically and

spiritually.[17] The numerous biographical sources about Ali are often
biased according to sectarian lines, but they agree that he was a
pious Muslim, devoted to the cause of Islam and a just ruler in
accordance with the Qur'an and the Sunnah.[2] While Sunnis
consider Ali the fourth Rashidun Caliph, Shia Muslims regard Ali as
the first Caliph and Imam after Muhammad. Shia Muslims also
believe that Ali and the other Shia Imams, all of whom are from the
House of Muhammad's, known as the Ahl al-Bayt, are the rightful
successors to Muhammad.

Life in Mecca

'Ali, mounted on a blue mule, is approached by a delegation from the Quraysh tribe.

Early years

Ali's father, Abu Talib ibn Abd al-Muttalib, was the custodian of the
Ka'bah and a sheikh of Banu Hashim, an important branch of the
powerful Quraysh tribe. He was also an uncle of Muhammad, and
had raised Muhammad after Abd al-Muttalib, Abu Talib's father and
Muhammad's grandfather, died.[18][19] Ali's mother, Fatima bint Asad,
also belonged to Banu Hashim, making Ali a descendant of Isma'īl
(Ishmael) the son of Ibrahim (Abraham).[20] Many sources,
especially Shia ones, attest that Ali was born inside the Ka'bah in the
city of Mecca,[1][21] where he stayed with his mother for three
days.[1][22] His mother reportedly felt the beginning of her labour pain
while visiting the Kaaba and entered it where her son was born.
Some Shia sources contain miraculous descriptions of the entrance
of Ali's mother into the Kaaba. Ali's birth in the Kaaba is regarded as
a unique event proving his "high spiritual station" among Shia, while
Sunni scholars consider it a great, if not unique, distinction.[23]

According to a tradition, Muhammad was the first person whom Ali

saw as he took the newborn in his hands. Muhammad named him
Ali, meaning "the exalted one". Muhammad had a close relationship
with Ali's parents. When Muhammad was orphaned and later lost his
grandfather Abd al-Muttalib, Ali's father took him into his house.[1]
Ali was born two or three years after Muhammad married Khadijah
bint Khuwaylid.[24] When Ali was five years old, Muhammad took Ali
into his home to raise him. Some historians say that this was
because there was a famine in Mecca at the time and that Ali's
father had a large family to support; however, others point out that
feeding Ali would not have been a burden on his father, as Ali was
five years old at the time and, despite the famine, Ali's father, who
was financially well-off, was known for giving food to strangers if
they were hungry.[25] While it is not disputed that Muhammad raised
Ali, it was not due to any financial stress that Ali's father was going
through.

Father's Day

Many Shia Muslims also celebrate Imam Ali's birth anniversary (13th
day of Rajab) as Father's Day in Iran.[26] The Gregorian date for this
changes every year:

Year Gregorian date

2019 21 March[27]

2020 8 March[28]

2021 25 February[29]
Acceptance of Islam

Ali had been living with Muhammad and his wife Khadija since he
was five years old. When Ali was nine, Muhammad announced
himself as the Prophet of Islam, and Ali became the first male to
accept Islam in Muhammad's presence, and the second person after
Khadija. According to Sayed Ali Asgher Razwy in A Restatement of
the History of Islam & Muslims, "Ali and [the] Qur'an 'grew up'
together as 'twins' in the house of Muhammad Mustafa and Khadija-
tul-Kubra."[30]

The second period of Ali's life began in 610 when he declared Islam
at the age of 9, and ended with the Hijra of Muhammad to Medina in
622.[1] When Muhammad reported that he had received a divine
revelation, Ali, then only about nine years old, believed him and
professed to Islam.[1][2][31][32][33] Ali became the first male to
embrace Islam.[34][35][36][37] Shia doctrine asserts that in keeping
with Ali's divine mission, he accepted Islam before he took part in
any old Meccan traditional religious rites, regarded by Muslims as
polytheistic (see shirk) or paganistic. Hence the Shia say of Ali that
his face is honoured, as it was never sullied by prostrations before
idols.[31] The Sunnis also use the honorific Karam Allahu Wajhahu,
which means "God's Favour upon his Face." The reason his
acceptance is often not called a conversion is because he was never
an idol worshipper like the people of Mecca. He was known to have
broken idols in the mould of Abraham and asked people why they
worshipped something they made themselves.[38] Ali's grandfather,
along with some members of the Bani Hashim clan, were Hanifs, or
followers of a monotheistic belief system prior to the emergence of
Islam in Mecca.

Feast of Dhul-Asheera

Muhammad invited people to Islam in secret for three years before

he started inviting them publicly. In the fourth year of his preaching,
when Muhammad was commanded to invite his close relatives to
come to Islam,[39] he gathered the Banu Hashim clan in a ceremony.
At the banquet, he was about to invite them to Islam when Abu
Lahab interrupted him, after which everyone left the banquet. The
Prophet ordered Ali to invite the 40 people again. The second time,
Muhammad announced Islam to them and invited them to join.[40]
He said to them:

I offer thanks to Allah for His mercies. I praise Allah,

and I seek His guidance. I believe in Him and I put my
trust in Him. I bear witness that there is no god except
Allah; He has no partners; and I am His messenger.
Allah has commanded me to invite you to His religion
by saying: And warn thy nearest kinsfolk. I, therefore,
warn you, and call upon you to testify that there is no
god but Allah, and that I am His messenger. O ye sons
of Abdul Muttalib, no one ever came to you before with
anything better than what I have brought to you. By
accepting it, your welfare will be assured in this world
and in the Hereafter. Who among you will support me
in carrying out this momentous duty? Who will share
 the burden of this work with me? Who will respond to
my call? Who will become my vicegerent, my deputy
and my wazir?[41]

Ali was the only one to answer Muhammad's call. Muhammad told
him to sit down, saying, "Wait! Perhaps someone older than you
might respond to my call." Muhammad then asked the members of
Banu Hashim a second time. Once again, Ali was the only one to
respond, and again, Muhammad told him to wait. Muhammad then
asked the members of Banu Hashim a third time; Ali was still the
only volunteer. This time, Ali's offer was accepted by Muhammad.
Muhammad "drew [Ali] close, pressed him to his heart, and said to
the assembly: 'This is my wazir, my successor and my vicegerent.
Listen to him and obey his commands.'"[42] In another narration,
when Muhammad accepted Ali's eager offer, Muhammad "threw up
his arms around the generous youth, and pressed him to his bosom"
and said, "Behold my brother, my vizir, my vicegerent...Let all listen to
his words, and obey him."[43] Upon hearing this, the sons of Abd al-
Muttalib departed from the feast, mocking Muhammad's words, as
they scoffed at Abu Talib ibn Abd al-Muttalib, "He has ordered you to
listen and obey your son!".[44]:17 In Tarikh ut-Tabari and as-Seerat ul
Halabiyya, it has been recorded that Abu Talib asks his son Ali,
"What is this belief you are following?" to which Ali replies, "Father, I
have believed in Allah and His Messenger, and have given credence
to him, kept to him, and followed him."[44]

Sir Richard Burton writes about the banquet in his 1898 book,
saying, "It won for [Muhammad] a proselyte worth a thousand
sabers in the person of Ali, son of Abu Talib."[45]

During the oppression of Muslims

During the persecution of Muslims and boycott of the Banu Hashim

in Mecca, Ali stood firmly in support of Muhammad.[46]

Migration to Medina
In 622, the year of Muhammad's migration to Yathrib (now Medina),
Ali risked his life by sleeping in Muhammad's bed to impersonate
him, thereby thwarting an assassination attempt and ensuring
Muhammad's escape.[1][31][47] This night is called Laylat al-Mabit.
According to some ahadith, a verse was revealed about Ali
concerning his sacrifice on the night of Hijra which says "And among
men is he who sells his nafs (self) in exchange for the pleasure of
Allah."[48][49]

Ali survived the plot, but risked his life again by staying in Mecca to
carry out Muhammad's instructions: to restore to their owners all the
goods and properties that had been entrusted to Muhammad for
safekeeping. Ali then went to Medina with Fatimah bint Asad (his
mother), Fatimah bint Muhammad (Muhammad's daughter), and
two other women.[2][31]

Life in Medina

Muhammad's era
Ali was 22 or 23 years old when he migrated to Medina. When
Muhammad was creating bonds of brotherhood among his
companions, he selected Ali as his brother, claiming that "Ali and I
belong to the same tree, while people belong to different
trees."[2][31][50][44] For the ten years that Muhammad led the
community in Medina, Ali was extremely active in his service as his
secretary and deputy, serving in his armies, the bearer of his banner
in every battle, leading parties of warriors on raids, and carrying
messages and orders.[51] As one of Muhammad's lieutenants, and
later his son-in-law, Ali was a person of authority and standing in the
Muslim community.[52]

Military career

With the exception of the Battle of Tabouk, Ali took part in all battles
and expeditions fought for Islam.[31] As well as being the standard-
bearer in those battles, Ali led parties of warriors on raids into
enemy lands.
Ali first distinguished himself as a warrior in 624 at the Battle of
Badr. The battle began with Ali defeating the Meccan champion
Walid ibn Utba; one historian described Ali's opening victory at the
battle as "the signal of the triumph of Islam."[53] Ali also killed many
other Meccan soldiers in the battle—according to Muslim tradition,
between twenty and thirty-five, with most agreeing on twenty-
seven,[54] while all the other Muslims combined killed another
twenty-seven.[55]

Ali played a major role in the Battle of Uhud, as well as many other
battles, where he wielded a bifurcated sword known as Zulfiqar.[56]
He had the special role of protecting Muhammad when most of the
Muslim army fled from the battle of Uhud,[1] and it was said Lā fitā
illā ʿAliyy, lā sayfa illā Dhul-Fiqār (‫ َﻻ َﺳ ْﻴ َﻒ اﻻ ُذو ْٱﻟ ِﻔ َﻘﺎر‬،‫ﻻ ِﻓﺘَ ﯽ اﻻ َﻋ ِﻠ ّﻲ‬,َ (There
is) no brave youth except Ali, there is no sword (which renders
service) except Zulfiqar).[57] He commanded the Muslim army in the
Battle of the Trench, where he defeated the legendary Arab warrior
Amr ibn Abd al-Wud.[58] Muhammad made Ali commander at this
battle, claiming that "I will hand the standard to a man who loves
Allah and His Messenger and is loved by Allah and His Messenger.
He will come back with conquest."[44] Following this battle
Muhammad gave Ali the name Asadullāh (which means "Lion of
God") and reportedly praised him, saying "Ali's strike on Amr ibn Abd
al-Wud is greater than the worship of both mankind and jinn until the
Day of Judgement."[44] Ali also defended Muhammad in the Battle of
Hunayn in 630.[1]

Missions for Islam

Arabic calligraphy which means "There is no brave youth except Ali and there is no
sword which renders service except Zulfiqar"

Muhammad designated Ali as one of the scribes who would write

down the text of the Quran, which had been revealed to Muhammad
during the previous two decades. As Islam began to spread
throughout Arabia, Ali helped establish the new Islamic order. He
was instructed to write down the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah, the peace
treaty between Muhammad and the Quraysh, in 628. Ali was so
trustworthy that Muhammad asked him to carry the messages and
declare the orders. In 630, Ali recited to a large gathering of pilgrims
in Mecca a portion of the Quran that declared Muhammad and the
Islamic community no longer bound by agreements made earlier
with Arab polytheists. During the Conquest of Mecca in 630,
Muhammad asked Ali to guarantee that the conquest would be
bloodless. He ordered Ali to break all the idols worshiped by the
Banu Aus, Banu Khazraj, Tayy, and those in the Ka'bah to purify it
after its defilement by the polytheism of old times. Ali was sent to
Yemen one year later to spread the teachings of Islam. He was also
charged with settling several disputes and putting down the
uprisings of various tribes.[1][2]

Event of Mubahalah
According to hadith collections, in 631, an Arab Christian envoy from
Najran (currently in northern Yemen and partly in Saudi Arabia)
came to Muhammad to argue which of the two parties erred in its
doctrine concerning 'Isa (Jesus). After likening Jesus' miraculous
birth to Adam's creation,[59] Muhammad called them to mubahala
(conversation), where each party should bring their knowledgeable
men, women and children, and ask God to curse the lying party and
their followers.[60] Muhammad, to prove to them that he was a
prophet, brought his daughter Fatimah, 'Ali and his grandchildren
Hasan and Husayn. He went to the Christians and said "this is my
family" and covered himself and his family with a cloak.[61]
According to Muslim sources, when one of the Christian monks saw
their faces, he advised his companions to withdraw from Mubahala
for the sake of their lives and families. Thus the Christian monks
vanished from Mubahala. According to Allameh Tabatabaei's Tafsir
al-Mizan, the word "Our selves" in this verse[60] refers to Muhammad
and Ali. Then he narrates that Imam Ali al-Rida, eighth Shia Imam, in
discussion with Al-Ma'mun, Abbasid caliph, referred to this verse to
prove the superiority of Muhammad's progeny over the rest of the
Muslim community, and considered it proof of Ali's right to the
caliphate due to God having made Ali like the self of Muhammad.[62]

Ghadir Khumm

The Investiture of Ali, at Ghadir Khumm (MS Arab 161, fol. 162r, 1307/8 Ilkhanid
manuscript illustration)

As Muhammad was returning from his last pilgrimage in 632, he

made statements about Ali that are interpreted very differently by
Sunnis and Shias.[1] He halted the caravan at Ghadir Khumm,
gathered the returning pilgrims for communal prayer and began to
address them.[63]
According to the Encyclopedia of Islam:

Taking Ali by the hand, he asked of his faithful

followers whether he, Muhammad, was not closer
(awlā) to the Believers than they were to themselves;
the crowd cried out: "It is so, O Apostle of God!"; he
then declared: "He of whom I am the mawla, of him Ali
is also the mawla (man kuntu mawlāhu fa-ʿAlī
mawlāhu)".[64][65]

Shias regard these statements as constituting the designation of Ali

as the successor of Muhammad and as the first Imam; by contrast,
Sunnis take them only as an expression of close spiritual
relationship between Muhammad and Ali, and of his wish that Ali, as
his cousin and son-in-law, inherit his family responsibilities upon his
death, but not necessarily a designation of political authority. [17][66]
Many Sufis also interpret the episode as the transfer of
Muhammad's spiritual power and authority to Ali, whom they regard
as the wali par excellence.[1][67]

Sources, among them both Shia and Sunni, state that, after the
sermon, Abu Bakr, Umar, and Uthman pledged allegiance to
Ali.[68][69][70] However, there have been doubts regarding the veracity
of the tradition due to evidence that Ali may not have been present
during the sermon, instead being in Yemen at the time—a view held
by the historian Ibn Kathir.[71]

After Muhammad

Succession to Muhammad

The next phase of Ali's life started in 632, after the death of
Muhammad, and lasted until the assassination of Uthman ibn Affan,
the third caliph, in 656. During those 24 years, Ali took no part in
battle or conquest,[2] nor did he assume any executive position,
instead withdrawing from political affairs, especially after the death
of his wife, Fatimah Zahra. He used his time to serve his family and
worked as a farmer. Ali dug a lot of wells and planted gardens near
Medina and endowed them for public use. These wells are known
today as Abar Ali ("Ali's wells").[72]

Ali compiled a complete version of the Quran, mus'haf,[73] six

months after the death of Muhammad. The volume was completed
and carried by camel to show to other people in Medina. The order
of this mus'haf differed from that which was gathered later during
the Uthmanic era. This book was rejected by several people when he
showed it to them. Despite this, Ali made no resistance against the
standardised mus'haf.[74]

Ali and the Rashidun caliphs

Ambigram depicting Muhammad (right) and Ali (left) written in a single word. The 180-
degree inverted form shows both words.
While Ali was preparing Muhammad's body for burial and
performing his funeral rites, a small group of approximately fourteen
Muslims[75] met at Saqifah. There, Umar ibn al-Khattab pledged
allegiance to Abu Bakr, who subsequently assumed political power.
The gathering at Saqifah was disputed by some of Muhammad's
companions, who held that Ali had been designated his successor
by Muhammad himself.[33][76]

Relations between Abu Bakr and Ali may have become strained after
this.[77] Following the gathering at Saqifa, Umar and his supporters
were allegedly sent by the new Caliph to Ali's house where Ali,
Fatimah, and some of their allies were gathered.[78] Several scholars,
such as Al-Tabari and Ibn Qutaybah, relate that Umar threatened to
burn the building down if Ali refused to acknowledge Abu Bakr's
authority.[79][80][81] While the historian Al-Baladhuri states that the
altercation never became violent and ended with Ali's compliance,[82]
some traditions add that Umar and his supporters forcibly entered
the house, resulting in Fatimah's miscarriage of their unborn son
Muhsin.[83] The Kitab Sulaym ibn Qays (attributed to Sulaym ibn
Qays, but possibly a much later creation)[84] concludes the incident
with Ali being dragged out of the house with a rope tied around his
neck.[85] These events have been disputed, with several early
historical sources arguing that Fatimah's child Muhsin had died in
early childhood rather than being miscarried. Other sources add that
Ali later willingly offered Abu Bakr his oath of allegiance and gave a
praise-filled oration during his funeral.[86][87] Professor Coeli
Fitzpatrick surmises that the story of the altercation reflects the
political agendas of the period and should therefore be treated with
caution.[88]

18th century mirror writing in Ottoman calligraphy. Depicts the phrase 'Ali is the
vicegerent of God' in both directions.

Nevertheless, the issue of succession to Muhammad caused the

Muslims to split into two groups, Sunni and Shia. Sunnis assert that
even though Muhammad never appointed a successor, Abu Bakr
was elected first caliph by the Muslim community. The Sunnis
recognize the first four caliphs as Muhammad's rightful successors.
Shias believe that Muhammad explicitly named Ali as his successor
at Ghadir Khumm and Muslim leadership belonged to him by dint of
divine order.[33]

According to Wilferd Madelung, Ali himself was firmly convinced of

his legitimacy for the caliphate based on his close kinship with
Muhammad, his knowledge of Islam, and his merits in serving its
cause. He told Abu Bakr that his delay in pledging allegiance
(bay'ah) to him was based on his belief in his own claim to the
caliphate. Ali did not change his mind when he finally pledged
allegiance to Abu Bakr and then to Umar and to Uthman but had
done so for the sake of the unity of Islam, at a time when it was
clear that the Muslims had turned away from him.[33][89] Ali also
believed that he could fulfill the role of Imam without fighting.[90]

At the beginning of Abu Bakr's caliphate, there was a controversy

about Muhammad's endowment to his daughter, especially the
oasis of Fadak, between Fatimah and Ali on one side and Abu Bakr
on the other side. Fatimah asked Abu Bakr to turn over their
property, the lands of Fadak and Khaybar, but Abu Bakr refused and
told her that prophets did not have any legacy and that Fadak
belonged to the Muslim community. Abu Bakr said to her, "Allah's
Apostle said, we do not have heirs, whatever we leave is Sadaqa."
Together with Umm Ayman, Ali testified to the fact that Muhammad
granted it to Fatimah Zahra, when Abu Bakr requested her to
summon witnesses for her claim. Fatimah became angry and
stopped speaking to Abu Bakr, and continued assuming that attitude
until she died.[91] According to some sources, 'Ali did not give his
oath of allegiance to Abu Bakr until some time after the death of his
wife, Fatimah, in the year 633.[2]

He pledged allegiance to the second caliph, 'Umar ibn Khattab, and

helped him as a trusted advisor. 'Umar particularly relied upon Ali as
the chief judge of Medina. He also advised Umar to set Hijra as the
beginning of the Islamic calendar. 'Umar followed 'Ali's suggestions
in political matters as well as religious ones.[92]
'Ali was one of the electoral council to choose the third caliph which
was appointed by 'Umar. Although 'Ali was one of the two major
candidates, the council was inclined against him. Sa'd ibn Abi
Waqqas and Abdur Rahman bin Awf, who were cousins, were
naturally inclined to support Uthman, who was Abdur Rahman's
brother-in-law. In addition, Umar gave the deciding vote to Abdur
Rahman, who offered the caliphate to Ali on the condition that he
should rule in accordance with the Quran, the example set by
Muhammad, and the precedents established by the first two caliphs.
Ali rejected the third condition while Uthman accepted it. According
to Ibn Abi al-Hadid's Comments on the Peak of Eloquence Ali
insisted on his prominence there, but most of the electors supported
Uthman and Ali was reluctantly urged to accept him.[93]

'Uthman ibn 'Affan expressed generosity toward his kin, Banu Abd-
Shams, who seemed to dominate him, and his supposed arrogant
mistreatment toward several of the earliest companions such as
Abu Dharr al-Ghifari, Abd-Allah ibn Mas'ud and Ammar ibn Yasir
provoked outrage among some groups of people. Overt resistance
arose in 650–651 throughout most of the empire.[94] The
dissatisfaction with his rule and the governments appointed by him
was not restricted to the provinces outside Arabia.[95] When
Uthman's kin, especially Marwan, gained control over him, the noble
companions, including most of the members of elector council,
turned against him or at least withdrew their support, putting
pressure on the caliph to mend his ways and reduce the influence of
his assertive kin.[96]

At this time, 'Ali had acted as a restraining influence on Uthman

without directly opposing him. On several occasions Ali disagreed
with Uthman in the application of the Hudud; he had publicly shown
sympathy for Abu Dharr al-Ghifari and had spoken strongly in the
defence of Ammar ibn Yasir. He conveyed to Uthman the criticisms
of other Companions and acted on Uthman's behalf as negotiator
with the provincial opposition who had come to Medina; because of
this some mistrust between Ali and Uthman's family seems to have
arisen. Finally, he tried to mitigate the severity of the siege by his
insistence that Uthman should be allowed water.[2]
There is controversy among historians about the relationship
between Ali and Uthman. Although pledging allegiance to Uthman,
Ali disagreed with some of his policies. In particular, he clashed with
Uthman on the question of religious law. He insisted that religious
punishment had to be meted out in several cases, such as those of
Ubayd Allah ibn Umar and Walid ibn Uqba. In 650, during the
pilgrimage, he reproached Uthman for his change of the prayer
ritual. When Uthman declared that he would take whatever he
needed from the fey', Ali exclaimed that in that case the caliph would
be prevented by force. Ali endeavoured to protect companions such
as Ibn Mas'ud from maltreatment by the caliph.[97] Therefore, some
historians consider Ali one of the leading members of Uthman's
opposition, if not the main one. But Wilferd Madelung rejects their
judgment due to the fact that Ali did not have the Quraysh's support
to be elected as a caliph. According to him, there is not even
evidence that Ali had close relations with rebels who supported his
caliphate, much less directed their actions. [98] Some other sources
say Ali had acted as a restraining influence on Uthman without
directly opposing him.[2] However, Madelung relates that Marwan
told Zayn al-Abidin, the grandson of Ali, that "No one [among the
Islamic nobility] was more temperate toward our master than your
master."[99]

Caliphate

Map of the First Fitna. The areas shaded in green and pink respectively represent the
territories under Caliph Ali's and Mu'awiya's control in 658.

Ali was caliph between 656 and 661 during the First Fitna, one of the
most turbulent periods in Muslim history. Since the conflicts in
which Ali was involved were perpetuated in polemical sectarian
historiography, biographical material is often biased. However, the
sources agree that he was a profoundly religious man, devoted to
the cause of Islam and the rule of justice in accordance with the
Quran and the Sunnah. The sources abound in notices on his
austerity, rigorous observance of religious duties, and detachment
from worldly goods. Authors have noted that Ali stood firmly by his
principles and would not compromise them for political self-
gain.[100]

Election

Uthman's assassination meant that rebels had to select a new

caliph. This met with difficulties since the rebels were divided into
several groups: the Muhajirun, Ansar, Egyptians, Kufans and
Basrites. There were three candidates: Ali, Talhah and Al-Zubayr.
First the rebels approached Ali and offered him the caliphate. Some
of Muhammad's companions tried to persuade Ali to accept the
office,[101][102][103] but he turned down the offer, requesting he be
made a counsellor instead of a chief.[104] Talhah, Zubayr and other
companions also refused the rebels' offer as well. Therefore, the
rebels warned the inhabitants of Medina to select a caliph within
one day, or they would take drastic action. In order to resolve the
deadlock, the Muslims gathered in the Prophet's Mosque on 18 June
656, to appoint the caliph. Initially, 'Ali refused to accept the office,
simply because his most vigorous supporters were rebels. However,
when some notable companions of Muhammad, in addition to the
residents of Medina, urged him to accept the offer, he finally agreed.
According to Abu Mekhnaf's narration, Talhah was the first
prominent companion who gave his pledge to 'Ali, but other
accounts claimed otherwise, stating they were forced to give their
pledge. Also, Talhah and Al-Zubayr later claimed they supported him
only reluctantly. Regardless, Ali refuted these claims, insisting they
recognised him as caliph voluntarily. Wilferd Madelung believes that
coercion was not a factor and that they pledged publicly in the
mosque.[12][13] While the overwhelming majority of Medina's
population as well as many of the rebels gave their pledge, some
important figures or tribes did not do so. The Umayyads, kinsmen of
Uthman, fled to the Levant, or remained in their houses, later
refusing 'Ali's legitimacy. Sa'ad ibn Abi Waqqas was absent and
'Abdullah ibn 'Umar abstained from offering his allegiance, but both
of them assured 'Ali that they would not act against him.[12][13] Ali
thus inherited the Rashidun caliphate – which extended from Egypt
in the west to the Iranian highlands in the east—while the situation in
the Hejaz and the other provinces on the eve of his election was
unsettled.

Uthman had appointed his family members as governors and in

other positions of power, and public dissatisfaction with this
nepotism was one of the factors that had caused a rebellion against
him.[105] In addition, Uthman's governors were widely known for their
corruption and plundering. Soon after Ali became caliph, he
dismissed Uthman's governors immediately, against the counsel of
his advisers that it would not be politically wise to do so, as he
refused to be complicit in their injustice and
corruption.[106][107][108][109] According to Madelung, Ali was deeply
convinced of his right and his religious mission, unwilling to
compromise his principles for the sake of political expediency, and
ready to fight against overwhelming odds.[110] Some of Uthman's
governors were replaced, but others, such as Muawiyah I (a relative
of Uthman and governor of the Levant), refused to submit to Ali's
orders.[2]

Inaugural address in Medina

When he was appointed caliph, Ali stated to the citizens of Medina

that Muslim polity had come to be plagued by dissension and
discord; he desired to purge Islam of any evil. He advised the
populace to behave as true Muslims, warning that he would tolerate
no sedition and those who were found guilty of subversive activities
would be dealt with harshly.[111]

First Fitna

A'ishah, Talhah, Al-Zubayr and the Umayyads, especially Muawiyah I

and Marwan I, wanted 'Ali to punish the rioters who had killed
Uthman.[112][113] They encamped close to Basra. The talks lasted for
many days and the subsequent heated exchange and protests
during the parley turned from words to blows, leading to loss of life
on both sides. In the confusion the Battle of the Camel started in
656, where Ali emerged victorious.[114] Some historians believe that
they used this issue to seek their political ambitions because they
found Ali's caliphate against their own benefit. The rebels
maintained that Uthman had been justly killed, for not governing
according to the Quran and Sunnah; hence, no vengeance was to be
invoked.[2][31][115]

Some say the caliphate was a gift of the rebels and Ali did not have
enough force to control or punish them,[111] while others say Ali
accepted the rebels' argument or at least did not consider Uthman a
just ruler.[116] Ali himself writes, in the Nahj al-Balagha, that he was
blamed by the Umayyads for the assassination of Uthman.[117]

The Umayyads knowledge of me did not restrain them

from accusing me, nor did my precedence in accepting
Islam keep these ignorant people from blaming me.
Allah's admonitions are more eloquent than my
 tongue. I am the contester against those who break
away from Faith and the opposer of those who
entertain doubts. Uncertainties should be placed
before Qur'an, the Book of Allah (for clarification).
Certainly, people will be recompensed according to
what they have in their hearts. – Nahj al-Balagha:
Sermon 75[117]

Under such circumstances, a schism took place which led to the

first civil war in Muslim history. Some Muslims, known as Uthmanis,
considered Uthman a rightful and just caliph till the end, who had
been unlawfully killed. Some others, known as the party of Ali,
believed Uthman had fallen into error, had forfeited the caliphate,
and been lawfully executed for his refusal to mend his ways or step
down; thus, Ali was the just and true Imam and his opponents were
infidels. This was not the position of Ali himself. This civil war
created permanent divisions within the Muslim community
regarding who had the legitimate right to occupy the caliphate.[118]
The First Fitna, 656–661, followed the assassination of Uthman,
continued during the caliphate of Ali, and was ended by Muawiyah's
assumption of the caliphate. This civil war is regretted as the end of
the early unity of the Islamic ummah (nation).[119]

Ali appointed 'Abd Allah ibn al'-Abbas[120] governor of Basra. Later,

Muawiyah I, governor of the Levant and cousin of Uthman, refused
Ali's demands for allegiance. Ali opened negotiations, but Muawiyah
insisted on Levantine autonomy under his rule. Muawiyah mobilised
an army and refused to pay homage to Ali on the pretext that his
contingent had not participated in the election. Ali then moved his
armies north and the two sides encamped at Siffin for more than
one hundred days, most of the time being spent in negotiations.
Although Ali exchanged several letters with Muawiyah, he was
unable to dismiss the latter, nor persuade him to pledge allegiance.
Skirmishes between the parties led to the Battle of Siffin in
657.[2][121]

A week of combat was followed by a violent battle known as laylat

al-harir (the night of clamour). Muawiyah's army was on the point of
being routed when Amr ibn al-As advised Muawiyah to have his
soldiers hoist mus'haf (either parchments inscribed with verses of
the Quran, or complete copies of it) on their spearheads in order to
cause disagreement and confusion in Ali's army.[2][121] Ali saw
through the stratagem, but only a minority wanted to pursue the
fight.[33] The two armies finally agreed to settle the matter of who
should be caliph by arbitration. The refusal of the largest bloc in Ali's
army to fight was the decisive factor in his acceptance of the
arbitration. The question as to whether the arbiter would represent
Ali or the Kufans caused a further split in Ali's army. Ash'ath ibn Qays
and some others rejected Ali's nominees, 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abbas and
Malik al-Ashtar, and insisted on Abu Musa Ash'ari, for his neutrality.
Finally, Ali was urged to accept Abu Musa. Amr ibn al-As was
appointed by Muawiyah as an arbitrator. Seven months after the
battle, in February 658, the two arbitrators met at Adhruh about 10
miles northwest of Maan in Jordan. Amr ibn al-As convinced Abu
Musa Ash'ari that both Ali and Muawiyah should step down and a
new caliph be elected. Ali and his supporters were stunned by the
decision, which had lowered the caliph to the status of the rebellious
Muawiyah. Ali was therefore outwitted by Muawiyah and Amr ibn al-
As.[122][123] When the arbitrators assembled at Daumet-ul-Jandal, a
series of daily meetings were arranged for them to discuss the
matters in hand. When the time arrived for making a decision about
the caliphate, Amr bin al-As convinced Abu Musa al-Ashari that they
should deprive both Ali and Muawiya of the caliphate, and give the
Muslims the right to elect the caliph. Abu Musa al-Ashari also
concurred.[124] According to Poonawala, it seems that the arbiters
and other eminent persons, with the exclusion of Ali's
representatives, met in January 659 to discuss the selection of the
new caliph. Amr supported Muawiyah, while Abu Musa preferred his
son-in-law, Abdullah ibn Umar, but the latter refused to stand for
election in default of unanimity. Abu Musa then proposed, and Amr
agreed, to depose both Ali and Muawiyah and submit the selection
of the new caliph to a Shura. In the public declaration that followed
Abu Musa observed his part of the agreement, but Amr declared Ali
deposed and confirmed Muawiya as caliph.[2]
Ali refused to accept this state of affairs and found himself
technically in breach of his pledge to abide by the
arbitration.[125][126][127] 'Ali protested that it was contrary to the
Qur'an and the Sunnah and hence not binding. Then he tried to
organise a new army, but only the Ansar, the remnants of the Qurra
led by Malik Ashtar, and a few of their clansmen remained loyal.[2]
This put Ali in a weak position even amongst his own
supporters.[125] The arbitration resulted in the dissolution of 'Ali's
coalition, and some have opined that this was Muawiyah's
intention.[2][128]

The most vociferous opponents in Ali's camp were the very same
people who had forced Ali into the ceasefire. They broke away from
Ali's force, rallying under the slogan "arbitration belongs to God
alone." This group came to be known as the Kharijites ("those who
leave"). They considered everyone to be their enemy. In 659 Ali's
forces and the Kharijites met in the Battle of
Nahrawan.[124][124][129][130] The Qurra then became known as the
Kharijites. The Kharijites then started killing Ali's supporters and
other Muslims. They considered anyone who was not part of their
group as an unbeliever.[130] Although 'Ali won the battle by a huge
margin, the constant conflict had begun to affect his standing.[124]
While dealing with the Iraqis, 'Ali found it hard to build a disciplined
army and effective state institutions. He also spent a lot of time
fighting the Kharijites. As a result, 'Ali found it hard to expand the
state on its eastern front.[131]

At about the same time, unrest was brewing in Egypt. The governor
of Egypt, Qais, was recalled, and Ali had him replaced with
Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr (the brother of Aisha and the son of Islam's
first caliph Abu Bakr). Muawiyah allowed 'Amr ibn al-'As to move
against Egypt and 'Amr eventually conquered it for the second time
in his career.[132] Amr had first taken Egypt eighteen years earlier
from the Romans but had been dismissed by Uthman.[132]
Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr had no popular support in Egypt and
managed to muster 2000 men but they dispersed without a
fight.[132]
In the following years, Muawiyah's army occupied many cities of
Iraq, which Ali's governors could not prevent, and the people offered
no support for a defense. Muawiyah overpowered Egypt, Hijaz,
Yemen and other areas.[133] In the last year of Ali's caliphate, the
mood in Kufa and Basra changed in his favour as the people
became disillusioned with Muawiyah's reign and policies. However,
the people's attitude toward Ali differed deeply. Just a small minority
of them believed that Ali was the best Muslim after Muhammad and
the only one entitled to rule them, while the majority supported him
due to their distrust and opposition to Muawiyah.[134]

Policies

Anti-corruption campaign and egalitarian policies

Ali is said to have vowed an uncompromising campaign against

financial corruption and unfair privileges after he assumed the
caliphate following the death of Uthman. Shias argue that his
determination in pushing these reforms aroused the ire of the
wealthy and the privileged former companions of the
Prophet.[135][136] In a well-known letter to one of his governors, Malik
al-Ashtar, he articulates his pro-poor, anti-elitist approach:

Remember that displeasure and disapproval of

common men, have-nots and depressed persons more
than overbalances the approval of important persons
and displeasure of a few big will be excused by the
Lord if the general public and masses of your subjects
are happy with you. The common men, the poor,
apparently less important sections of your subjects are
the pillars of Islam….be more friendly with them and
secure their confidence and sympathy.[136]

'Ali recovered the land granted by 'Uthman and swore to recover

anything that elites had acquired before his election. Ali opposed the
centralisation of capital control over provincial revenues, favouring
an equal distribution of taxes and booty amongst the Muslim
citizens; he distributed the entire revenue of the treasury among
them. 'Ali refrained from nepotism, including with his brother 'Aqeel
ibn Abu Talib. This reflected his policy of offering equality to
Muslims who served Islam in its early years and to those Muslims
who played a role in the later conquests.[2][137]

Forming coalitions

Ali succeeded in forming a broad coalition, especially after the

Battle of the Camel. His policy of equal distribution of taxes and
booty gained the support of Muhammad's companions, especially
the Ansar who were subordinated by the Quraysh leadership after
Muhammad, the traditional tribal leaders, and the Qurra or Qur'anic
reciters that sought pious Islamic leadership. The successful
formation of this diverse coalition seems to be due to Ali's
charisma.[2][138] This diverse coalition became known as Shia Ali,
"adherents of Ali" or "followers of Ali". However, according to Shia,
as well as non-Shia reports, the majority of those who supported 'Ali
after his election as caliph were Shia politically, not religiously.
Although at this time there were many who were counted as political
Shia, few of them believed in Ali's religious leadership.[139]

Governance doctrine

His policies and ideas of governing are manifested in the letter he

sent to Malik al-Ashtar after appointing him governor of Egypt. This
instruction, which has historically been viewed as the ideal
constitution for Islamic governance, alongside the Constitution of
Medina, involved detailed descriptions of the duties and rights of the
ruler, the various functionaries of the state, and the main classes of
society at that time.[140][141] Ali wrote:

Infuse your heart with mercy, love and kindness for

your subjects. Be not in face of them a voracious
animal, counting them as easy prey, for they are of two
kinds: either they are your brothers in faith or in
creation. Error catches them unaware, deficiencies
overcome them, (evil deeds) are committed by them
 intentionally and by mistake. So grant them your
pardon and your forgiveness to the same extent that
you hope God will grant you His pardon and His
forgiveness. For you are above them, and he who
appointed you is above you, and God is above him who
appointed you. God has sought from you the
fulfillment of their requirements and He is trying you
with them.[142]

Since the majority of 'Ali's subjects were nomads and peasants, he

was concerned with agriculture. He instructed Malik to give more
attention to land development than to the tax collection, because tax
can only be obtained by the development of the land and whoever
demands tax without developing the land ruins the country and
destroys the people.[143]

Assassination in Kufa
The Great Mosque of Kufa, where Ali was fatally attacked

On 19 Ramadan AH 40, which would correspond to 26 January

661,[144] while praying in the Great Mosque of Kufa, Ali was attacked
by the Kharijite Abd-al-Rahman ibn Muljam. He was wounded by ibn
Muljam's poison-coated sword while prostrating in the Fajr
prayer.[145] 'Ali ordered his sons not to attack the Kharijites, instead
stipulating that if he survived, ibn Muljam would be pardoned
whereas if he died, ibn Muljam should be given only one equal hit
(regardless of whether or not he died from the hit).[146] 'Ali died two
days later on 29 January 661 (21 Ramadan AH 40).[2][145] Al-Hasan
fulfilled Qisas and gave equal punishment to ibn Muljam upon Ali's
death.[134]

Aftermath
Outside view of
Imām Alī Shrine
in Najaf, Iraq

Inside view of
the mosque in
Najaf, before
the renovations
in 2008

Rawze-e-Sharif,
the Blue
Mosque, in

Mazari Sharif,
Afghanistan –
 Afghanistan
where a
minority of
Muslims
believe Ali ibn
Abu Talib is
buried

After Ali's death, Kufi Muslims pledged allegiance to his eldest son
Hasan without dispute, as Ali on many occasions had declared that
just People of the House of Muhammad were entitled to rule the
Muslim community.[147] At this time, Muawiyah held both the Levant
and Egypt and, as commander of the largest force in the Muslim
Empire, had declared himself caliph and marched his army into Iraq,
the seat of Hasan's caliphate.

War ensued during which Muawiyah gradually subverted the

generals and commanders of Hasan's army with large sums of
money and deceptive promises until the army rebelled against him.
Finally, Hasan was forced to make peace and yield the caliphate to
Muawiyah. Muawiyah then transformed tuned the caliphate into a
secular kingdom (Sultanate). The Umayyad caliphate later became a
centralised monarchy under Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan.[148]

Umayyads placed extreme pressure upon Ali's family and his Shia.
Regular public cursing of Imam Ali in the congregational prayers
remained a vital institution until Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz abolished the
practice, 60 years later.[99]

Madelung writes:

Umayyad highhandedness, misrule and repression

were gradually to turn the minority of Ali's admirers
into a majority. In the memory of later generations Ali
became the ideal Commander of the Faithful. In face of
the fake Umayyad claim to legitimate sovereignty in
Islam as God's Vice-regents on earth, and in view of
Umayyad treachery, arbitrary and divisive
government, and vindictive retribution, they came to
appreciate his [Ali's] honesty, his unbending devotion
 to the reign of Islam, his deep personal loyalties, his
equal treatment of all his supporters, and his
generosity in forgiving his defeated enemies.[149]

Ibn Abi'l-Hadid narrates the following about the Umayyad treatment

of Ali and his followers:

"Everybody knows that when the Umayyads held the

reins of the Islamic world, they spared no single effort
for extinguishing the light of Ali and inventing flaws
against him. Moreover, they issued the decisions of
cursing him openly from the mimbars of their mosques
and sentenced to death anyone who would mention
any of his incalculable merits. They also prevented
people from reporting any narration that might refer
to any of his accolades. Finally, they even prevented
people from calling their newborns by his name."[44]:6
Burial

According to Al-Shaykh Al-Mufid, Ali did not want his grave to be

desecrated by his enemies and consequently asked his friends and
family to bury him secretly. This secret gravesite was revealed later
during the Abbasid caliphate by Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq, his
descendant and the sixth Shia Imam.[150] Most Shias accept that Ali
is buried at the Tomb of Imam Ali in the Imam Ali Mosque at what is
now the city of Najaf, which grew around the mosque and shrine
called Masjid Ali.[151][152]

However, another story, usually maintained by some Afghans, notes

that his body was taken and buried in the Afghan city of Mazar-E-
Sharif at the famous Blue Mosque or Rawze-e-Sharif.[153]

Virtues
Ali is respected not only as a warrior and leader, but as a writer and
religious authority. A wide range of disciplines from theology and
exegesis to calligraphy and numerology, from law and mysticism to
Arabic grammar and rhetoric are regarded as having been first
adumbrated by Ali.[152]

Prophetic knowledge

According to a hadith which is narrated by Shia and Sufis,

Muhammad said "I'm the city of knowledge and Ali is its
gate ..."[152][154][155] Muslims regard Ali as a major authority on Islam.
According to the Shia, Ali himself gave this testimony:

Not a single verse of the Quran descended upon (was

revealed to) the Messenger of God which he did not
proceed to dictate to me and make me recite. I would
write it with my own hand, and he would instruct me
as to its tafsir (the literal explanation) and the ta'wil
(the spiritual exegesis), the nasikh (the verse which
abrogates) and the mansukh (the abrogated verse), the
 muhkam and the mutashabih (the fixed and the
ambiguous), the particular and the general ...[156]

It has been narrated that when Abbas was a baby, Ali placed him on
his lap, kissed his hands and began to weep. He foretold the tragedy
of Abbas and the inevitable fate of his hands which caused his wife,
Umm ul-Banin, to also weep. However, he goes on to describe
Abbas's future position and great status with God, and this relieves
her.[44]

Theosophy

According to Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Ali is credited with having

established Islamic theology, and his quotations contain the first
rational proofs among Muslims of the Unity of God.[157] Ibn Abi al-
Hadid has quoted
 As for theosophy and dealing with matters of divinity,
it was not an Arab art. Nothing of the sort had been
circulated among their distinguished figures or those
of lower ranks. This art was the exclusive preserve of
Greece, whose sages were its only expounders. The
first one among Arabs to deal with it was Ali.[158]

In later Islamic philosophy, especially in the teachings of Mulla

Sadra and his followers, like Allameh Tabatabaei, Ali's sayings and
sermons were increasingly regarded as central sources of
metaphysical knowledge, or divine philosophy. Members of Sadra's
school regard Ali as the supreme metaphysician of Islam.[1]
According to Henry Corbin, the Nahj al-Balagha may be regarded as
one of the most important sources of doctrines professed by Shia
thinkers, especially after 1500. Its influence can be sensed in the
logical co-ordination of terms, the deduction of correct conclusions,
and the creation of certain technical terms in Arabic which entered
the literary and philosophical language independently of the
translation into Arabic of Greek texts.[159]

In addition, some hidden or occult sciences such as jafr, Islamic

numerology, and the science of the symbolic significance of the
letters of the Arabic alphabet, are said to have been established by
Ali[1] through his having studied the texts of al-Jafr and al-Jamia.

Eloquence

Ali was also a great scholar of Arabic literature and pioneered in the
field of Arabic grammar and rhetoric. Numerous short sayings of Ali
have become part of general Islamic culture and are quoted as
aphorisms and proverbs in daily life. They have also become the
basis of literary works or have been integrated into poetic verse in
many languages. Already in the 8th century, literary authorities such
as 'Abd al-Hamid ibn Yahya al-'Amiri pointed to the unparalleled
eloquence of Ali's sermons and sayings, as did al-Jahiz in the
following century.[1] Even staffs in the Divan of Umayyad recited Ali's
sermons to improve their eloquence.[160] The most famous selection
of Ali's utterances and writings has been gathered in a book called
Nahj al-Balagha (Peak of Eloquence) by a 10th-century Shia scholar,
Al-Sharif al-Radi, who selected them for their singular rhetorical
beauty.[161]

The sermons without dots and alephs

Of note among sermons quoted in the book is the undotted sermon

as well as the sermon without Aleph.[162] According to narrations,
some companions of Muhammad had gathered somewhere
discussing the role of letters in speaking. They concluded that Aleph
had the greatest contribution in speaking and that dotted letters
were also important. Meanwhile, Ali read two long impromptu
sermons, one without using Aleph and the other without dotted
letters, containing deep and eloquent concepts, according to
Langroudi, a Shia author.[163] George Jordac, a Christian author, said
that sermons without Aleph and dot had to be regarded as literary
masterpieces.[164]
Compassion

Ali is revered for the deep sympathy and support he showed for the
poor and orphans, and the egalitarian policies he pursued during his
caliphate with the aim of achieving social justice. He is quoted as
saying:

If God grants wealth and prosperity to any person, he

should show kindness to his deserving kith and kin,
should provide for the poor, should come the
assistance of those are oppressed with calamities,
misfortunes and reverses, should help the poor and
have-nots and should assist honest people to liquidate
their loans...[136]

It is narrated in Kitab al-Kafi that Amir al-Mu'minin Ali ibn Abi Talib
was presented with honey and figs from locations near Baghdad.
Upon receiving the gifts, he ordered his officers to bring the orphans
so that they could lick the honey from the containers while he
distributed the rest himself among the people.[165]

Works

One of the first copies of the Qur'an ever transcribed in the Islamic world by 'Ali ibn Abi
Talib.

The sermons, lectures and quotations attributed to Ali are compiled

in several books:

Nahj al-Balagha (The Peak of Eloquence) contains eloquent

sermons, letters and quotations attributed to Ali, compiled by ash-
Sharif ar-Radi (d. 1015). Reza Shah Kazemi states: "Despite
ongoing questions about the authenticity of the text, recent
scholarship suggests that most of the material in it can in fact be
attributed to Ali" and in support of this he makes reference to an
article by Mokhtar Jebli.[152] This book has a prominent position in
Arabic literature. It is also considered an important intellectual,
political and religious work in Islam.[1][166][167] The Urdu translator
of Nahjul Balagha Allama Syed Zeeshan Haider Jawadi[168] has
compiled a list of 61 books and name of their writers from AH 204
to 488, and provided the sources in which compilation work of
Sharif Razi can be traced out. Masadir Nahj al-Balagha wa
asaniduh, written by al-Sayyid 'Abd al-Zahra' al-Husayni al-Khatib,
introduces some of these sources.[169] Also, Nahj al-sa'adah fi
mustadrak Nahj al-balaghah by Muhammad Baqir al-Mahmudi
represents all of Ali's extant speeches, sermons, decrees, epistles,
prayers, and sayings that have been collected. It includes the Nahj
al-balagha and other discourses which were not incorporated by
ash-Sharif ar-Radi or were not available to him. Apparently, except
for some of the aphorisms, the original sources of all the contents
of the Nahj al-balagha have been determined.[166] There are
several Comments on the Peak of Eloquence by Sunnis and Shias
 such as Comments of Ibn Abi al-Hadid and comments of
Muhammad Abduh.
Supplications (Du'a), translated by William Chittick.[170]
Ghurar al-Hikam wa Durar al-Kalim (Exalted aphorisms and Pearls
of Speech) which is compiled by Abd al-Wahid Amidi (d. 1116)
consists of over ten thousand short sayings of Ali.[171]
Divan-i Ali ibn Abu Talib (poems which are attributed to Ali ibn Abu
Talib).[2]

Family life
In 623, Muhammad told Ali that God ordered him to give his
daughter Fatimah Zahra to Ali in marriage.[1] Muhammad said to
Fatimah: "I have married you to the dearest of my family to me."[172]
This family is glorified by Muhammad frequently and he declared
them as his Ahl al-Bayt in events such as Mubahala and hadith like
the Hadith of the Event of the Cloak. They were also glorified in the
Qur'an in several cases such as "the verse of purification".[173][174]
Ali had four children born to Fatimah, the only child of Muhammad
to have surviving progeny. Their two sons, Hasan and Husain, were
cited by Muhammad to be his own sons, honoured numerous times
in his lifetime and titled "the leaders of the youth of Jannah
(Heaven)."[175][176] Ali and Fatimah also had a third son, Muhsin;
however, he died as a result of a miscarriage when Ali and Fatimah
were attacked after Muhammad's death. Fatimah died shortly after
the attack as well.[177][178][179]

At the beginning they were extremely poor. Ali would often help
Fatimah with the household affairs. According to some sources, Ali
performed the work outside the house and Fatimah performed the
work inside the house, a setup that Muhammad had determined.[180]
When the economic situations of the Muslims became better,
Fatimah gained some maids but treated them like her family and
performed the house duties with them.[181]

Their marriage lasted until Fatimah's death ten years later and was
said to be full of love and friendliness.[182] Ali is reported to have
said about Fatimah, "By Allah, I did never anger her or force her to do
something (unwillingly) until Allah took her to the better world. She
also did never anger me nor did she disobey me in anything at all.
When I looked at her, my griefs and sorrows were relieved."[183][184]
Although polygamy was permitted, Ali did not marry another woman
while Fatimah was alive, and his marriage to her possesses a
special spiritual significance for all Muslims because it is seen as
the marriage between two great figures surrounding Muhammad.

After Fatimah's death, Ali remarried and had several other children.[1]
Among his wives after Fatimah was Umamah bint Zainab; Fatimah
had told Ali to marry her after her death, as Fatimah knew that
Umamah loved and would take good care of their children.[185]

Descendants

Ali had four children with Fatimah: Hasan ibn Ali, Husayn ibn Ali,
Zaynab bint Ali[1] and Umm Kulthum bint Ali. His other well-known
sons were al-Abbas ibn Ali, born to Fatima binte Hizam (Um al-
Banin), and Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyyah.[186] Muhammad ibn al-
Hanafiyyah was Ali's son from another wife from the Bani Hanifa
tribe of central Arabia named Khawlah bint Ja'far, whom Ali had
married after Fatimah's death.

Hasan, born in 625, was the second Shia Imam and he also
assumed the role of caliph for several months after Ali's death. In
the year AH 50 he died after being poisoned by a member of his own
household who, according to historians, had been motivated by
Mu'awiyah.[187]

Husayn, born in 626, was the third Shia Imam, whom Mu'awiyah
persecuted severely. On the tenth day of Muharram, of the year 680,
Husayn lined up before the army of the caliph with his small band of
followers and nearly all of them were killed in the Battle of Karbala.
The anniversary of his death is called the Day of Ashura and it is a
day of mourning and religious observance for Shia Muslims.[188] In
this battle some of Ali's other sons were killed. Al-Tabari has
mentioned their names in his history: Al-Abbas ibn Ali, the holder of
Husayn's standard, Ja'far, Abdallah and Uthman, the four sons born
to Fatima binte Hizam; Muhammad and Abu Bakr. There is, however,
some doubt as to whether the last died in the battle.[189]

Some historians have added the names of Ali's other sons who were
killed at Karbala, including Ibrahim, Umar and Abdallah ibn al-
Asqar.[190][191]

His daughter Zaynab—who was in Karbala—was captured by Yazid's

army and later played a great role in revealing what happened to
Husayn and his followers.[192]

Ali's descendants by Fatimah are known as sharifs, sayeds or

sayyids. These are honorific titles in Arabic, sharif meaning 'noble'
and sayed or sayyid meaning 'lord' or 'sir'. As Muhammad's only
descendants, they are respected by both Sunni and Shia.[1]

Views
The name of Ali with Islamic calligraphy in Hagia Sophia, (present-day Turkey)

Muslim views

Except for Muhammad, there is no one in Islamic history about

whom as much has been written in Islamic languages as Ali.[1] In
Muslim culture, Ali is respected for his courage, knowledge, belief,
honesty, unbending devotion to Islam, deep loyalty to Muhammad,
equal treatment of all Muslims and generosity in forgiving his
defeated enemies, and therefore is central to mystical traditions in
Islam such as Sufism. Ali retains his stature as an authority on
Quranic exegesis, Islamic jurisprudence and religious thought.[149]
Ali holds a high position in almost all Sufi orders which trace their
lineage through him to Muhammad. Ali's influence has been
important throughout Islamic history.[1] Sunni and Shia scholars
agree that The Verse of Wilayah was narrated in honour of Ali, but
there are differing interpretations of wilayah and the Imamate.[193]
The Sunni scholars believe that the verse is about Ali but does not
recognise him as an Imam while, in the Shia Muslim view, Ali had
been chosen by God as successor of Muhammad.[194]

Ali in the Quran

There are many verses interpreted by Shia scholars as referring to

Ali or other Shia Imams. In answering question of why the names of
the Imams are not expressly mentioned in the Quran Muhammad al-
Baqir responds[a]: "Allah revealed Salat to his Prophet but never said
of three or four Rakats, revealed Zakat but did not mention to its
details, revealed Hajj but did not count its Tawaf and the Prophet
interpreted their details. Allah revealed this verse and Prophet said
this verse is about Ali, Hasan, Husayn and the other twelve
Imams."[195][196] According to Ali, one quarter of Qur'anic verses are
stating the station of Imams. Momen has listed many of these
verses in his An Introduction to Shi'i Islam.[197][198] However, there are
few verses that some Sunni commentators interpret as referring to
Ali, among which are The verse of Wilayah (Quran, 5:55) that Sunni
and Shia scholars[b] believe refers to the incident where Ali gave his
ring to a beggar who asked for alms while performing ritual prayers
in the mosque.[193][199]The verse of Mawadda (Quran, 42:23) is
another verse in which Shia scholars, along with Sunni ones like Al-
Baydawi and Al-Zamakhshari and Fakhr ad-Din ar-Razi, believe that
the phrase Kinship refers to Ali, Fatimah and their sons, Hasan and
Husayn.[200][201][202][203]

The verse of purification (Quran, 33:33) is also among the verses in

which both Sunnis and Shia conjoined the name of Ali along with
some other names.[c][197][201][204][205][206][207] The aforementioned
verse of Mubahala, and also Quran 2:269, in which Ali is honoured
with unique wisdom by both Shia and Sunni commentators, are
other verses of this kind.[197][201][208]
Shia

Zulfiqar with, and without the shield. The Fatimid depiction of Ali's sword as carved on
the Gates of Old Islamic Cairo, namely Bab al-Nasr

Ali's Sword and shield carved on Bab al-Nasr gate wall, Cairo

The Shia regard Ali as the most important figure after

Muhammad[209] and he represents a complex, legendary figure in
their memory. He is a paragon of virtues, such as courage,
magnanimity, sincerity, straightforwardness, eloquence and
profound knowledge. Ali was righteous but suffered injustice, he
was authoritative but also compassionate and humble, vigorous but
also patient, learned but also a man of labor.[210] According to Shia,
Muhammad suggested on various occasions during his lifetime that
Ali should be the leader of Muslims after his death. This is
supported by numerous hadiths which have been narrated by Shias,
including Hadith of the pond of Khumm, Hadith of the two weighty
things, Hadith of the pen and paper, Hadith of the Cloak, Hadith of
position, Hadith of the invitation of the close families, and Hadith of
the Twelve Successors.

Ja'far al-Sadiq narrates in hadith that whatever virtue found in

Muhammad was found in Ali, and that turning away from his
guidance would be akin to turning away from Allah and his Prophet.
Ali himself narrates that he is the gateway and supervisor to reach
Allah.[165]

According to this view, Ali as the successor of Muhammad not only

ruled over the community in justice, but also interpreted the Sharia
Law and its esoteric meaning. Hence he was regarded as being free
from error and sin (infallible), and appointed by God by divine decree
(nass) through Muhammad.[211] It is believed in Twelver and Ismaili
Shaa Islam that 'aql, divine wisdom, was the source of the souls of
the Prophets and Imams and gave them esoteric knowledge called
ḥikmah and that their sufferings were a means of divine grace to
their devotees.[1][212][213] Although the Imam was not the recipient of
a divine revelation, he had a close relationship with God, through
which God guides him, and the Imam in turn guides the people. His
words and deeds are a guide and model for the community to
follow; as a result it is a source of sharia law.[211][214][215]

Shia pilgrims usually go to Mashad Ali in Najaf for Ziyarat, pray there
and read "Ziyarat Amin Allah"[216] or other Ziyaratnamehs.[217] Under
the Safavid Empire, his grave became the focus of much devoted
attention, exemplified in the pilgrimage made by Shah Ismail I to
Najaf and Karbala.[33]

Sunni

Sunnis view Ali as the fourth caliph. Ali is also known as one of the
greatest warrior champions of Islam. Examples include taking on
the Quraish champion at the Battle of the Trench when nobody else
dared. After multiple failed attempts to break the fort in the Battle of
Khaybar, Ali was summoned, miraculously healed, and he captured
the fort.[218]

Muhammad ibn Idris Al-Shafi‘i, founder of the Shafi‘i school of fiqh,

stated the following when asked his opinion on Ali:

"What can we say about a person whose partisans

have had to hide his merits because of fear, and
enemies have hidden his merits out of envy?
Nevertheless between these two, his merits that have
become widely known are too numerous to be
counted."[44]:6

Sufi

Almost all Sufi orders trace their lineage to Muhammad through Ali,
an exception being Naqshbandi, who go through Abu Bakr. Even in
this order, there is Ja'far al-Sadiq, the great great grandson of Ali.
Sufis believe that Ali inherited from Muhammad the saintly power
wilayah that makes the spiritual journey to God possible.[1]

Eminent Sufis such as Ali Hujwiri claim that the tradition began with
Ali and Junayd of Baghdad regarded Ali as the Sheikh of the
principles and practices of Sufism.[219]

Sufis recite Manqabat Ali in the praise of Ali.

Titles

Ali is known by various titles, some given due to his personal

qualities and others due to events in his life:[1]

Al-Murtaza (Arabic: ‫ ْٱﻟ ُﻤ ْﺮ َﺗ َﻀ ٰﻰ‬, "The Chosen One")

Amir al-Mu'minin (Arabic: ‫ا ِﻣﻴﺮ ْٱﻟ ُﻤ ْﺆ ِﻣ ِﻨﻴﻦ‬, "Commander of the Faithful
Ones")
Bab-e Madinatul-'Ilm (Arabic: ‫ﺎب َﻣﺪﻳْ ﻨ َُﺔ ْٱﻟ ِﻌ ْﻠﻢ‬
ِ ‫ َﺑ‬, "Door of City of the
Knowledge")
 Abu Turab (Arabic: ‫اﺑُﻮ ُﺗ َﺮاب‬, "Father of the Soil")
Asad Allah (Arabic: ‫ا َﺳﺪ ٱ‬, "Lion of God")
Haydar (Arabic: ‫ َﺣ ْﻴﺪَ ر‬, "Braveheart" or "Lion")
Walad al-Kaʿbah (Arabic: ‫ َوﻟَﺪ ْٱﻟﮑَﻌْ َﺒﺔ‬, "Son of the Kaaba")[220]

As a "deity"

Ali is recorded in some traditions as having forbidden those who

sought to worship him in his own lifetime.[221]

Alawites

Some groups such as the Alawites are claimed to believe that Ali
was God incarnate. They are described as ghulat (Arabic: ‫ ُﻏ َﻼة‬,
"exaggerators") by the majority of Islamic scholars. These groups
have, according to traditionalist Muslims, left Islam due to their
exaggeration of a human being's praiseworthy traits.[221]

Ali-Illahism
Ali-Illahism, a syncretic religion, centres on the belief that there have
been successive incarnations of their Deity throughout history, and
reserves particular reverence for 'Ali, the son-in-law of Muhammad,
who is considered one such incarnation.[222]

Druze

The Druze faith, a syncretic religion, holds that God was incarnated
in human beings, especially Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah a descendant of
Ali.

Historiography
The primary sources for scholarship on the life of Ali are the Qur'an
and ahadith, as well as other texts of early Islamic history. The
extensive secondary sources include, in addition to works by Sunni
and Shia Muslims, writings by Christian Arabs, Hindus, and other
non-Muslims from the Middle East and Asia and a few works by
modern western scholars. However, many of the early Islamic
sources are coloured to some extent by a positive or negative bias
towards Ali.[1]

There had been a common tendency among the earlier western

scholars to consider narrations and reports gathered in later periods
as fabrications, due to their tendency towards later Sunni and Shia
partisan positions. This led these scholars to regard certain
reported events as inauthentic or irrelevant. For example, Leone
Caetani considered the attribution of historical reports to Ibn Abbas
and Aisha as mostly fictitious while proffering accounts reported
without isnad by the early compilers of history like Ibn Ishaq. Wilferd
Madelung has rejected the stance of indiscriminately dismissing
everything not included in "early sources" and in this approach
tendentiousness alone is no evidence for late origin. According to
him, Caetani's approach is inconsistent. Madelung and some later
historians do not reject the narrations which have been compiled in
later periods and try to judge them in the context of history and on
the basis of their compatibility with the events and figures.[223]
Until the rise of the Abbasid Caliphate, few books were written and
most of the reports had been oral. The most notable work prior to
this period is The Book of Sulaym ibn Qays, written by Sulaym ibn
Qays, a companion of Ali who lived before the Abbasids.[224] When
paper was introduced to Muslim society, numerous monographs
were written between 750 and 950. According to Robinson, at least
twenty-one separate monographs have been composed on the
Battle of Siffin. Abi Mikhnaf is one of the most renowned writers of
this period who tried to gather all of the reports. Ninth- and tenth-
century historians collected, selected and arranged the available
narrations. However, most of these monographs do not exist any
more except for a few which have been used in later works such as
History of the Prophets and Kings by Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari
(d.923).[225]

Shia of Iraq actively participated in writing monographs but most of

those works have been lost. On the other hand, in the 8th and 9th
century Ali's descendants such as Muhammad al-Baqir and Jafar al-
Sadiq narrated his quotations and reports which have been gathered
in Shia hadith books. The later Shia works written after the 10th
century are about biographies of The Fourteen Infallibles and Twelve
Imams. The earliest surviving work and one of the most important
works in this field is Kitab al-Irshad by Shaykh Mufid (d. 1022). The
author has dedicated the first part of his book to a detailed account
of Ali. There are also some books known as Manāqib which describe
Ali's character from a religious viewpoint. Such works also
constitute a kind of historiography.[226]

See also
Outline of Islam
Glossary of Islam
Index of Islam-related articles
Alevism
Ali in Muslim culture
Al-Farooq (title)
Hashemites Royal Family of Jordan
 Idris I The First King of Morocco Founded 788
List of expeditions of Ali during Muhammad's era

Footnotes
a. Note that Al-Baqir is also regarded as an Imam by the Isma'ili
Shia, who believe in different Imams to the Twelvers
b. See at-Tabari: at-Tarikh, vol.6, p.186; as-Suyuti: ad-Durru
'lmanthur, vol.2, pp. 293–4; ar-Razi: at-Tafsiru 'l Kabir, vol.12, p.26:
az-Zamakhshari: at-Tafsir al-Kashshaf, vol.1, p.469; al-
Jassas:Ahkamu 'l-Quran, vol.2, pp. 542–3; al-khazin: at-Tafsir,
vol.2, p.68 Imamate: The vicegerency of the Holy Prophet By
Sayyid Saeed Akhtar Rizv p24
c. see al-Bahrani, Ghayat al-Marum, p. 126:al-Suyuti, al-Durr al-
Manthur, Vol. V, p.199; Ahmad ibn Hanbal, al Musnad, Vol. I,
p.331; Fakhr al-Din al-Razi, al-Tafsir al-Kabir, Vol. I, p.783; Ibn
Hajar, al-Sawa'iq p.85

Notes
1. Nasr, Seyyed Hossein. "Ali" . Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Archived from the original on 18
October 2007. Retrieved 12 October 2007.
2. "Alī ibn Abu Talib" . Encyclopædia Iranica. Archived from the
original on April 29, 2011. Retrieved December 16, 2010.
3. Al-Islam. "The Life of the Commander of the Faithful Ali Ibn Abu
Talib (as)" . Retrieved 6 December 2015.
4. Rahim, Husein A.; Sheriff, Ali Mohamedjaffer (1993). Guidance
From Qur'an . Khoja Shia Ithna-asheri Supreme Council.
Retrieved 11 April 2017.
5. Shad, Abdur Rahman. Ali Al-Murtaza. Kazi Publications; 1978 1st
Edition. Mohiyuddin, Dr. Ata. Ali The Superman. Sh. Muhammad
Ashraf Publishers; 1980 1st Edition. Lalljee, Yousuf N. Ali The
Magnificent. Ansariyan Publications; January 1981 1st Edition.
. Sallaabee, Ali Muhammad. Ali ibn Abi Talib (volume 2) . p. 621.
Retrieved 15 December 2015.
7. Biographies of the Prophet's companions and their successors,
Ṭabarī, translated by Ella Landau-Tasseron, pp. 37–40, Vol:XXXIX.
 . Sallabi, Dr Ali M (2011). Ali ibn Abi Talib (volume 1) . pp. 52–53.
9. Kelen 2001, p. 29.
10. Watt 1953, p. xii.
11. Razwy, Sayed Ali Asgher. A Restatement of the History of Islam &
Muslims. p. 72.
12. Ashraf 2005, p. 119 and 120
13. Madelung 1997, pp. 141–145
14. Lapidus 2002, p. 47.
15. Holt, Lambton & Lewis 1970, pp. 70–72.
1 . Tabatabaei 1979, pp. 50–75 and 192.
17. Gleave, Robert M. (December 2008). "Ali ibn Abi Talib" .
Encyclopaedia of Islam, THREE. Brill Online. Archived from the
original on 2 April 2013. Retrieved 29 March 2013.
1 . Razwy, Sayed Ali Asgher. A Restatement of the History of Islam &
Muslims. pp. 35–36.
19. Glubb, Sir John (1970). The Life and Times of Mohammed.
20. Ashraf 2005, p. 5.
21. Illustrated Dictionary of the Muslim World . Marshall Cavendish
Reference. 2011. p. 86 . ISBN 9780761479291. Retrieved 11 April
2017. "ali was born in kaaba."
22. Sahih Muslim, Book 21, Hadith 57.
23. Faramarz Haj, Manouchehri; Matthew, Melvin-Koushki; Shah-
Kazemi, Reza; Bahramian, Ali; Pakatchi, Ahmad; Muhammad Isa,
Waley; Daryoush, Mohammad; Tareh, Masoud; Brown, Keven;
Jozi, Mohammad Reza; Sajjadi, Sadeq; Gholami, Rahim;
Bulookbashi, Ali A.; Negahban, Farzin; Alizadeh, Mahbanoo;
Gholami, Yadollah (11 September 2008). "ʿAlī b. Abī Ṭālib" .
Encyclopaedia Islamica. Brill. Archived from the original on 30
June 2016.
24. Ashraf 2005, p. 6 and 7.
25. Razwy, Sayed Ali Asgher. A Restatement of the History of Islam &
Muslims. p. 43.
2 . "Iranians to celebrate Father's Day" . 9 April 2017.
27. "‫( "ﺗﻘﻮﯾﻢ ژﯾﻮ ﻓﯿﺰﯾﮏ اﯾﺮان‬PDF). calendar.ut.ac.
2 . "Yearly Islamic Hijri Calendar 2020" . IslamicFinder. Retrieved
25 January 2020.
29. "Yearly Islamic Hijri Calendar 2021" . IslamicFinder. Retrieved
25 January 2020.
30. Razwy, Sayed Ali Asgher. A Restatement of the History of Islam &
Muslims. p. 52.
31. Tabatabaei 1979, p. 191.
32. Ashraf 2005, p. 14.
33. Steigerwald, Diana (2004). "Alī ibn Abu Talib". Encyclopaedia of
Islam and the Muslim world; vol.1. Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-02-
865604-5.
34. Gleave 2015.
35. Razwy, Sayed Ali Asgher. A Restatement of the History of Islam &
Muslims. pp. 50–52.
3 . Pickhtall, Marmaduke (1975). Introduction to the Translation of
Holy Qur'an. Lahore.
37. Andre, Tor (1960). Mohammed, the Man and his Faith.
3 . "Ali" . Imamali. Archived from the original on 20 March 2015.
Retrieved 20 March 2015.
39. Quran 26:214 .
40. Razwy, Sayed Ali Asgher. A Restatement of the History of Islam &
Muslims. p. 54.
41. Razwy, Sayed Ali Asgher. A Restatement of the History of Islam &
Muslims. pp. 54–55.
42. Razwy, Sayed Ali Asgher. A Restatement of the History of Islam &
Muslims. p. 55.
43. Irving, Washington. The Life of Mohammed.
44. Shahin, Badr (2015). Al-Abbas. CA: CreateSpace Independent
Publishing Platform. ISBN 978-1519308115.
45. Burton, Sir Richard (1898). (The Jew the Gypsy and El Islam. San
Francisco.
4 . Ashraf 2005, pp. 16–26.
47. Ashraf 2005, p. 28 and 29.
4 . Quran 2:207 .
49. Tabatabaei, Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn. "Tafsir al-Mizan, Volume
3: Surah Baqarah, Verses 204–207" . almizan.org. Archived from
the original on 17 June 2009. Retrieved 25 November 2010.
50. Ashraf 2005, pp. 30–32.
51. See:
Momen 1985, p. 13 and 14
Ashraf 2005, pp. 28–118.
52. Mehboob Desia (2009). Islam and non-violence. Gyan Book Pvt
Ltd. p. 150. ISBN 978-81-212-1026-3.
53. Razwy, Sayed Ali Asgher. A Restatement of the History of Islam &
Muslims. pp. 136–137.
54. See:
Ashraf 2005, p. 36
Merrick 2005, p. 247.
55. Razwy, Sayed Ali Asgher. A Restatement of the History of Islam &
Muslims. p. 139.
5 . Khatab, Amal (1 May 1996). Battles of Badr and Uhud. Ta-Ha
Publishers. ISBN 978-1-897940-39-6.
57. Ibn Al Atheer, in his Biography, vol 2 p 107 "‫ﻻ ﻓﺘﯽ اﻻ ﻋﻠﻲ ﻻ ﺳﻴﻒ اﻻ‬
‫"ذواﻟﻔﻘﺎر‬
5 . See:
Ashraf 2005, pp. 66–68
Zeitlin 2007, p. 134
59. Quran 3:59 .
0. Quran 3:61 .
1. See:
Sahih Muslim, Chapter of virtues of companions, section of
virtues of Ali, 1980 Edition Pub. in Saudi Arabia, Arabic
version, v4, p1871, the end of tradition No. 32
Sahih al-Tirmidhi, v5, p654
Madelung 1997, p. 15 and 16.
2. Tabatabaei, Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn. "Tafsir al-Mizan, v.6, Al
Imran, verses 61–63" . almizan.org. Archived from the original
 on 17 June 2009. Retrieved 25 November 2010.
3. Dakake 2008, pp. 34–39.
̲ dīr K̲hu
4. Veccia Vaglieri, Laura (April 24, 2012). "G̲ ha ̲ mm" .
Encyclopædia of Islam, Second Edition. Brill Online. Archived
from the original on March 31, 2013. Retrieved March 28, 2013.
5. See:
Dakake 2008, pp. 34–37
Ibn Taymiyyah, Minhaaj as-Sunnah 7/319
"‫"ﻣﻦ ﻛﻨﺖ ﻣﻮﻻه ﻓﻬﺬا ﻋﻠﻲ ﻣﻮﻻه‬
. See also:
Dakake 2008, pp. 43–48
Tabatabaei 1979, p. 40.
7. Dakake 2008, pp. 33–35.
. "A Shi'ite Encyclopedia" . Al-Islam.org. Ahlul Bayt Digital Islamic
Library Project. 12 November 2013. Retrieved 27 February 2018.
9. Musnad Ahmad Ibn Hanbal, Volume 4. p. 281.
70. al-Razi, Fakhr. Tafsir al-Kabir, Volume 12. pp. 49–50.
71. Alexander Wain, Mohammad Hashim Kamali, The Architects of
Islamic Civilisation (2017), p. 12
72. "Abar Ali mosque" . IRCICAARCH data. Archived from the
original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 23 May 2015.
73. Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (2007). "Quran" . Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. Archived from the original on 16 October 2007. Retrieved
4 November 2007.
74. See:
Tabatabaei 1987, p. chapter 5
Observations on Early Quran Manuscripts in San'a
The Quran as Text, ed. Wild, Brill, 1996 ISBN 978-90-04-
10344-3
75. Suhufi (2003). Stories from the Qur'an. Islamic Seminary
Publications. p. 312.
7 . See:
Holt, Lambton & Lewis 1970, p. 57
Madelung 1997, pp. 26–27, 30–43 and 356–360
77. Coeli Fitzpatrick, Adam Hani Walker Muhammad in History,
Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God
(2014), p. 4
7 . Sahih Bukhari, Arabic-English, Volume 8, Tradition 817. "Umar
said: "And no doubt after the death of the Prophet we were
informed that the Ansar disagreed with us and gathered in the
shed of Bani Sa'da. 'Ali and Zubair and whoever was with them,
opposed us, while the emigrants gathered with Abu Bakr.""
79. History of Tabari, Volume 1. pp. 1118–1120.
0. Ibn Qutaybah. al-Imamah wa al-Siyasah, Volume 1. p. 3.
1. Ibn Abi Shayba (235 AH / 849 CE) (1989). al-Musanaf. 7. Beirut:
Dar al-Taj. p. 432. "Umar came to the house of Fatima and said:
"O' Daughter of the Prophet of God! I swear by God that we love
no one more than your father, and after him we love no one more
than you. Yet I swear by God that that won't stop me from
gathering these people and commanding them to burn this
house down!"
2. Vinay Khetia, Fatima as a Motif of Contention and Suffering in
Islamic Sources (2013), p. 32
3. Fitzpatrick, Walker (2014, p. 186) [1]
4. Khetia (2013, p. 60)
5. Ibn Qays, Sulaym. Kitab Sulaym Ibn Qays al-Hilali. p. 74.
. Masudul Hasan, Hadrat Ali Murtada (1988), p. 133
7. See:
Ashraf 2005, p. 100 and 101
Madelung 1997, p. 141
Sahih al-Bukhari, 5:59:546
Sahih al-Bukhari, 8:82:817
Sahih Muslim, 19:4352
Rizvi & Saeed 1988, p. 24
The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire by
Edward Gibbon, section Reign of Abubeker; A.D. 632, June 7.
. Fitzpatrick, Walker (2014, p. 22)
9. See:
 Madelung 1997, p. 141 and 270
Ashraf 2005, p. 99 and 100
90. Chirri 1982
91. See:
Madelung 1997, p. 50 and 51
Qazwini & Ordoni 1992, p. 211
[Quran 27:16 ]

[Quran 21:89 ]

Sahih al-Bukhari, 4:53:325

Sahih al-Bukhari, 5:59:546
Sahih al-Bukhari, 5:57:60
Sahih Muslim, 19:4352
92. Ashraf 2005, pp. 107–110
93. See:
Madelung 1997, pp. 70–72
Dakake 2008, p. 41
 Momen 1985, p. 21
94. Madelung 1997, p. 87 and 88
95. Madelung 1997, p. 90
9 . Madelung 1997, pp. 92–107
97. Madelung 1997, p. 109 and 110
9 . See:
Holt, Lambton & Lewis 1970, p. 67 and 68
Madelung 1997, p. 107 and 111
99. Madelung 1997, p. 334
100. Madelung, Wilferd (1998). The Succession to Muhammad.
Cambridge University Press. p. 149. "'Ali, deeply convinced of his
right and his religious mission, unwilling to compromise his
principles for the sake of political expediency, ready to fight
against overwhelming odds."
101. Nahj Al-Balagha Nahj Al-Balagha Sermon 3 Archived 23
September 2009 at the Wayback Machine
 For Isnad of this sermon and the names of scholars who
narrate it see Nahjul Balagha, Mohammad Askari Jafery
(1984), pp. 108–112
102. Ashraf 2005, p. 119
103. Madelung 1997, pp. 141–143
104. Hamidullah 1988, p. 126
105. Madelung, Wilferd (1998). The Succession to Muhammad: A
Study of the Early Caliphate. Cambridge University Press. p. 87.
10 . Razwy, Sayed Ali Asgher. A Restatement of the History of Islam &
Muslims. pp. 561–562.
107. "Full text of "Address delivered at the dedication of the hall of the
Boston medical library association, on December III,
MDCCCLXXVIII" " . Internet Archive. Retrieved 31 March 2019.
"Ali had been advised by several of his councillors to defer the
dismissal of the corrupt governors appointed by the late Cahph
until he himself was secure against all enemies." The Bayard of
Islam, the hero, without fear and without reproach," ^ refused to
be guilty of any duplicity or compromise with injustice."
10 . Dungersi, Mohamed Raza (1994). A Brief Biography of Imam Ali
(a.s.). Bilal Muslim Mission of Tanzania. p. 55.
109. Shah-Kazemi, Reza (2007). Justice and Remembrance:
Introducing the Spirituality of Imam Ali. I.B.Tauris. pp. 83–84.
110. Madelung 1997, p. 148 and 149
111. Ashraf 2005, p. 121
112. Nahj al Balagha Sermon 72 Archived 7 May 2013 at the
Wayback Machine
113. Meri, Josef W. (2006). Medieval Islamic Civilization .
ISBN 9780415966900.
114. See:
Lapidus (2002), p.47
Holt (1977a), p. 70–72
Tabatabaei (1979), p. 50–53
Nahj Al-Balagha Sermons 8, 31, 171, 173 , Archived 27
September 2007 at the Wayback Machine
115. See:
 Madelung 1997, p. 147 and 148
Lewis 1991, p. 214
11 . Lewis 1991, p. 214
117. ibn al-Ḥusayn Sharīf al-Radi, Muhammad (1981). Nahj al-Balagha:
Sermons, letters, and sayings of Hazrat Ali. NY: Tahrike Tarsile
Qurʼan; 2nd edition. pp. Sermon 75. ISBN 978-0940368002.
11 . See:
Lapidus 2002, p. 47
Holt, Lambton & Lewis 1970, p. 72
Tabatabaei 1979, p. 57
119. See:
Lapidus 2002, p. 47
Holt, Lambton & Lewis 1970, pp. 70–72
Tabatabaei 1979, pp. 50–53
120. " 'Abd Allah ibn al-'Abbas" . Encyclopædia Britannica. I: A-Ak –
Bayes (15th ed.). Chicago, Illinois: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
2010. pp. 16 . ISBN 978-1-59339-837-8.
121. See:
Lapidus 2002, p. 47
Holt, Lambton & Lewis 1970, pp. 70–72
Tabatabaei 1979, p. 53 and 54
122. Mikaberidze, Alexander (22 July 2011). Conflict and Conquest in
the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia . p. 836.
ISBN 9781598843378.
123. Sandler, Stanley (2002). Ground Warfare . ISBN 9781576073445.
124. A Chronology of Islamic History 570–1000 CE By H U Rahman
Page 59
125. A Chronology of Islamic History 570–1000 CE By H U Rahman
Page 60
12 . Mikaberidze, Alexander (2011). Conflict and Conquest in the
Islamic World A Historical Encyclopedia [2 volumes] A Historical
Encyclopedia . ABC-CLIO. p. 836. ISBN 978-1-59884-337-8.
127. Sandler, Stanley (2002). Ground Warfare An International
Encyclopedia . ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-57607-344-5. Retrieved
 30 April 2013.
12 . See:
Madelung 1997, pp. 241–259
Lapidus 2002, p. 47
Holt, Lambton & Lewis 1970, pp. 70–72
Tabatabaei 1979, p. 53 and 54
129. Timani, Hussam S. (2008). Modern Intellectual Readings of the
Kharijites. Peter Lang. p. 62. ISBN 978-0-8204-9701-3.
130. Timani, Hussam S. (2008). Modern Intellectual Readings of the
Kharijites . Peter Lang. p. 62. ISBN 978-0-8204-9701-3.
131. A Chronology of Islamic History 570–1000 By H. U. Rahman
132. A Chronology of Islamic History 570–1000 By H. U. Rahman
Page 62
133. Madelung 1997, pp. 267–269 and 293–307
134. Madelung 1997, p. 309
135. "Politics in two Schools" . Al-Islam.org. Retrieved 11 April 2017.
13 . "Hazrat Ali (A.S.): His Poor Subjects and Pro-Poor Government ||
Imam Reza (A.S.) Network" . www.imamreza.net. Archived from
the original on 12 April 2017. Retrieved 11 April 2017.
137. See:
Lapidus 2002, p. 46
Madelung 1997, p. 150 and 264
13 . Shaban 1971, p. 72
139. Momen 1985, p. 63
140. Shah-Kazemi 2007, p. 81
141. United Nations Development Program, Arab human development
report, (2002), p. 107
142. Nasr, Dabashi & Nasr 1989, p. 75
143. Lambton 1991, p. xix and xx
144. Veccia Vaglieri, Laura. "ʿAlī b. Abī Ṭālib.". Encyclopædia of Islam,
Second Edition. Brill Online. doi:10.1163/1573-
3912_islam_COM_0046 .
145. Tabatabaei 1979, p. 192
14 . Kelsay 1993, p. 92
147. Madelung 1997, p. 313 and 314
14 . Madelung 1997, pp. 319–325
Robinson 2011, pp. 208–211
Holt, Lambton & Lewis 1970, pp. 74–76
149. Madelung 1997, p. 309 and 310
150. Al-Shaykh Al-Mufid 1986
151. Redha 1999
152. Shah-Kazemi, Reza (2006). " 'Ali ibn Abu Talib". Medieval Islamic
Civilization: An Encyclopedia. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-415-
96691-7., Pages 36 and 37
153. "Silk Road Seattle – Balkh" . Archived from the original on 3
March 2016.
154. Momen 1985, p. 14
155. "Spiritual Foundation" . www.spiritualfoundation.net. Archived
from the original on 16 February 2007.
15 . Corbin 1993, p. 46
157. Nasr 2006, p. 120
15 . Nasr, Dabashi & Nasr 1996, p. 136
159. Corbin 1993, p. 35
1 0. "‫ﺣﻔﻈﺖ ﺳﺒﻌﻴﻦ ﺧﻄﺒﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻄﺐ اﻻﺻﻠﻊ ﻓﻔﺎﺿﺖ ﺛﻢ ﻓﺎﺿﺖ ( وﻳﻌﻨﻲ ﺑﺎﻻﺻﻠﻊ أﻣﻴﺮ‬
‫ اﻟﻤﺆﻣﻨﻴﻦ ﻋﻠﻴﺎ ﻋﻠﻴﻪ اﻟﺴﻼم " ﻣﻘﺪﻣﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺼﺎدر ﻧﻬﺞ اﻟﺒﻼﻏﺔ‬Archived 17
June 2015 at the Wayback Machine
1 1. Sources of Nahj Al-Balagha Archived 23 November 2012 at the
Wayback Machine
1 2. "Sermons without 'dot's and 'Alef' " (in Persian). Archived from
the original on 6 April 2017. Retrieved 6 April 2017.
1 3. Ehsani far langroudi, Mohammad (2003). "Two masterpieces by
Ali" . Hadith Sciences (29). Archived from the original on 10
April 2017. Retrieved 9 April 2017.
1 4. "Sermons without dot/ Christian George Jordac: This sermon is a
masterpiece" . www.khabaronline.ir (in Persian). Archived from
the original on 28 April 2016. Retrieved 9 April 2017.
1 5. Al-Kulayni, Abu Ja’far Muhammad ibn Ya’qub (2015). Kitab al-
Kafi. South Huntington, NY: The Islamic Seminary Inc.
ISBN 9780991430864.
1 . Mutahhari, 1997 The Glimpses of Nahj al Balaghah Part I –
Introduction
1 7. Shah-Kazemi 2007, p. 3
1 . Nahj al-Balagha (in Urdu and Arabic) (Second April 2000 ed.).
Karachi: Tanzeem-ul-Makatib, Lucknow and Mahfooz Book
Agency Karachi. pp. 9–12.
1 9. Quarterly Journal of Islamic Thought and Culture, Vol. VII, No. 1
issue of Al-Tawhid Archived 3 January 2014 at the Wayback
Machine
170. Ali ibn Abi Talib (1990). Supplications (Du'a). Muhammadi Trust.
p. 42. ISBN 978-0-9506986-4-9.
171. Shah-Kazemi 2007, p. 4
172. Singh 2003, p. 175.
173. Quran 33:33 .
174. Madelung 1997, p. 14 and 15.
175. See:
Sahih al-Bukhari, 5:57:89
Sahih al-Bukhari, 5:57:96
Sahih al-Bukhari, 5:57:89
Sahih al-Bukhari, 9:88:220
Sahih Muslim, 31:5915 .
17 . "Hasan ibn Ali" . Encyclopædia Iranica. Archived from the
original on January 1, 2014. Retrieved January 1, 2014.
177. "Hazrat Mohsin Ibn Ali (a.s.): A Victim of Oppression and
Terrorism" . Serat Online. SeratOnline. Retrieved 17 June 2018.
17 . Behaar al-Anwaar, Volume 43. p. 171. "Fatimah's (s.a.) death
resulted from being pierced by the sword which claimed (the
unborn) Mohsin's life. The perpetrator of this crime was Qunfuz,
who was acting on his master – Umar's explicit command"
179. Masoodi. Isbaat al-Wilaayah. p. 142. "They attacked Fatimah's
(s.a.) house. They crushed the Chief of All Women behind the
 door so violently that it resulted in the miscarriage of Mohsin."
1 0. al-Qurashi, Baqir Shareef (2006). The Life of Fatimah Az- Zahra',
The Principal of all Women: Study and Analysis (First ed.). Qum.
"Imam Ali (a.s.) often helped Fatimah (s.a.) in the house affairs."
1 1. Vaglieri, Veccia. "Fatima". Encyclopedia of Islam. Leiden, The
Netherlands: Brill. p. Vol. 2 844–850. ISSN 1573-3912 .
1 2. al-Qurashi, Baqir Shareef (2006). The Life of Fatimah Az- Zahra',
The Principal of all Women: Study and Analysis (First ed.). Qum:
Ansariyan Publications. "The life of Imam Ali (a.s.) and Fatimah
(s.a.) was full of love and friendliness."
1 3. al-Qurashi, Baqir Shareef (2006). The Life of Fatimah Az- Zahra',
The Principal of all Women: Study and Analysis. Qum: Ansariyan
Publications.
1 4. Bihar al-Anwar, Volume 43. p. 133.
1 5. "Fatima Zehra (sa) and the Future of History / Shahadat Fatimah
Zehra (sa)" . Islamic Moral Stories. Retrieved 17 March 2019.
"Fatima Zehra (sa) said: "May Allah (SWT) reward you with the
best of goodness. Cousin, firstly I ask you to marry anybody you
 like after my death, but you must marry my niece Umamah;
surely she will be to my children as I was. Besides, men cannot
do without women. She loves my children and Hussain is very
much attached to her. Let Fizza remain with you even after her
marriage, if she so desires, she was more than a mere servant to
me. I loved her like my daughter." Fatima Zehra (sa) then added:
"I ask you not to let anyone who did injustice to me to witness my
funeral, for they certainly are enemies of mine, and the enemy of
Messenger of Allah, Muhammad (saw). Also don't give them the
chance to pray over me, nor to any of their followers. I want you
to wash me at night, put the shroud on me, perform the prayer
upon my body, and bury me at night when eyes are rested and
sight is put to sleep. And after my burial, sit beside my grave and
recite Noble Qur'an for me.""
1 . Stearns & Langer 2001, p. 1178
1 7. Tabatabaei 1979, p. 194
1 . Tabatabaei 1979, pp. 196–201
1 9. Al-Tabari 1990, pp. vol.XIX pp. 178–179
190. "Karbala's Martyrs" . Archived from the original on 4 January
2009.
191. List of Martyrs of Karbala Archived 29 June 2012 at the
Wayback Machine by Khansari "‫اﺑﻮﺑﻜﺮﺑﻦ‬-1 :(‫ﻓﺮزﻧﺪان اﻣﻴﺮااﻟﻤﺆﻣﻨﻴﻦ)ع‬
-4 (‫ﻋﺒﺎس ﺑﻦ ﻋﻠﻲ)اﺑﻮﻟﻔﻀﻞ‬-3 .‫ﺟﻌﻔﺮﺑﻦ ﻋﻠﻲ‬-2 .(‫ﻋﻠﻲ)ﺷﻬﺎدت او ﻣﺸﻜﻮك اﺳﺖ‬
-7 .‫ﺑﻦ اﻻﺻﻐﺮ‬ ‫ﻋﺒﺪا‬-6 .‫ﺑﻦ ﻋﻠﻲ اﻟﻌﺒﺎس ﺑﻦ ﻋﻠﻲ‬ ‫ﻋﺒﺪا‬-5 .‫ﺑﻦ ﻋﻠﻲ‬ ‫ﻋﺒﺪا‬
‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪﺑﻦ اﻟﻌﺒﺎس ﺑﻦ‬-10 .‫ﻣﺤﻤﺪ اﻻﺻﻐﺮ ﺑﻦ ﻋﻠﻲ‬-9 .‫ﻋﻤﺮ ﺑﻦ ﻋﻠﻲ‬-8 .‫ﻋﺜﻤﺎن ﺑﻦ ﻋﻠﻲ‬
‫ﻋﻠﻲ‬."
192. "Zaynab Bint ʿAlĪ" . Encyclopedia of Religion. Gale Group. 2004.
Archived from the original on 24 December 2008. Retrieved
10 April 2008.
193. Rizvi & Saeed (1988), p. 24.
194. Steigerwald (2008), p. 375 .
195. Naseri, AliAkbar. Imamat and Shifa'at. pp. 203–204.
19 . Feyrahi, Davoud. "General coordinates of Imaamat" . Shia Studies
Quarterly (3 and 4). Archived from the original on 10 December
2015.
197. Leaman, Oliver (2006). The Quran: an Encyclopedia . Taylor &
Francis e-Library. pp. 28–31 . ISBN 978-0-415-32639-1.
19 . Momen 1985, pp. 150–151
199. Cornille, Catherine; Conway, Christopher (1 July 2010).
Interreligious Hermeneutics . Wipf and Stock Publishers.
pp. 124–. ISBN 978-1-63087-425-4.
200. Momen 1985, p. 152
201. Hamid, Mavani (2013). Religious Authority and Political Thought
in Twelver Shi'ism. New York and London: Routledge. pp. 68–73.
ISBN 978-0-415-62440-4.
202. Ibn Kathir. Al-Bidāya wa-n-nihāya. 5. Dar al-kotob al-Elmie. p. 245.
203. Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari. Tafsir al-Tabari. 13. Dar al-fekr
Publication. p. 27.
204. Sahih Muslim, Chapter of virtues of companions, section of the
virtues of the Ahlul-Bayt of the Prophet, 1980 Edition Pub. in
Saudi Arabia, Arabic version, v4, p1883, Tradition No. 61
205. Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari. Tafsir al-Tabari vol. XXII. pp. 5–7.
20 . "ĀL-E ʿABĀ" . Archived from the original on 18 October 2014.
207. "Fāṭima." Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Edited by: P.
Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P.
Heinrichs. Brill Online, 2014. Reference. 8 April 2014
20 . Momen 1985, p. 16
209. "Yawm-e Ali" . TheIsmaili.org. 10 June 2011. Archived from the
original on 15 April 2013. Retrieved 10 June 2011.
210. Flaskerud, Ingvild (2 December 2010). Visualizing Belief and
Piety in Iranian Shiism . A&C Black. ISBN 9781441149077.
211. Nasr 1979, p. 10 preface
212. Nasr 1979, p. 15 preface
213. Corbin 1993, pp. 45–51
214. Gleave, Robert (2004). "Imamate". Encyclopaedia of Islam and
the Muslim world; vol.1. MacMillan. ISBN 0-02-865604-0.
215. Momen 1985, p. 174 preface
21 . Trust, p. 695
217. Trust, p. 681
21 . "Ali" . Sunnah. Archived from the original on 3 April 2015.
Retrieved 14 May 2015.
219. "Khalifa Ali bin Abu Talib – Ali, The Father of Sufism" . Alim.org.
Archived from the original on 13 November 2013. Retrieved
31 December 2013.
220. Flaskerud, Ingvild (2 December 2010). Visualizing Belief and
Piety in Iranian Shiism . A&C Black. ISBN 9781441149077.
Retrieved 11 April 2017.
221. See:
Peters 2003, pp. 320–321
Halm 2004, pp. 154–159
222. Layard, Austen Henry, Discoveries in the Ruins of Nineveh and
Babylon, Page 216
223. Madelung 1997, p. xi, 19 and 20
224. Lawson 2005, p. 59
225. Robinson 2003, p. 28 and 34
22 . "A Glance at Historiography in Shiite Culture" . Al-Islam.org.
References
Ahmed, M. Mukarram (2005). Encyclopaedia of Islam. Anmol Publications
PVT. LTD. ISBN 978-81-261-2339-1.
Al-Shaykh Al-Mufid (1986). Kitab Al-Irshad: The Book of Guidance into the
Lives of the Twelve Imams. Routledge Kegan & Paul. ISBN 978-0-7103-
0151-2.
Al-Tabari, Muhammad ibn Jarir (1990). History of the Prophets and Kings,
translation and commentary issued by R. Stephen Humphreys. SUNY Press.
ISBN 978-0-7914-0154-5. (volume XV.)
Ashraf, Shahid (2005). Encyclopedia of Holy Prophet and Companions.
Anmol Publications PVT. LTD. ISBN 978-81-261-1940-0.
Chirri, Mohammad (1982). The Brother of the Prophet Mohammad. Islamic
Center of America, Detroit, Michigan. Alibris. ISBN 978-0-942778-00-7.
Corbin, Henry (1993) [1964]. History of Islamic Philosophy. London: Kegan
Paul International in association with Islamic Publications for The
Institute of Ismaili Studies. ISBN 978-0-7103-0416-2. Translated by
Liadain Sherrard, Philip Sherrard.
Dakake, Maria Massi (2008). The Charismatic Community: Shi'ite Identity in
Early Islam. SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-7033-6.
Gleave, Robert M. (2015). Encyclopaedia of Islam, THREE. Brill. ISSN 1573-
3912 .
Halm, Heinz (2004). Shi'ism . Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0-
7486-1888-0.
Hamidullah, Muhammad (1988). The Prophet's Establishing a State and
His Succession. University of California. ISBN 978-969-8016-22-7.
Holt, P.M.; Lambton, Ann K.S.; Lewis, Bernard, eds. (1970). Cambridge
History of Islam. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-29135-4.
Kelen, Betty (2001). Muhammad: The Messenger of God. Taylor
Production. ISBN 978-0-929093-12-3.
Kelsay, John (1993). Islam and War: A Study in Comparative Ethics.
Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 978-0-664-25302-8.
Lambton, Ann K. S. (1991). Landlord and Peasant in Persia. I.B.Tauris.
ISBN 978-1-85043-293-7.
Lapidus, Ira (2002). A History of Islamic Societies (2nd ed.). Cambridge
University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-77933-3.
Lawson, Todd, ed. (2005). Reason and Inspiration in Islam: Theology,
Philosophy and Mysticism in Muslim Thought. I.B.Tauris. ISBN 978-1-
85043-470-2.
Lewis, Bernard (1991). The Political Language of Islam. University of
Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-47693-3.
Madelung, Wilferd (1997). The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the
Early Caliphate. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-64696-3.
Merrick, James L. (2005). The Life and Religion of Mohammed as
Contained in the Sheeah Traditions. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 978-1-
4179-5536-7.
Momen, Moojan (1985). An Introduction to Shi'i Islam: The History and
Doctrines of Twelver Shi'ism. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-
03531-5.
Nasr, Seyyed Hossein; Dabashi, Hamid; Nasr, Vali (1989). Expectation of
the Millennium. Suny Press. ISBN 978-0-88706-843-0.
Nasr, Seyyed Hossein; Leaman, Oliver (1996). History of Islamic
Philosophy. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-13159-9.
Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (2006). Islamic Philosophy from Its Origin to the
Present. SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-6799-2.
Qazwini, Muhammad Kazim; Ordoni, Abu Muhammad (1992). Fatima the
Gracious. Ansariyan Publications. OCLC 61565460 .
Peters, F. E. (2003). The Monotheists: Jews, Christians, and Muslims in
Conflict and Competition . Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-
11461-3.
Redha, Mohammad (1999). Imam Ali Ibn Abi Taleb (Imam Ali the Fourth
Caliph, 1/1 Volume). Dar Al Kotob Al ilmiyah. ISBN 978-2-7451-2532-3.
Rizvi, Akhtar; Saeed, Sayyid (1988). Imamate: The vicegerency of the Holy
Prophet . Bilal Muslim Mission of Tanzania. pp. 24–. ISBN 978-9976-956-
13-9. Archived from the original on 17 June 2016.
Robinson, Chase F. (2003). Islamic Historiography. Cambridge University
Press. ISBN 978-0-521-62936-2.
Shaban, Muḥammad ʻAbd al-Ḥayy (1971). Islamic History . Cambridge
University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-29131-6.
Shah-Kazemi, Reza (2007). Justice and Remembrance: Introducing the
Spirituality of Imam Ali. I.B.Tauris. ISBN 978-1-84511-526-5.
Singh, N.K. (2003). Prophet Muhammad and His Companions. Global
Vision Publishing Ho. ISBN 978-81-87746-46-1.
Stearns, Peter N.; Langer, William Leonard (2001). The Encyclopedia of
World History: Ancient, Medieval, and Modern. Houghton Mifflin Books.
ISBN 978-0-395-65237-4.
 Tabatabaei, Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn (1979). Shi'ite Islam. Suny press.
ISBN 978-0-87395-272-9.| Translated by Seyyed Hossein Nasr.
Tabatabaei, Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn (1987). The Quran in Islam: Its
Impact and Influence on the Life of Muslims . Zahra. ISBN 978-0-7103-
0265-6.
Watt, William Montgomery (1953). Muhammad at Mecca. Oxford
University Press.
Zeitlin, Irving M. (2007). The Historical Muhammad. Polity. ISBN 978-0-
7456-3998-7.

Bibliography

Original sources

Al-Bukhari, Muhammad. Sahih Bukhari, Book 4, 5, 8.

Ali ibn Abi Talib (1984). Nahj al-Balagha (Peak of Eloquence), compiled by
ash-Sharif ar-Radi. Alhoda UK. ISBN 978-0-940368-43-9.
Ali ibn al-Athir. In his Biography, vol 2.
Ibn Taymiyyah, Taqi ad-Din Ahmad. Minhaj as-Sunnah an-Nabawiyyah. (In
Arabic)
 Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj. Sahih Muslim, Book 19, 31.

Secondary sources

Books
Abdul Rauf, Muhammad; Seyyed Hossein Nasr (1996). Imam 'Ali ibn Abi
Talib: The First Intellectual Muslim Thinker. Al Saadawi Publications.
ISBN 978-1-881963-49-3.
Al-Tabari, Muhammad ibn Jarir. History of the Prophets and Kings,
translation and commentary issued in multiple volumes 1987 to 1996.
SUNY Press. volumes 6–17 are relevant.
Cleary, Thomas (1996). Living and Dying with Grace: Counsels of Hadrat
Ali. Shambhala Publications, Incorporated. ISBN 978-1-57062-211-3.
Corn, Patricia (2005). Medieval Islamic Political Thought. Edinburgh
University Press. ISBN 978-0-7486-2194-1.
Gordagh, George (1956). Ali, The Voice of Human Justice. ISBN 978-0-
941724-24-1.(in Arabic)
Kattani, Sulayman (1983). Imam 'Ali: Source of Light, Wisdom and Might,
translation by I.K.A. Howard. Muhammadi Trust of Great Britain and
Northern Ireland. ISBN 978-0-9506986-6-3.
Khatab, Amal (1996). Battles of Badr and Uhud. Ta-Ha Publishers.
ISBN 978-1-897940-39-6.
Lakhani, M. Ali; Reza Shah-Kazemi; Leonard Lewisohn (2007). The Sacred
Foundations of Justice in Islam: The Teachings of Ali Ibn Abi Talib,
Contributor Dr Seyyed Hossein Nasr. World Wisdom, Inc. ISBN 978-1-
933316-26-0.
Wilferd Madelung (15 October 1998), The Succession to Muhammad: A
Study of the Early Caliphate , Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-
64696-3
Motahhari, Morteza (1997). Glimpses of the Nahj Al-Balaghah, translated
by Ali Quli Qara'i. Islamic Culture and Relations Organisation. ISBN 978-
964-472-071-0.
Motahhari, Morteza (1981). Polarization Around the Character of 'Ali ibn
Abi Talib . World Organization for Islamic Services, Tehran. Archived from
the original on 11 October 2007.
Barnaby Rogerson (4 November 2010), The Heirs of the Prophet
Muhammad: And the Roots of the Sunni-Shia Schism , Little, Brown Book
Group, ISBN 978-0-7481-2470-1
Barnaby Rogerson (2008), The Heirs of Muhammad: Islam's First Century
and the Origins of the Sunni-Shia Split , Overlook, ISBN 978-1-59020-022-3
Encyclopedia
Shah-Kazemi, Reza, Ali ibn Abi Talib, in Muhammad in History, Thought,
and Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God (2 vols.), Edited by C.
Fitzpatrick and A. Walker, Santa Barbara, ABC-CLIO, 2014. ISBN 1-61069-
177-6
Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Brill. 2004. ISSN 1573-3912 . E-. Missing or
empty |title= (help)

Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Missing or

empty |title= (help)

Martin, Richard C. (2004). "Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World:

A-L". Encyclopaedia of Islam and the Muslim world; vol.1. Macmillan.
ISBN 978-0-02-865604-5.
Encyclopædia Iranica. Center for Iranian Studies, Columbia University.
ISBN 978-1-56859-050-9. Missing or empty |title= (help)

Meri, Josef W.; Jere L. Bacharach (2006). "Medieval Islamic Civilization: A-

K, index". Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia. Taylor & Francis.
ISBN 978-0-415-96691-7.
Jones, Lindsay (2004). Encyclopedia of Religion. Gale Group. ISBN 978-0-
02-865733-2
 https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofre0000unse_v8f2 . Missing or
empty |title= (help)

External links

Ali
at Wikipedia's sister projects

Definitions
from
Wiktionary
Media
from
Wikimedia
Commons
News from
Wikinews
 Quotations
from
Wikiquote
Texts from
Wikisource
Textbooks
from
Wikibooks
Resources
from
Wikiversity

Shia biography

The Life of the Commander of the Faithful Ali Ibn Abu Talib (as)
by Shaykh Mufid in Kitab al-Irshad
Website devoted to the Life of Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib
A Biographical Profile of Imam Ali by Syed Muhammad Askari
Jafari
 Online Biography by Witness-Pioneer

Quotes

A Website featuring validated/referenced quotes of Imam Ali ibn

Abi Talib
"Shadow of the Sun" published on first Shia Imam, a collection of
110 hadiths from Prophet (s) concerning the character of Ali.
 Ali
Banu Hashim
Cadet branch of the Quraysh
Born: 15 September 601  Died: 29 January 661

Shia Islam titles

Twelver Imam
Zaidi Imam
Kaysanite Imam
Succeeded by
Batini Isma'ili Imam
Hasan ibn Ali
632–661
as Imam
Asās/Wāsih
Preceded by
in Musta'li Isma'ilism
Muhammad
632–661
as Final prophet
Succeeded by
Hasan ibn Ali
Nizari Isma'ili Imam as Mustawda
632–661 Succeeded by
Husayn ibn Ali
as Imam
 Political offices

Preceded by — TITULAR — Election to

Muhammad Successor to Caliphate

Muhammad
632–656

Preceded by
Rashidun Caliph Succeeded by
Uthman ibn
656–661 Hasan ibn Ali
Affan

Tribal titles

Preceded by
Chief of Banu Hashim Succeeded by
Abbas ibn Abd
653–661 ?
al-Muttalib

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ali&oldid=951523062"

Last edited 9 days ago by WikiCleanerBot

Content is available under CC BY-SA 3.0 unless otherwise noted.