buildings
Article
Proof of Concept and Preliminary Validation of an Analytical
Model of an Energy Dissipator for Tension Loads
with Self-Centering Capacity
Nelson Maureira-Carsalade 1, * , Esteban Balboa-Constanzo 1 , Marcelo Sanhueza-Cartes 1 , Claudio Sanhueza 1 ,
Eduardo Núñez 1 and Ángel Roco-Videla 2, *
Citation: Maureira-Carsalade, N.;
Balboa-Constanzo, E.; Sanhueza-
Cartes, M.; Sanhueza, C.; Núñez, E.;
Roco-Videla, Á. Proof of Concept and
Preliminary Validation of an
Analytical Model of an Energy
Dissipator for Tension Loads with
Self-Centering Capacity. Buildings
2023, 13, 726. https://doi.org/
10.3390/buildings13030726
Academic Editor: Binsheng (Ben)
Zhang
Received: 10 January 2023
Revised: 13 February 2023
Accepted: 14 February 2023
Published: 9 March 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Buildings 2023, 13, 726. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13030726
1 Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad Católica de la Santísima Concepción, Concepción 4090541, Chile
2 Facultad de Salud y Ciencias Sociales, Universidad de las Américas, Santiago 7500975, Chile
* Correspondence: nmaureira@ucsc.cl (N.M.-C.); aroco@udla.cl (Á.R.-V.)
Abstract: A novel energy dissipation device is proposed to protect structures against dynamic
loads. A conceptual model of the device is presented, describing the fundamental components of its
operation. This model has a linear elastic element and a frictional damper. The equilibrium equations
that lead to the relationship that governs its behavior are proposed. A functional model of the device
was built on a 3D printer with PLA filament. Experimental trials were carried out to characterize its
elastic component and the coefficient of friction of the damping parts. Proofs of concept load-unload
tests were also carried out on the device, subjecting it to cyclical movement sequences. The results of
the first two types of tests allowed the parameters of the previously developed analytical model to be
calibrated. The results of the load-unload tests were compared with the predictions of the analytical
model using the calibrated parameters. Consistency was observed between the experimental and
analytical results, demonstrating the basic attributes of the device: self-centering capacity, dissipation
capacity and force proportional to the displacement demand. It is concluded that the proposed device
has the potential to be used effectively in the protection of structures under dynamic loads.
Keywords: frictional damper; auto centering capacity; analytical model; proof of concept; double-blind
experimental validation
1. Introduction
In the past two decades, numerous large-magnitude seismic events (8 Mw or more)
have been recorded in several parts of the world. These have affected cities, destroying or
damaging buildings and taking countless lives. Chile has been affected by many severe
earthquakes since it is located on the southeastern edge of the Pacific ring of fire. This
area concentrates more than 90% of the seismic energy released annually [1]. It is situated
between four large tectonic plates, the Nazca to the west, the South American on the
continental side to the east, the Antarctic and Scotia to the south, which makes it one of the
countries with the greatest seismic hazard in the world [1]. Most of its seismic activities
were concentrated in the subduction zone between the Nazca and South American plates
due to the relatively high speed of convergence between them, which is estimated at 7.4 cm
per year [2]. In Chile, three of the ten most severe earthquakes recorded in history have
occurred: the Valdivia earthquake of 1960, 9.5 Mw, ranking 1; the earthquake of Arica of
1868, 9 Mw, ranking 6; and the earthquake of Maule in 2010, 8.8 Mw, ranking 8, [3]. Due to
these large seismic events and their serious consequences, seismic engineering has focused
on generating more resilient systems, allowing a quick recovery after a disruptive event [4].
As a result of the different problems that the structures have presented due to severe
earthquakes, the need to implement new technologies, such as seismic protection systems,
arises. Among the most widely used seismic protection systems are those of the passive
type, where seismic isolators and energy dissipators are found. This is mainly due to its
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Buildings 2023, 13, 726 2 of 30

low manufacturing and maintenance costs compared to active and semi-active protection
technologies [5]. The main function of seismic isolators is to decouple the fundamental
frequency of the structure from the predominant range of frequencies of dynamic excitation.
These devices are very flexible laterally, so they concentrate the lateral deformation at the
isolation level, making the structure moves virtually like a rigid body [6]. On the other hand,
energy dissipators reduce the damage caused by dynamic loads by dissipating part of the
energy imposed by them [7]. Energy dissipators work in parallel with the resistant structure,
using its deformations to dissipate part of the energy imposed by dynamic loads, releasing
it to the environment in a controlled and localized manner [8]. In most cases, they dissipate
by the work of non-conservative forces with their respective conjugate displacements, such
as friction, sliding, metal creep and plastic deformation, among others [8]. According to
their operating principles, they are classified into metallic, viscoelastic, viscous flow, and
friction hysteretic dissipators [9].
One of the alternatives to reduce the damages in a structure without it being very
robust is to concentrate the said damages in energy dissipation devices by metallic fluency,
of accessible cost and easily replaceable [10]. According to De la Llera et al. [11], these must
have two important characteristics so that they can be used in engineering applications.
First, they must have a large capacity for stable energy dissipation over several cycles. Sec-
ond, a representative model of its cyclical behavior must be available. Nakashima et al. [12]
mentioned that the metallic creep of this type of device must be established at a low level
of the load relative to the resistance of the structure in order to activate dissipation early.
Among the most popular metal creep devices are the ADAS device [13], TADAS [14],
U-Shape [15], honeycomb damper [16] and Buckling Restrained Brace (BRB) [17]. The BRB
is designed to be incorporated into the bracing system of structural frames, dissipating
axial loads and deformations by work.
It has been shown that inter-story drifts and ground accelerations can be controlled
simultaneously by incorporating velocity-dependent dampers, such as viscous and vis-
coelastic types [18]. Wang et al. [19] mentioned that viscoelastic dampers have a more
complex mechanical behavior than viscous ones, which depends on the deformation am-
plitude, deformation rate, frequency, and ambient temperature. Dynamic tests have been
carried out on structures equipped with viscoelastic dampers on a shaking table, such
as those by Chang et al. [20], who tested scale models, and those by Lai et al. [21], with
real-scale structures. As a conclusion of these experimental studies, it was obtained that
this type of damper allows reducing seismic damage in structures; however, the energy
dissipation capacity is reduced with the increase in ambient temperature. On the other
hand, viscous dampers have also become popular as seismic protection for structures.
This perception is because they have a great capacity to improve seismic performance by
providing significant energy dissipation; they can react with forces out of phase with the
maximum displacements; they add damping without significantly altering the inherent
stiffness of the structure [22]. This type of technology has been implemented in existing
and new structures [23–25].
Frictional energy dissipation devices have been widely used as they have a high poten-
tial for energy dissipation at a relatively low cost and are easy to install and maintain [26,27].
These devices dissipate the energy delivered by the disruptive event through the work
between the friction force and the sliding between two surfaces in contact [28]. Due to their
ability to produce almost rectangular hysteresis loops, they can dissipate a large amount
of energy in each load-unload cycle [27]. One of the main disadvantages of this type of
dissipation is that the coefficient of friction between the surfaces in contact can vary after
multiple load-unload cycles [29]. In addition, traditional frictional devices lack the ability
to self-center naturally so that the structure can be left with residual deformations [30]. Due
to this, several researchers have investigated frictional-type dissipators with self-centering
capacity. That is, the device returns to its resting position after the external forcing has been
Buildings 2023, 13, 726 3 of 30

removed, reducing permanent deformations in the structure. One of the first self-centering
energy dissipation devices is the one proposed by Aiken [31], who proposed the Sumitomo
friction damper. Özbulut et al. [32] developed the re-centering variable friction device
(RVFD), which is centered with a group of shape memory alloy (SMA) wires. Other devices
with similar characteristics were developed and studied by various authors [27,33–36].
Seismic protection technologies such as the one presented here can be used not only in
the design of new structures but also in the retrofit of existing structures. Seismic retrofit
can be divided into (1) strength improvement, (2) ductility improvement, and (3) seismic
dissipation and isolation [36]. Cao et al. [37,38] mentioned that self-centering systems could
reduce the residual interstory drift ratio and provide a larger initial stiffness, possessing
the potential to enhance the overall structural resilience. Therefore, the device proposed
here is presented as a form of minimally invasive retrofitting of existing structures, capable
of improving seismic performance and structural resilience.
In this research, a novel friction energy dissipation device for use in the seismic
protection of structures is presented. The device works only in tension, being practical
for its use in bracing diagonals. It can work post-tensioned, thus allowing its use under
cyclical compression-traction loads in doubly braced systems. It has the particularity that
both, the non-conservative force due to friction and the elastic force with which the device
responds, grow as the imposed displacement increases. The elastic component of the
device allows it to recover its original shape by removing the external force that generates
its deformation. This allows the device and the structure it protects to remain without
permanent deformation once the seismic action or dynamic forcing has ended. As the
non-conservative force due to friction increases with the increasing imposed deformation,
the device dissipates much more energy when the dynamic forcing is more severe. This
research presents a mathematical formulation that leads to a constitutive equation for
describing the dynamic and mechanical behaviors of the proposed device. An experimental
protocol is proposed and executed, allowing double-blind validation of said constitutive
equation. The experimental results show an acceptable fit with the numerical predictions,
verifying the validity of the characteristic mathematical model of the device.

2. Materials and Methods

This section presents a conceptual model of the proposed device that describes its
fundamental components to achieve the expected behaviors. The equilibrium equations of
the conceptual model are proposed, considering simplifications that allow obtaining an
analytical model that is easy to evaluate and implement numerically. A physical model
of the device was built in a 3D printer with PLA (polyactic acid) filament. An experi-
mental campaign was executed where three different types of tests were carried out; two
to determine the properties of the components of the built prototype and the third to
determine the behavior of the device as a whole. The tests were carried out in a specific
measurement system built into a 3D printer using PLA as material. The experimental
results of the complete device and the numerical simulations with experimentally cali-
brated parameters allowed the validation of the expected behaviors and attributes of the
proposed device.

2.1. Description of the Conceptual Model of the Device

Figure 1a shows the conceptual model of the proposed dissipator in its non-deformed
configuration and Figure 1b in its deformed position, indicating the fundamental com-
ponents of the device. These components are the body or casing (1), the clamps (2), the
connecting rods (3), the interconnection system (4), the transmission shaft (5), the elastic
spring (6), the point of fixing (left side), and the mobile clamping point (7).
 2.1. Description of the Conceptual Model of the Device
Figure 1a shows the conceptual model of the proposed dissipator in its non-deformed
configuration and Figure 1b in its deformed position, indicating the fundamental compo-
nents of the device. These components are the body or casing (1), the clamps (2), the con-
Buildings 2023, 13, 726 4 of 30
necting rods (3), the interconnection system (4), the transmission shaft (5), the elastic
spring (6), the point of fixing (left side), and the mobile clamping point (7).

a
(2) θ
(1)
(3) (c)
(4) r
(6)
(7) F(u)
(5)
(1) l

c(u=0)
(3) b
b β
(d)
a a
(2)

b’ l
b’
(a) (b)
θ
θ θ
θ

θ θ θ
β
Leads to the ecuations (2), (3)
l
θ)

θ)
(c) (d)
Figure1.1. Frictional
Figure Frictional dissipator
dissipator with
with self-centering
self-centering capacity
capacity (a)
(a) Initial
Initial or
or rest
restposition,
position, (b)
(b)Deformed
Deformed
position at a capacity less than the maximum admissible, (c) Kinematics of θ, (d) Kinematics ofofβ.β.
position at a capacity less than the maximum admissible, (c) Kinematics of θ, (d) Kinematics

In Figure
In Figure 1b, 1b, the
the clamps
clamps (2)(2) can
can pivot
pivot at
at their
their hinged
hinged ends ends with
with case
case (1)
(1) due
due to to the
the
forceapplied
force appliedtotothethemobile
mobileendend(7),(7), transmitted
transmitted to to
thethepairpair of clamps
of clamps (2) (2) by the
by the transmis-
transmission
sion shaft
shaft (5). shaft
(5). This This shaft can slide
can slide acrossacross the surface
the surface of theof the clamps
clamps underunder
normal normal load be-
load between
the parts
tween theinparts
contact, allowingallowing
in contact, the dissipation of energyofby
the dissipation friction.
energy by The clamps
friction. The(2)clamps
transmit (2)
axial loadaxial
transmit to the pair
load toof
theconnecting rods (3),rods
pair of connecting which (3),inwhich
turn lead it to
in turn theitinterconnection
lead to the intercon-
element (4) that finally
nection element (4) thatdeforms the elastic
finally deforms thespring
elastic(6). The (6).
spring components of the axial
The components of theload of
axial
the connecting rods (3) in the direction perpendicular to the longitudinal
load of the connecting rods (3) in the direction perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of axis of the spring
(6)
thecancel
springeach other due
(6) cancel eachtoother
the deformation symmetry ofsymmetry
due to the deformation the device. ofThe
the deformation
device. The de- of
the spring (6)
formation of is
theproportional
spring (6) istoproportional
the displacement to theu displacement
imposed on the u mobile
imposed end
on(7),
theasmobile
is the
axial loadasonisthe
end (7), theconnecting
axial load rods
on the(3) connecting
and, therefore,rodsthe (3)normal load transmitted
and, therefore, the normal between
load
the transmission shaft (5) and the surface of the clamps (2).
transmitted between the transmission shaft (5) and the surface of the clamps (2).
The
The device
device inin Figure
Figure 1a,b
1a,b was
was designed
designed and and built
built on on aa 3D
3D printer
printer in in PLA
PLA material.
material.
Due
Due to the equipment’s printing size restrictions, the global geometric sizingof
to the equipment’s printing size restrictions, the global geometric sizing of the
the device
device
was
wasestablished
establishedaapriori,
priori,considering
consideringthe thedimensions
dimensionsshown shownin inTable
Table1.1.

Table1.1.Global
Table Globaldimensions
dimensionsof
ofthe
thedissipation
dissipationdevice
devicebuilt
builtininaa3D
3Dprinter.
printer.

Variable a b b0
Variable a = 0)
c(u b l b’ cL(ug= 0) lβmax Lg θ maxβmax θmax
ue max ue
max
umax
umax
Unit (mm) (mm) Unit (mm) (mm)
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
(mm) (mm) (mm)(◦ ) (mm) (◦ )(°) (°)
(mm)(mm) (mm) (mm)
Magnitude 37.5 50
Magnitude
25.4
37.5
50
50 15
25.4 70.7
50 1547.1 70.7 4547.1 4530.0 30.0 4545

2.2. Formulation of the Analytical Model of the Device

2.2.1. Assumptions and Simplifications
Prior to presenting the formulation of the analytical model to characterize the me-
chanical behavior of the proposed device, it is necessary to establish assumptions and
simplifications that facilitate the formulation. First, it will be considered that the proposed
device is a mechanism made up of non-deformable parts, with the sole exception of the
spring arranged inside it (elements (6) in Figure 1a). All the parts of the device are con-
nected to each other by means of perfectly-hinged joints, without friction between them.
 The dissipation of energy occurs in a concentrated way due to the work of the f
force between the cylindrical axis of load transmission and the set of clamps (eleme
and (2) in Figure 1a). The friction force between the aforementioned parts follow
lomb’s law, then its magnitude is proportional to the product between the coeffic
Buildings 2023, 13, 726 5 of 30
friction and the normal force, and its direction is opposite to the direction of relative
ment [39,40]. The spring inside the device is assumed to work in the linear elastic
its
The force beingofalways
dissipation proportional
energy occurs to the deformation
in a concentrated imposed
way due to the work of the on it. The
friction forcerigid bo
tations
between the cylindrical axis of load transmission and the set of clamps (elements (5) and (2) as the
and translations of the constituent elements of the device, as well
mation
in Figureof1a).the spring
The frictionwithin it, canthe
force between beaforementioned
determined through theCoulomb’s
parts follows geometric law,analysis
then its magnitude is proportional to the product between the coefficient
mechanism in deformed configuration by nonlinear relations in terms of a single of friction and the
normal force, and its direction is opposite to the direction of relative movement [39,40]. The
ofspring
freedom.
inside the device is assumed to work in the linear elastic range, its force being always
proportional to the deformation imposed on it. The rigid body rotations and translations of
2.2.2. Kinematic
the constituent Relations
elements of the device, as well as the deformation of the spring within it, can
be determined through the geometric analysis of the mechanism in deformed configuration
The statement of the equilibrium equations of the device must be defined in
by nonlinear relations in terms of a single degree of freedom.
formed condition since the displacements can be comparable to the dimensions of
vice.
2.2.2. For this, it
Kinematic is first necessary to describe the kinematic relations that link th
Relations
deformation variables:
The statement of the θ, β and ue,equations
equilibrium with theofglobal deformation
the device variable
must be defined in of
its the dev
deformed
These condition
arise from thesince the displacements
geometric analysiscan
ofbe comparable
Figure 1b andto the
aredimensions of the
given by Equations (1
device. For this, it is first necessary to describe the kinematic relations that link the local
deformation variables: θ, β and ue , with the ) global
√ 2deformation
2 2 ∙ variable
∙ of the device, u.
These arise from the geometric analysis of Figure 1b and are given by Equations (1)–(6).
) 2
∙ ∙
b𝜃2 + u2 − 2·u·r 2
p
c(u) = 2 (1)
)
b·c(u) + 2
cosθ = ∙ r − r ·u ) ∙ )∙ (2)
sin 𝜃 c(u)2 + r2
)2 2

b·r − c(u)·r + c(u)·u

sinθ = (3)
c(u𝛽)2 + r2 ∙ cos𝜃)
a
sinβ = ·(1 − cosθ ) 2𝛽 (4)
l 𝛽 √
q
cosβ = 1∙ − sin𝜃2 β ∙ cos 𝛽) (5)

ue = a·sinθ − l ·(1 − cosβ) (6)

2.2.3.
2.2.3. Balance
Balance ofof
thethe Forces
Forces and and Bending
Bending Moments
Moments
With Equations
With Equations (1)–(6),
(1)–(6), it is possible
it is possible to formulate
to formulate the equilibrium
the equilibrium equations
equations of the
device components analyzed in isolation (Figure 2a–c).
device components analyzed in isolation (Figure 2a–c).

β a
θ
θ
β θ
F(u)
θ
θ
β

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 2.Free
Figure 2. Freebody
body diagram
diagram ofheatsinks
of the the heatsinks components.
components. (a) Interconnection
(a) Interconnection system, (b) C
system, (b) Caliper,
and
and (c) Loadtransmission
(c) Load transmission shaft.
shaft.

Figure 2a–c allows us to state the equilibrium conditions of each component of the
dissipator, given by Equations (7)–(9).

kr
FE1 = ·[ a·sinθ + l ·(1 − cosβ)] (7)
2·cosβ
 Buildings 2023, 13, 726 6 of 30

FE1 · a
FN = ·(cosβ·cosθ + sinβ·sinθ ) (8)
c(u)
F (u) = 2· FR ·sinθ + 2· FN ·cosθ (9)
Combining Equations (7)–(9) and considering Coulomb’s friction force, FR in Figure 2b,c
.
.

is given by FR = µFN sign u [39,40]. In the indicated expression, the factor “sign u ”
denotes that the friction force opposes the relative displacement between the sliding parts
subjected to the normal force FN (Figure 2b). With the above, the mathematical model of
the device is defined by a characteristic Equation (10).
.
a   .
 
F u, u = kr ue cos2 θ + tanβ sinθ cosθ + µ sign u cosθ sinθ + tanβ sin2 θ (10)
c(u)

The geometric parameters included in Equation (10) are well explained in Figure 1b
and implicitly defined by Equations (1)–(6). The lengths and displacements must be
expressed in the same units, which are dynamically compatible with the unit of the measure
of the spring stiffness, Kr . From Equation (10), it can be seen that the response of the device
is proportional to the elastic force developed in the spring, FE = Kr ·ue (Figure 2a). The
indicated response is made up of an elastic part and a frictional part, where the coefficient
.
of friction µ and the sign of u are included, which denotes that the direction of the imposed
movement speed gives the direction of the friction force.

2.3. Analytical Model of the Device’s Spring

Prior to the sizing and construction of the dissipation device prototype in a 3D printer,
it was necessary to define an analytical model of the spring inside. This is in order to ensure
that the indicated spring is capable of resisting, in the linear elastic range of behavior of the
material, the maximum deformation that will be imposed on the device.
The equations of the resistance of materials were used to define the analytical model
of the springs, considering the deformation capacity (45 mm) (Table 1) and load capacity
(10,000 g) of the testing machine designed for these effects. Figures 3a and 3b, respec-
tively, show the 3D model and flat diagram of the type of spring built and used in the
tests. Figure 4 presents the conceptual model for the analysis of the indicated spring,
which considers its symmetry and allows the equations that relate the applied force F
to the elongation u that it generates. These equations allow sizing the springs to ensure
their behaviors in the linear elastic range when the dissipation device is deformed to
its full capacity. Each spring was dimensioned using Equations (11)–(21), considering
that the stiffest spring subjected to a force of 5000 g—50% of the capacity of the testing
Buildings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW
machine—reaches 75% of the elastic limit deformation of the PLA material, εel , at its most 7 of 30
requested point.

N undulations

s s
L

a'
d

B (a) (b) (b)

Figure3.3.Spring
Figure Springmodel
model used.
used. (a) (a)
3D 3D model
model indicating
indicating the thickness,
the thickness, (b) Diagram
(b) Diagram in the
in the plane of plane o
deformation,with
deformation, with other
other lengths
lengths thatthat influence
influence the stiffness
the stiffness and resistance
and resistance of the spring.
of the spring.

K1 2𝐸𝐼
𝑒 𝐾 3
𝐼
L
½ FE, u
 d

B (a) (b) (b)

Buildings 2023, 13, 726 7 of 30
Figure 3. Spring model used. (a) 3D model indicating the thickness, (b) Diagram in the plane of
deformation, with other lengths that influence the stiffness and resistance of the spring.

K1 2𝐸𝐼
𝑒 𝐾 3
𝐼
L
½ FE, u

K2
a'
′𝑒
2
𝐼 3𝐸𝐼
d 𝐾2
′3
(a) (b)
Figure 4.
Figure 4. Analytical
Analyticalmodel of the
model of spring. (a) Individual
the spring. stiffnesses
(a) Individual K1 and K2 in
stiffnesses K1one
andhalf
K2ofin
theone
sym-
half of the
metrical spring, (b) Diagram of expected deformation for each component.
symmetrical spring, (b) Diagram of expected deformation for each component.
To define the analytical model that allows the calculation of the stiffness of the spring,
To define the analytical model that allows the calculation of the stiffness of the spring,
it was divided into two equivalent halves based on their symmetry. Each half of the
itspring,
was divided
located into twoside
on each equivalent halves
of the plane of based on their
symmetry, symmetry.
is made up of 2 Each
types half of the spring,
of elastic
located
elements with stiffnesses, K1 and K2 (Figure 4a). In each half of the spring, there are 2Nelements
on each side of the plane of symmetry, is made up of 2 types of elastic
with
elements with theKstiffness
stiffnesses, 1 and KK21 (Figure 4a). Inwith
and 1 element eachthehalf of theK2spring,
stiffness (Figure there
3b), allare 2N elements
of them
with
working in series. KThe
the stiffness 1 and 1
secondelement
half ofwith
the the
springstiffness
works K
in2 (Figure
parallel 3b),
with all
its of them
symmetrical working in
series. The second
counterpart, half of
which allows the spring
associating works in
a simplified parallelmodel
analytical with toitscalculate
symmetrical counterpart,
its stiffness.
which The stiffnesses
allows K1 and K
associating of the model,
a2simplified shown inmodel
analytical Figure to4a,calculate
are given itsby:stiffness.
The stiffnesses K1 and K2 of the model,2𝐸𝐼
shown in Figure 4a, are given by:
𝐾 3
(11)
12EI
3𝐸𝐼
K = (11)
𝐾2 1 3 L
3 (12)
′
3EI
𝐵𝑒 3
𝐼 K2 = (13) (12)
2 a0 3
Considering that in each symmetrical half of1 the spring, there are 2N elements with
the stiffness K1 and 1 element with the stiffness Be3
I = K2 working in series, the equivalent stiff- (13)
12
ness of this set is given by:
Considering that in each symmetrical half of the spring, there are 2N elements with the
−
stiffness K1 and 1 element with the 2𝑁
𝐾 stiffness( K2 working in series, the equivalent(14)
stiffness of
/2)
𝑞 )
this set is given by: 𝐾 𝐾2
  −1
Then, adding the contributions of (1/2both 2N
) symmetrical 1 halves of the spring working in
parallel to each other, the theoretical eq
= of the +
K stiffness (14)
K1 complete
K2 spring is obtained as:
𝑇) /2)
Then, adding the contributions𝐾of𝑞 both 2𝐾symmetrical
𝑞 halves of the spring(15)
working in
parallel
To determine the modulus of elasticity E of the PLA material, necessary for deter-as:
to each other, the theoretical stiffness of the complete spring is obtained
mining the spring stiffness, the experimentally
(T )
obtained equivalent stiffness of the spring,
(1/2)
Keq = 2Keq (15)

To determine the modulus of elasticity E of the PLA material, necessary for determin-
( E)
ing the spring stiffness, the experimentally obtained equivalent stiffness of the spring, Keq ,
was used. That stiffness was considered as the linear range stiffness obtained from the test
of a sacrificial spring. Considering the above, the modulus of elasticity is defined by the
following expression:
1 ( E)  3 
E= Keq NL + 2a3 (16)
12I
This modulus of elasticity is typical of the PLA material, which is why it was used
for the design of all the other springs. The indicated springs must be designed with
specific stiffnesses, also having the necessary deformation capacity to resist the maximum
displacement level imposed in the tests.
Considering the analysis model of Figure 4a, the maximum stress in each of the
constituent elements with the stiffness K1 , due to a force of FE elongating the spring
(Figure 4a), is given by:
F Le
σ1max = E (17)
8I
Buildings 2023, 13, 726 8 of 30

Similarly, the maximum stress in the constituent elements with the stiffness K2 is
given by:
F a0
σ2max = E e (18)
4I
The maximum displacement of the spring is limited by the size of the dissipating
device. The geometric design of this dissipating device admits a maximum deformation,
umax = 45 mm, which generates a maximum extension in the spring of ue max = 30 mm
(Table 1), consistent with Equations (1)–(6). Considering the above, the theoretical maxi-
mum force acting on the elastic element or spring was determined as:

(T ) (T )
Fmax = Keq ·umax
e , (19)

(T )
where Keq is the theoretical spring stiffness defined by Equation (15), combined with
Equations (11)–(14), using the modulus of elasticity determined from the experimental
results replaced in Equation (16).
Equation (19), replaced in Equations (17) and (18), allows for determining the maxi-
mum working stresses in the constituent elements of the spring. The maximum value of
the indicated normal stresses defines the maximum stress and deformation of the spring
material, according to Equations (20) and (21):

σmax = max (σ1max , σ2max ) (20)

1
ε max = σmax . (21)
E
The maximum deformation of the elastic limit of the PLA material, εel , is deter-
mined with Equation (21), using the stresses σ1 max and σ2 max calculated according to
Equations (17) and (18), replaced in Equation (20). In the calculation of the indicated
stresses, the force FE is determined in the test of the sacrificial spring brought to failure at
the limit point of linear elastic behavior.

2.4. Preliminary Sizing of Springs

In addition to the constraints of spring stiffness and internal resistance to deformation
of the PLA material, other geometric constraints were established. These are mainly due to
the pre-established dimensions of the geometric design of the complete dissipation device
(Table 1) and limitations due to the capacity of the 3D printer used. These restrictions on
the sizing of the spring are the following: a = 11.5 mm; B = 60 mm; d = 1 mm (Figure 3a,b).
The values assigned to these variables were considered constant for all springs, regardless
of their stiffness.
Considering the above, the geometric design of the spring is summarized in the
determination of the parameters: L, e, s and N (Figure 3b). Due to the predetermined size
of the energy dissipator (Table 1), the length L should not be greater than 35 mm to allow
the spring to fit inside the device. To ensure a good 3D printing resolution of the spring,
the thickness e should not be less than 0.8 mm. Furthermore, in order to avoid leading to
the very high rigidity of the spring or excessive use of material, the indicated thickness
should be at most 2 mm. The separation s between the printed stripes (Figure 3b) should
not be less than 0.5 mm to prevent adhesion between portions that must be printed without
contact. Finally, the number of undulations N (Figure 3b) is determined in order to give the
spring the necessary stiffness, imposing a restriction that 5 ≤ N ≤ 8 to delimit the amount
of PLA used in its preparation in a 3D printer.
The geometry of each spring was designed to obtain the desired stiffness, ensuring
that the maximum stress and deformation given by Equations (20) and (21) do not exceed
75% of the maximum deformation of the linear range of the PLA material when subjected
to an elongation umax
e = 30 mm.
 the external load has been removed. For this to be true, the PLA material must no
the elastic-linear working range.

2.5. Specific Model of the Dissipation Device

Buildings 2023, 13, 726 9 of 30
A physical prototype of the proposed device was built, according to the co
model of Figure 2a,b, with the overall dimensions shown in Table 1. This protot
completely
Each spring built
wason a 3D printer
designed so thatusing
it couldPLA as material
withstand (Figure 5a,b).
large elongations and only
tensionThe specific
forces, prototype
in addition to beingof thein dissipation
built a 3D printer indevice was made
PLA material. up of a set of p
The “accordion”
shape
allowshown
it to infunction
Figure 3 was established
according to asthea feasible design model
conceptual since it facilitates
presented support on The p
above.
the hotbed of the 3D printer, turning out to be very flexible and resistant. This element
make up the dissipation device are shown in Figure 6 and are given in the follow
corresponds to the elastic part of the device that helps it return to its original shape once
casing
the with
external loadpins, (2) clamps
has been removed.with hooks,
For this (3) connecting
to be true, rods,
the PLA material (4) not
must interconnection
exceed
(5)elastic-linear
the transmission shaftrange.
working with friction heads, (6) elastic element or spring, and (7
clamping. The friction heads of element (5) are interchangeable. They serve two p
2.5. Specific Model of the Dissipation Device
to distribute the load passed from the transmission shaft to the clamps in a finite
A physical prototype of the proposed device was built, according to the conceptual
not atofaFigure
model point2a,b,andwith
to modify thedimensions
the overall coefficient of friction
shown in Table between the shaft
1. This prototype wasand the
by incorporating
completely sheets
built on a 3D of using
printer sandpaper
PLA as on the surface
material of the ring-shaped heads.
(Figure 5a,b).

Elastic
element

Sliding
Moving surface with
Fixed end friction
end

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure Concrete
5. 5. model
Concrete of the of
model energy dissipation
the energy device. (a) device.
dissipation Complete(a)
view, (b) Interior
Complete view,(b)
view, Inter
elastic element and sliding surface with friction.
elastic element and sliding surface with friction.
The specific prototype of the dissipation device was made up of a set of parts that
allow it to function according to the conceptual model presented above. The parts that
make up the dissipation device are shown in Figure 6 and are given in the following:
(1) casing with pins, (2) clamps with hooks, (3) connecting rods, (4) interconnection system,
(5) transmission shaft with friction heads, (6) elastic element or spring, and (7) mobile
clamping. The friction heads of element (5) are interchangeable. They serve two purposes:
to distribute the load passed from the transmission shaft to the clamps in a finite area and
Buildings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 30
not at a point and to modify the coefficient of friction between the shaft and the clamps by
incorporating sheets of sandpaper on the surface of the ring-shaped heads.

Figure
Figure 6.
6. Components of the
Components of theproposed
proposeddevice,
device,built-in
built-in PLA
PLA material
material on on a 3D
a 3D printer.
printer.

2.6. Description of the Experimental Tests

Three types of tests were carried out: direct shear test to determine the coefficient of
friction between sliding parts, traction test to calculate the stiffness of the elastic element,
 Figure 6. Components of the proposed device, built-in PLA material on a 3D printer.

2.6. Description of the Experimental Tests

Buildings 2023, 13, 726 10 of 30
Three types of tests were carried out: direct shear test to determine the coefficient o
friction between sliding parts, traction test to calculate the stiffness of the elastic elemen
and load-unload cyclical test to determine the response of the dissipation device as
2.6. Description of the Experimental Tests
whole.
Three types of tests were carried out: direct shear test to determine the coefficient of
friction between sliding parts, traction test to calculate the stiffness of the elastic element,
2.6.1. Direct Shear Friction Tests
and load-unload cyclical test to determine the response of the dissipation device as a whole.
An experimental test was designed to determine the coefficient of dynamic frictio
2.6.1. Directtwo
between Shear Frictionthrough
surfaces Tests the balance of the forces present. Dynamic friction is th
An experimental test was designed
one that acts between two surfaces when to determine the coefficient
there is sliding between of dynamic
the partsfriction
in contact, an
between
it is the one that generates the dissipation of energy. An experimental isprotocol
two surfaces through the balance of the forces present. Dynamic friction the one was de
that actsand
fined, between twoframework
the test surfaces when wasthere
builtis sliding
in a 3Dbetween
printer the
usingparts
PLAin contact, andThe
material. it ismeasure
the one that generates the dissipation of energy. An experimental protocol was defined,
ment system consists of three parts (Figure 7a), which are:
and the test framework was built in a 3D printer using PLA material. The measurement
1. Sliding
system consistsCart ①: parts
of three It can(Figure
slide on
7a),awhich
rail aided
are: by lateral bearings that direct the move
1. ment. Cart
Sliding Different
: masses
1 It can slide oncan beaided
a rail added by to it tobearings
lateral increase thatthe normal
direct contact force be
the movement.
tween sliding
Different surfaces.
masses can be added Twoto it“tablets”
to increaseattached
the normal tocontact
its lower
forcepart allow
between changing th
sliding
surfaces. Two “tablets” attached to
materiality of one of the sliding surfaces. its lower part allow changing the materiality of
one of the sliding surfaces.
2. Guide Rail ②: It corresponds to a flat surface rail made of PLA, allowing a 30 cm ru
2. Guide Rail : 2 It corresponds to a flat surface rail made of PLA, allowing a 30 cm run
of the Sliding Cart on it. At its furthest end from the Sliding Cart, it has a pulley tha
of the Sliding Cart on it. At its furthest end from the Sliding Cart, it has a pulley that
allowsthe
allows the direction
direction of the
of the weight
weight load load as a lateral
as a lateral load on load on the Cart.
the Cart.
3.3. Weight
Weight 3 ③:
: A container
A container filled
filled withwith
sand sand wasas
was used used as a weight.
a weight. Thisby
This allows, allows,
meansby mean
ofofa acable
cable and a pulley,
and to apply
a pulley, a lateral
to apply load to
a lateral the to
load Sliding Cart until
the Sliding theuntil
Cart friction
the frictio
force is overcome.
force is overcome.

(a) (b)

Figure7. 7.Direct
Figure Direct shear
shear test.test. (a) Photograph
(a) Photograph of theoftest
thewith
testits
with its(b)
parts, parts, (b) Schematic
Schematic diagram wit
diagram with
measurement
measurement variables.
variables.

As can be seen in Figure 8b, the blue pieces correspond to the PLA surface, while those
in black correspond to the same PLA pieces, but with their surface covered with a sheet of
sandpaper that allows increasing the coefficient of friction. These pieces are inserted into
the perforated slots shown in Figure 8a under the sliding cart and fixed with the wooden
dowels in Figure 8b.
The dynamic equilibrium of the sliding cart with added mass (total mass M) was
formulated based on the diagram in Figure 7b once the dynamic friction had been overcome.
In this condition, the force P is applied laterally to the car by the pulley, and the weight
hanging from it is greater than the dynamic friction force FR . In this way, the car has
a constant net force P-FR , and therefore, its acceleration ü is constant. The Coulomb’s
friction was considered [39,40] so that the friction force is proportional to the normal force,
according to Equation (22).
FR = µc Mg (22)
 As can be seen in Figure 8b, the blue pieces correspond to the PLA surface, while
those in black correspond to the same PLA pieces, but with their surface covered with a
sheet of sandpaper that allows increasing the coefficient of friction. These pieces are in-
Buildings 2023, 13, 726 11 of 30
serted into the perforated slots shown in Figure 8a under the sliding cart and fixed with
the wooden dowels in Figure 8b.

Slots with
Perforations

Bearings

(a) (b)
Figure8. 8.Components
Figure Components ofof
thethe sliding
sliding cart.
cart. (a)(a) Bottom
Bottom view
view of the
of the sliding
sliding cart,cart, (b) Interchangeable
(b) Interchangeable
“tablets” of different surface materialities to modify the coefficient of
“tablets” of different surface materialities to modify the coefficient of friction.friction.

The dynamic
Considering theequilibrium of the sliding
above, the variables cartinwith
involved added
the test mass 7b
in Figure (total mass M)
are related bywas
formulated
means based(23):
of Equation on the diagram in Figure 7b once the dynamic friction had been over-
..
come. In this condition, the force M P − µc Mg
P uis=applied laterally to the car by the pulley, and
(23) the
weight hanging from it is greater than the dynamic friction force FR. In this way, the car
The acceleration of the cart can be determined by means of the kinematics equations,
has a constant
considering that net force
the net P-Fis
force R, and therefore, its acceleration üis constant. The Coulomb’s
constant, based on the distance traveled, ∆u, and the time
friction was considered [39,40]
to travel it, ∆t, according to Equationso that
(24).the friction force is proportional to the normal force,
according to Equation (22).
.. 2∆u
u =𝑭𝑹 2 𝝁𝒄 𝑴𝒈 (24) (22)
∆t
Considering the above, the variables involved in the test in Figure 7b are related by
By combining Equations (23) and (24), the friction coefficient can be determined based
means
on of Equation
the variables (23): in the test, according to Equation (25).
measured
𝑴𝒖̈ 2 𝑷 𝝁𝒄 𝑴𝒈 (23)
P∆t − 2M∆u
µc = (25)
The acceleration of the cart can be determined
Mg∆t2 by means of the kinematics equations,
considering that the net force is constant, based on the distance traveled, Δu, and the time
For each
to travel pairaccording
it, Δt, of frictiontosurfaces
Equation used (PLA-PLA and PLA-Sandpaper), two tests were
(24).
carried out with different added masses on the sliding cart. Each test with a different
mass was repeated three times to ensure the reliability 𝟐∆𝒖 of the results. The data acquired in
𝒖̈ (24)
these tests were the sliding time ∆t elapsed to achieve ∆𝒕𝟐 a sliding ∆u = 23 cm, in addition to
the minimum
By combining load P, necessary
hangingEquations (23) andto(24),
overcome the static
the friction friction and
coefficient canstart the cart
be determined
moving.
based onThe thetests were recorded
variables measuredon invideo
the test,from before the
according cart started
to Equation its movement at
(25).
u = 0 cm until it reached its final position considered at u = 23 cm. From the slow motion
analysis of each video, it was possible to 𝑷∆𝒕𝟐 𝟐𝑴∆𝒖the precision of one-hundredth
𝝁𝒄determine, with 𝟐
(25)
of a second, the time increment ∆t that the cart𝑴𝒈∆𝒕 took moving between the two positions
indicated
For above
each pairin each
of test. A bucket,
friction surfaces whose
usedlevel of sand was
(PLA-PLA and gradually increased,two
PLA-Sandpaper), wastests
used until the static friction was overcome. The load P of each test corresponds to the
were carried out with different added masses on the sliding cart. Each test with a different
weight of the bucket and the added sand up to the moment of incipient sliding of the cart.
mass was repeated three times to ensure the reliability of the results. The data acquired in
theseTensile-Elongation
2.6.2. tests were the sliding Teststime
of theΔtSprings
elapsed to achieve a sliding Δu = 23 cm, in addition to
the minimum hanging load P, necessary to overcome the static friction and start the cart
These tests were used to measure the resistance to deformation and tension in the
moving.
linear The
elastic testscapable
range were recorded on the
of resisting video
PLA from beforeofthe
material, cartthe
which started
springitsofmovement
the device at u
= 0 cm until it reached its final position considered at u =
was made. In addition, it was used to experimentally determine the stiffness of the23 cm. From the slow motion
springs
analysis
that wouldoflater
eachbevideo,
used in it was possible
the tests of thetodevice.
determine, with the precision of one-hundredth
of aFive
second,
springs were built in a 3D printer. cart
the time increment Δt that the The took
N◦ 5,moving
called abetween
sacrificialthe two positions
spring, was
subjected to a load-unload test in tension, bringing it to the breaking condition, exceeding
the elastic range. This allowed us to determine the resistance to tension and deformation
of the linear elastic limits of the PLA material, σel and εel . These were determined using
Buildings 2023, 13, 726 12 of 30

Equations (20) and (21), substituting in them the force Fe (el) , corresponding to the highest
force for which the force-elongation curve of the sacrificial spring maintains a linear
relationship between the variables. These results—σel and εel —were incorporated into an
analytical calculation model of the spring used in the tests to determine the maximum
deformation and load that can be applied to each spring while maintaining its linear elastic
behavior. This allowed defining the limits of deformation imposed in the experimental
protocols of cyclical loading-unloading implemented to each one of the springs. The results
of the tests allowed determining experimentally the rigidity in the linear elastic range of
each of the springs built in a 3D printer with PLA material, which was later used in the
tests of the dissipation device as a whole.

2.7. Tensile-Elongation Testing Machine

A device was designed and built in a 3D printer for the execution of the cyclic load-
elongation test of the springs (Figure 9). This machine was used to carry out the cyclic
tensile-elongation tests on the springs and on the complete dissipation device. Subsequently,
a select group of tests of the dissipation device was repeated in a machine with more
professional characteristics. This second machine is made of steel, and it is driven by a
stepper motor controlled by a computer through Arduino UNO. The machine transforms
the torque into linear force using a ball screw. In all cases, the test protocol contemplates
the application of controlled deformation with a specific imposed displacement sequence.

2.7.1. Machine Built on a 3D Printer

For a detailed explanation of the testing machine, in this section, reference will be
made to the components of the testing equipment according to the numbers indicated
in Figure 9. Considering the pitch—or displacement in each complete turn—of the bolt
used ,3 each turn of the nut attached to the gear 1 driven by a direct current motor with
a speed reduction box 2 imposes a displacement p = 1.41 mm/rev. on the spring —or 4
tested device— fastened to a load frame 5 at its opposite end to the pin .
3 The nut-gear
system is in contact with a load cell 6 with a load measurement range of 10,000 g and a
sensitivity of 1 g that is part of a digital kitchen scale 7 adapted to the equipment. An
axial ball bearing was inserted between the load cell 6 and the gear nut
1 to minimize the
friction due to the rotation of the gear nut and thus achieve the least disturbed measurement
possible. The gearbox motor 2 has a rated speed of 600 rpm with a 24 VDC supply.
However, a 6 VDC power source was used to further reduce the rotation speed, which is
estimated at 150 rpm. The output shaft of the motor with reduction box 2 is connected
to the gear 1 with a transmission ratio of 12/120, reducing the speed to 1/10, that is,
approximately 15 rpm in the largest gear when having a 6 VDC power supply. Considering
the above and a pitch p = 1.41 mm/rev. of the bolt , 3 the estimated speed of application of
the deformation is 0.35 mm/s. This is a conservative estimate since it would correspond
to the deformation speed without resistance offered by the tested object and possible
friction between the pieces of equipment. Therefore, this speed is reduced as the resistance
of the tested object or specimen increases. Load measurements were recorded for the
specifically imposed displacements corresponding to 1, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 and 30 turns of the
gear nut .1 These displacements correspond to the imposed elongations of 1.41, 7.05, 14.1,
21.15, 28.2, 35.25 and 42.3 mm, respectively. Because PLA is a thermoplastic material, the
tests were carried out considering a 30-s pause after each short movement sequence that
determines the points recorded in the load-displacement test to achieve load stabilization in
each of them.
 possible friction between
for the specifically the pieces
imposed of equipment.
displacements Therefore, thistospeed
corresponding is reduced
1, 5, 10, as and
15, 20, 25 the 30 turns
resistance of the tested object or specimen increases. Load measurements were recorded
of the gear nut ①. These displacements correspond to the imposed elongations of 1.41,
for the specifically imposed displacements corresponding to 1, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 and 30 turns
7.05,
of the 14.1, 21.15,
gear nut ①. 28.2,
These35.25 and 42.3correspond
displacements mm, respectively. Because
to the imposed PLA is aof thermoplastic
elongations 1.41,
material,
7.05, the tests
14.1, 21.15, 28.2,were
35.25carried
and 42.3out
mm,considering a 30-s
respectively. pause
Because PLAafter
is a each short movement
thermoplastic
Buildings 2023, 13, 726 sequencethe
material, that determines
tests theout
were carried points recorded
considering in the
a 30-s load-displacement
pause test to achieve 13
after each short movement load
of 30
stabilization
sequence in each of the
that determines them.
points recorded in the load-displacement test to achieve load
stabilization in each of them.

4 1
4 1

3
3

2 2

6 6

5 5

7
7

Figure 9. Assembly of a spring in the testing machine built on a 3D printer with PLA material.
Figure 9. Assembly of a spring in the testing machine built on a 3D printer with PLA material.
Figure 9. Assembly of a spring in the testing machine built on a 3D printer with PLA material.
This test consisted of applying an imposed displacement u of cyclical nature at the
This test consisted of applying an imposed displacement u of cyclical nature at the
mobile endtest
This of the device (Figure
consisted 1b). Thean
of applying displacement was applied inuthree
imposed displacement loading nature
of cyclical and at the
mobile
unloadingend of the device
sequences (Figureamplitudes.
with increasing 1b). The A displacement
single device was applied in three loading
mobile end of the device (Figure 1b). The displacement wascasing
appliedwasin tested
three loading and
and unloading
(Figure 10), but sequences
with twowith withcoefficients
different increasingofamplitudes.
frictionA theA
onsingle single
sliding device
surface casing
under was tested
unloading sequences increasing amplitudes. device casing wasfric-
tested
(Figure 10), but
tion, permuted withwith
twotwo different
different elastic coefficients of friction
elements or springs on the
of different sliding surface under
stiffnesses
(Figure 10), but with two different coefficients of friction on the sliding surface under fric-
friction, permuted
(Figure 3b). The sliding with two different
ring-shaped heads elastic elements
were covered withor springs to
sandpaper ofmodify
differentthe stiffnesses
tion, permuted with two different elastic elements or springs of different stiffnesses
coefficient
(Figure of friction
3b). The slidingbetween the sliding surfaces.
ring-shaped heads wereThese covered
elements could
with be exchangedto
sandpaper formodify the
(Figure
an 3b). The
equivalent one sliding
with a ring-shaped
PLA surface, heads
leaving itswere covered
counterpart withwith
a sandpaper
PLA surface. Intothis
modify the
coefficient of friction between the sliding surfaces. These elements could be exchanged
coefficient of friction between the sliding surfaces. These elements
way, it was possible to have sliding surfaces between the sandpaper and PLA and be- could be exchanged for
for an equivalent one with a PLA surface, leaving its counterpart with a PLA surface. In
an equivalent
tween PLA and one PLA,with
thusahaving
PLA surface, leaving
two different its counterpart
coefficients with
of friction, a PLA surface.
as previously de- In this
this way, it was possible to have sliding surfaces between the sandpaper and PLA and
way, it was
termined. Thepossible to the
stiffness of have sliding
elastic surfaces
element betweenby
was modified the sandpaper
exchanging and PLA
it inside the and be-
between
device PLA and inPLA, thususing
having two different coefficients of friction, astopreviously
tween (element
PLA and (6)PLA,Figure
thus6),having two
twodifferent
differentsprings previously
coefficients built andas
of friction, tested
previously de-
determined.
determine The stiffness ofstiffnesses.
the elastic element was modified by exchanging it inside the
termined.theirThecorresponding
stiffness of the elastic element was modified by exchanging it inside the
device (element (6) in Figure 6), using two different springs previously built and tested to
device (element (6) in Figure 6), using two different springs previously built and tested to
determine their correspondingMovable end
stiffnesses.
determine their corresponding stiffnesses.
clamping bolt

Movable end
clamping bolt

Fixed end
clamping

Figure 10. Assembly of the cyclical load test of the frictional dissipation device in a machine built
Fixed end
with a 3D printer in PLA material, using elements available at home.
clamping

Figure10.
Figure 10.Assembly
Assembly of of the
the cyclical
cyclical load
load test
test of
of the
the frictional
frictionaldissipation
dissipationdevice
deviceinina amachine
machinebuilt
built
with a 3D printer in PLA material, using elements available at home.
with a 3D printer in PLA material, using elements available at home.

This machine was used to carry out the tensile-elongation test on the N◦ 5 spring built
in a 3D printer in PLA material (Figure 11). The indicated spring was tested until failure,
which was assumed as the condition in which an increase in applied deformation generated
a reduction in the measured force. In this failure condition, concentrated plasticity is
evidently manifested at some points of the maximum stress in the material (Figure 11).
Springs N◦ 1 to 4 were tested in the linear elastic range, and spring N◦ 5 was tested to
failure in order to determine the resistance and deformation parameters of PLA in the
elastic range. This allowed springs N◦ 1 to 4 to be geometrically designed to ensure their
 which was assumed as the condition in which an increase in applied deformati
ated a reduction in the measured force. In this failure condition, concentrated pl
evidently manifested at some points of the maximum stress in the material (F
Buildings 2023, 13, 726
Springs N° 1 to 4 were tested in the linear elastic range, and spring N° 5 was
14 of 30
failure in order to determine the resistance and deformation parameters of P
elastic range. This allowed springs N° 1 to 4 to be geometrically designed to en
behavior
behavior in the
in the linear
linear elasticelastic range
range for for the deformation
the deformation demand
demand to which to which
they would be they
Fixed end
subjected
subjected when inside
when theMovable
insidedissipation device. device.
the dissipation
end
clamping clamping bolt

Figure 11. Failure condition of spring N° 5 in a tensile-elongation test.

2.7.2. Steel Testing Machine with the Electromechanical Actuator

A tensile testing machine built in metal and driven by displacement control using a
stepper motor (Figure 12) was employed due to the load limitations that the machine built
in a 3D printer has. The tests on the machine built on a 3D printer were carried out during
the teleworking period due to the COVID-19 pandemic. In addition, when returning to
face-to-face work, theFixed end
University’s laboratory equipment and instruments Movable end were available.
Therefore, to obtain moreclamping
reliable results with a higher sampling clamping
rate,bolt
it was decided to
repeat the tests of the complete dissipation device with this more professional equipment
and instrumentation.Figure
Figure 11.11. Failure
Failure condition
condition of spring ◦ 5 in a N°
of Nspring 5 in a tensile-elongation
tensile-elongation test. test.
The test machine shown in Figure 12 has an electromechanical actuator controlled by
2.7.2. Steel
displacement through Testing Machine with the Electromechanical Actuator
2.7.2.anSteel
Arduino
Testing UNO board.
Machine The
with actuator is driven
the Electromechanical by a Longs Motor
Actuator
brand stepper motor,Amodel tensile testing
NEMAmachine built in metal
34HST9805-37b2, and driven
capable by displacement
of exerting control using a
a sustained
stepper A tensile
motor testing
(Figure 12) machine
was employed built
due in
to metal
the load and
torque of 7 Nm with a controlled rotation of 1.8° per step. The motor is connected to amachine driven
limitations by
that displacement
the 16 built contr
in a 3D printer has. The tests on the machine built on a 3D printer were carried out during
mm diameter ballstepper
screw with motor (Figure
a pitch 12) was employed
p = 4 mm/rev., being able to due to the the
describe load limitations that the mac
movement
the teleworking period due to the COVID-19 pandemic. In addition, when returning to
with a precision of in0.02
a 3D printer
mm/step.
face-to-face
has. The tests
work,Regarding
on the machinethe
the instrumentation,
the University’s laboratory equipment
built
force onwasa 3D printer
measured
and instruments
were carried o
were available.
with a GUANG CE the teleworking
brand
Therefore, S-type load period
to obtain morecell, dueresults
model
reliable to thewith
YZC-516, COVID-19
with a pandemic.
capacity
a higher sampling of rate, In
100 kg. addition,
The
it was decided when
to ret
imposed deformationrepeat was
face-to-facemeasured
the tests work, using andissipation
LVDT-type
the University’s
of the complete displacement
laboratory
device transducer
equipment
with this more andwith
professional instruments
equipment were
a maximum traveland of instrumentation.
200 mm.to obtain more reliable results with a higher sampling rate, it was d
Therefore,
repeat the tests of the complete dissipation device with this more professional e
Load Cell Damping
and device
instrumentation. Actuator Stepper motor
The test machine shown in Figure 12 has an electromechanical actuator con
displacement through an Arduino UNO board. The actuator is driven by a Lon
brand stepper motor, model NEMA 34HST9805-37b2, capable of exerting a
torque of 7 Nm with a controlled rotation of 1.8° per step. The motor is connect
mm diameter ball screw with aDisplacement pitch p = 4transducer
mm/rev., being able to describe the m
with a precision of 0.02 mm/step. Regarding the instrumentation, the force was
with a GUANG CE brand S-type load cell, model YZC-516, with a capacity of 10
Figure 12. Assembly of the
Figure 12.cyclical
Assemblyload testcyclical
of the of theload
frictional dissipation
test of the frictional device in adevice
dissipation machine with with an
in displacement
a machine
imposed
an electromechanical actuator,
deformation
commercial load
was
and
measured
displacement
using
sensors.
an LVDT-type transd
electromechanical actuator, commercial load and displacement sensors.
a maximum travel of 200 mm.
The test machine shown in Figure 12 has an electromechanical actuator controlled by
displacement through an Arduino UNO board. The actuator is driven by a Longs Motor
Load Cell Damping device Actuator
brand stepper motor, model NEMA 34HST9805-37b2, capable of exerting a sustained torque
Stepper
of 7 Nm with a controlled rotation of 1.8◦ per step. The motor is connected to a 16 mm
diameter ball screw with a pitch p = 4 mm/rev., being able to describe the movement with a
precision of 0.02 mm/step. Regarding the instrumentation, the force was measured with a
GUANG CE brand S-type load cell, model YZC-516, with a capacity of 100 kg. The imposed
deformation was measured using an LVDT-type displacement transducer with a maximum
travel of 200 mm.
Displacement transducer
3. Results and Discussion
This section presents the results obtained from applying the methodology described
in the
Figureprevious section. These
12. Assembly of theresults areload
cyclical of three
test types,
of thefocused on the
frictional determination
dissipation deviceof in a ma
an electromechanical actuator, commercial load and displacement sensors.
Buildings 2023, 13, 726 15 of 30

(1) friction coefficient, (2) PLA resistance and spring stiffness, and (3) cyclical response of
the device. This last type of test was carried out in two machines. The first was built with
domestic materials—such as a motor with a gearbox for a baby car, a transformer to charge
a cell phone, a kitchen weight for food, toothpicks, sandpaper for wood, multipurpose
adhesive, among others—parts made in a 3D printer, and a direct current motor with
gearbox, powered by a VAC220-VDC6 transformer. The second machine was built of steel
and powered by a computer-controlled stepper motor.

3.1. Direct Shear Friction Tests

The data acquired in these tests were the sliding time ∆t elapsed to achieve a slid-
ing ∆u = 23 cm, in addition to the minimum hanging load P, necessary to overcome the
static friction and start the movement of the cart (Figure 7b). The experimental measure-
ments indicated above are shown in Tables 1 and 2. With these measurements and using
Equation (25), the calculated friction coefficient µc of each test was determined, which
is shown in the same tables. As mentioned in the methodology, each test was repeated
three times. Therefore, six experiments were carried out for each different pair of surfaces
in contact: three with a mass value of the sliding carriage and three with another value
of the indicated mass. Then, using Equation (26), which uses the results of individual
tests calculated with Equation (25), the mean friction coefficient of the indicated n = 6
tests was attained, obtaining a single friction coefficient for the PLA-PLA surface and one
for PLA-Sandpaper.
1 n (k)
µm = ∑ µc (26)
n k =1

Table 2. Results of the critical slip experimental tests for PLA-PLA surfaces in contact.

Mass of Cart, Hanging Weight, Displacement Time, Calculated Coefficient

Test N◦
M (kg) P (N) ∆t (s) of Friction µc
1 1.67 5.51 0.69 0.237
2 1.67 5.72 0.68 0.249
3 1.67 5.10 0.73 0.224
4 3.67 10.42 0.75 0.207
5 3.67 10.81 1.12 0.263
6 3.67 10.64 0.77 0.217
Average coefficient µm 0.233

For each pair of friction surfaces used (PLA-PLA and PLA-Sandpaper), two tests were
carried out with different added masses on the sliding carriage. Each test with a different
mass was repeated three times to ensure the reliability of the results, which are shown
in Tables 2 and 3.

Table 3. Results of the critical slip experimental tests for PLA-sandpaper surfaces in contact.

Mass of Cart, Hanging Weight, Displacement Time, Calculated Coefficient

Test N◦
M (kg) P (N) ∆t (s) of Friction µc
1 1.67 11.59 0.64 0.629
2 1.67 11.85 0.67 0.657
3 1.67 12.52 0.65 0.691
4 3.67 27.20 0.61 0.673
5 3.67 26.98 0.78 0.700
6 3.67 22.31 0.67 0.672
Average coefficient µm 0.672
 until it exceeded its yield point (see Figures 11 and 13). For this test, the spring N° 5 of
Table 4 was used, which was designed assuming arbitrary values of the parameters L, e, s
and N (Figure 3b), but complying with the restrictions mentioned above for the parame-
ters a, B and d. This is because, a priori, the modulus of elasticity of the material and its
resistance to deformation in the linear elastic range was not known, which is sought to be
Buildings 2023, 13, 726 16 of 30
obtained with this test.
Figure 13 shows the results of the tensile-elongation test of the spring N°5, where two
curves corresponding to instantaneous load and stable loads can be observed. The first
3.2.
wasGeometric Spring Pattern
built by applying discrete displacement increments and measuring the load just after
the displacement was
In order to determine applied. The stable load
the parameters curve was
of resistance obtained
to tension considering
and deformation theof same
the
displacements imposed but measuring the load registered after 30 s of applying
PLA material at the limit of its linear elastic behavior, one of the five springs was tested the dis-
placement.
until It can be
it exceeded its seen
yieldinpoint
Figure 13Figures
(see that the 11
instantaneous
and 13). Forload thisand
test,the stable
the load
spring N◦are5
practically
of Table 4 wasthe same
used, in the zone
which was of linear elastic
designed behaviors
assuming of the
arbitrary material,
values of thethat is, up to
parameters
approximately
L, e, s and N (Figure40 N of applied
3b), force. Once
but complying withthethe
threshold is exceeded,
restrictions mentioned theabove
curvesfor show
the
noticeable differences,
parameters a, B and d. with
This force recorded
is because, in thethe
a priori, stable load curve
modulus being lower
of elasticity than
of the in the
material
instantaneous
and its resistanceloadto curve, the first
deformation in reaching
the linearup to 50.6
elastic N and
range wasthe
notsecond
known, upwhich
to 51.1
is N. This
sought
is because
to PLAwith
be obtained is a thermoplastic
this test. material and may show creep for near-failure load levels.

Figure 13.
Figure 13. Result of
of the
the tensile
tensile−elongation
−elongation test
test of
of spring N◦ 5until
spring N°5 untilfailure.
failure.

Table 4. Geometric design parameters of the springs built on a 3D printer with PLA.

Spring N◦ L (mm) e (mm) s (mm) N

1 21.45 0.8 0.50 8
2 22.60 0.9 0.85 7
3 28.65 1.6 0.85 5
4 23.35 1.4 0.50 6
5 22.60 0.9 0.85 7

Figure 13 shows the results of the tensile-elongation test of the spring N◦ 5, where
two curves corresponding to instantaneous load and stable loads can be observed. The
first was built by applying discrete displacement increments and measuring the load just
after the displacement was applied. The stable load curve was obtained considering the
same displacements imposed but measuring the load registered after 30 s of applying the
displacement. It can be seen in Figure 13 that the instantaneous load and the stable load
are practically the same in the zone of linear elastic behaviors of the material, that is, up
to approximately 40 N of applied force. Once the threshold is exceeded, the curves show
noticeable differences, with force recorded in the stable load curve being lower than in the
instantaneous load curve, the first reaching up to 50.6 N and the second up to 51.1 N. This
is because PLA is a thermoplastic material and may show creep for near-failure load levels.
The results shown in Figure 13 determined the experimental stiffness and elastic limit
load of the spring. The first was considered the slope of the stable load curve within the
linear elastic range. The elastic limit load of the spring was considered equal to 40 N, which
is where the beginning of the changes in the slopes of both curves or loss of linearity can
be seen.
The modulus of elasticity of the PLA material calculated with Equation (16) for the
sacrificial spring (N◦ 5), whose dimensions are indicated in Table 4, was E = 2183 N/mm2 .
Buildings 2023, 13, 726 17 of 30

( E)
In the calculation of E, the stiffness obtained experimentally Keq = 1.19 N/mm was used,
corresponding to the slope of the initial straight line of the stable load curve in Figure 13.
Equations (20) and (21) allowed us to determine the elastic limit deformation —εel — of
the PLA considering an elastic limit force F = 40 N, resulting in εel = 0.0131. With the
results mentioned above, and considering Equations (11) to (21) and the previous geometric
restrictions, the dimensions of springs 1 to 4 to be tested in the linear range were calculated
(Table 4).
The geometric sizing of spring N◦ 5—sacrificial spring—does not obey resistance or
stiffness calculations, and its dimensions were arbitrarily assigned in order to determine
the mechanical properties of the PLA material. The dimensions of springs 1 to 4 were
defined in order to obtain the stiffnesses in a wide range, considering the tensile capacity
(10 kg) and imposed stretching capacity (45 mm) of the machine designed and built on
a 3D printer to carry out the tests. It was considered that all the springs must resist
stretching umax = 30 mm without exceeding the admissible deformation equal to 75% of
the elastic limit deformation, that is, εadm = 0.75εel , according to the previously described
calculation methodology.
The maximum strain for verification of springs N◦ 1 to 4 was calculated with stresses
(T )
σ1max and σ2max (see Equations (17) and (18)) determined using Fmax given by Equation (19),
(T )
considering Keq from Equation (15), with E = 2183 N/mm2 determined for PLA (Table 5).
The deformation thus obtained was contrasted with the admissible deformation
εadm = 0.75εel = 0.0098.

Table 5. Mechanical and resistance parameters of the springs built in a 3D printer with PLA.

Spring N◦ K(T)
eq (N/mm) F(T)
max (N) σ1max (N/m2 ) σ2max (N/m2 ) εmax (1)

1 1.02 30.6 25.64 2749 0.0094

2 1.41 42.3 29.51 30.02 0.0103
3 5.36 160.9 44.99 36.12 0.0155
4 5.58 167.4 49.86 49.11 0.0171
(1) Calculated with Equation (21).

3.3. Tensile-Elongation Tests of the Springs

Each of the springs, whose geometry is described in Table 4, was tested under loading
and unloading until reaching a maximum displacement of 40 mm. This corresponds to
the maximum demand of 30 mm, reached with the maximum deformation allowed by
the dissipation device built in a 3D printer, divided by the reduction factor 0.75, or until
reaching the maximum capacity of 10 kg of the testing machine built in a 3D printer.
Figure 14 shows the results of the experimental stress-elongation tests for each spring
designed, including spring N◦ 5, tested in the elastic range before loading it to failure.
The results were separated by stable load and unload curves in order to identify the
experimental slopes corresponding to the stiffness of each elastic element. Curves with
steeper slopes correspond to the springs with greater stiffness.
In Figure 14, the stiffnesses of the loading and unloading curves were obtained as the
slope of the best equation of the fitted line by minimizing the sum of the squares of the
difference with respect to the experimentally measured data. In this figure, it can be seen
that the charge and discharge curves of individual springs are slightly different. Therefore,
the theoretical stiffness described by the analytical model given by Equation (15) only
considers a spring with a single stiffness. This stiffness was considered as the average of the
(c) (d)
stiffnesses in load, Kr , and in unloading, Kr , given by Equation (27), in order to compare
the analytical predictions of the stiffness of the individual spring with the experimental
values obtained with the indicated equation, as shown in Table 6.

1 (c) (d)
Kr = ( Kr + Kr ) (27)
2
 Figure 14 shows the results of the experimental stress-elongation tests for each spring de-
signed, including spring N° 5, tested in the elastic range before loading it to failure. The
results were separated by stable load and unload curves in order to identify the experi-
Buildings 2023, 13, 726 slopes corresponding to the stiffness of each elastic element. Curves with steeper
mental 18 of 30

slopes correspond to the springs with greater stiffness.

Figure 14. Results ofFigure

force-deformation tests of individual
14. Results of force-deformation springs.
tests The stable
of individual charge
springs. and discharge
The stable charge and discharge
curves are shown, with
curvesa 30
aresshown,
pause with
between
a 30 smeasured points.
pause between measured points.

In Figure 14, Table 6. Experimental

the stiffnesses stiffnessesand
of the loading at load, at unload,
unloading curvesaverage
wereand theoretical
obtained as the of individual
springs tested.
slope of the best equation of the fitted line by minimizing the sum of the squares of the
difference with respect to ◦the experimentally
Stiffness under measured data. InAverage
Unloading Stiff- this figure, it can be
Experimental seen Stiffness
Analytical
Spring N (c) (N/mm) (d) (N/mm) (T) (N/mm) (1)
that the charge and discharge curves Load Kr ness K Stiffness K (N/mm)
of individualr springs are slightly r different. There- K eq

1
fore, the theoretical stiffness described 0.82 by the analytical 0.84 model given by0.83 Equation (15) only1.02
2 1.13 1.19 1.16 1.41
considers a spring with 3 a single stiffness.
4.69 This stiffness4.82 was considered 4.75as the average of 5.36
𝑐) 𝑑)5.16
the stiffnesses in load,45 𝐾𝑟 , and in4.93 unloading,
1.11
𝐾 ,
𝑟 1.18 given by Equation 5.05
1.15
(27), in order to5.58
1.41
compare the analytical predictions
(1) Calculated of the stiffness of the individual spring with the exper-
with Equation (15), using the spring dimensions from Table 4 and the modulus of elasticity
imental values obtained with
E = 2183 MPa forthe indicated equation, as shown in Table 6.
the PLA.

3.4. Cyclic Load-Unload 𝑐) Device

𝑑)
𝐾𝑟Tests on
(𝐾the
𝑟 𝐾𝑟 ) (27)
2 Built in a 3D Printer
3.4.1. Tests Made on a Machine
Table 7 shows the results of the tests carried out with the assembly shown in Figure 10.
Table 6. Experimental stiffnesses
A total at load,with
of four devices at unload, average
different and theoretical
characteristics of individual
of the coefficient springs
of friction and stiffness
tested. of the elastic element were tested. This is because the indicated assembly has certain
limitations, one of them being that it can only measure a maximum tension of 10 kg. In
Spring Stiffness addition,
under the tension
Unloadingmarked by theAverage
Stiff-
Experi-
kitchen weight of the testing machine
Analytical Stiffnessbuilt on a 3D
mental Stiffness K
printer for the indicated assembly must be recorded on video. The
r forces for each discrete
N° Load Kr(c) (N/mm) ness Kr(d) (N/mm) Keq(T) (N/mm) (1)
displacement imposed in the deformation(N/mm) cycles must be extracted from the video. Given
1 these conditions, the0.84
0.82 with a stiffness of Kr =
device with a spring 0.83 5.05 N/mm was only
1.02
essayed up to a maximum of 27 mm of deformation.
2 1.13 1.19 1.16 1.41
3 4.69 4.82 4.75 5.36load tests in a machine
Table 7. Parameters of the forcing and the device in the execution of the cyclic
4 4.93
built on a 3D printer. 5.16 5.05 5.58
5 1.11 ◦ 1.18 1.15 1.41
Test N Width of Cycles, umax (mm) Average Coefficient of Friction, µm Spring Stiffness, Kr (N/mm)
(1) Calculated with Equation (15), using the spring dimensions from Table 4 and the modulus of
1A 6/20/34 0.233 1.16
elasticity E = 2183 MPa2A
for the PLA. 6/20/27 0.233 5.05
3A 6/20/34 0.672 1.16
4A 6/20/27 0.672 5.05
Buildings 2023, 13, 726 19 of 30

Figure 15 shows the experimental results of the four tests carried out on the device
in the machine built on a 3D printer. In the figure, each column of graphs represents the
device with the same spring but with a different coefficient of friction µ, being µ constant
in each row of graphs. It can be seen that when the force registered in the device increases,
the stiffness Kr of the elastic element inside it becomes higher. It can also be observed
that when increasing the friction coefficient, there is also an increase in the force, but the
increase is less than when increasing the stiffness. Furthermore, the higher the coefficient
of friction, the higher the energy dissipated by the device at the same spring stiffness. The
dissipated energy also increases with the increasing spring stiffness, keeping the coefficient
of friction constant. Consequently, the force with which the device responds and the energy
dissipated in a complete load-unload cycle depends on the rigidity of the elastic element
Buildings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW
and on the coefficient of friction. The dissipated energy increases exponentially, and 20 of 30
this
causes the displacement imposed on the device in the load-unload cycle to become greater.

Figure15.
Figure 15. Hysterical
Hysterical cycles
cycles of
of the
the device
device with
with two
two different
different friction
friction coefficients
coefficients and
and two
two different
different
stiffnesses made on a machine built into a 3D printer.
stiffnesses made on a machine built into a 3D printer.

3.4.2.
3.4.2. Tests
TestsMade
Madeon onaaMachine
MachinewithwiththetheElectromechanical
ElectromechanicalActuator
Actuator
With
With the experimental setup
the experimental setuppresented
presentedininFigure
Figure 12,12, a single
a single casing
casing of the
of the device
device was
was tested,
tested, but but
withwith
fourfour different
different springs
springs andandtwotwo different
different coefficients
coefficients of friction,
of friction, which
which re-
resulted
sulted inineight
eightdifferent
differenttests,
tests,whose
whoseparameters
parametersare are presented
presented in Table 8. 8. The stiffnesses
stiffnesses
of
of the springs and
the springs andcoefficients
coefficientsofoffriction
frictionwere
were obtained
obtained in the
in the samesame
mannermanner asthe
as for fortests
the
tests of the device in a machine built into a 3D printer, according to the
of the device in a machine built into a 3D printer, according to the methodology in Section 3.6methodology in
Section 2.6 and the results in Sections 3.1–3.3. The movement sequence
and the results in Sections 4.1–4.3. The movement sequence imposed by the actuator was imposed by the
actuator
ten cycleswas of ten cyclesand
loading of loading
unloading andof unloading of thetype,
the sawtooth sawtooth
with type, with an amplitude
an amplitude of 34 mm
of
and34amm and a deformation
deformation speed of 12speed of 12 mm/s.
mm/s.
Figure
Figure16 16shows
showsthe results
the of the
results experimental
of the experimentalteststests
carried out with
carried out the
with experimental
the experi-
setup
mental setup and instrumentation presented in Figure 12. In each graph, the teststhe
and instrumentation presented in Figure 12. In each graph, the tests with same
with the
coefficient of friction are presented but with different spring stiffnesses.
same coefficient of friction are presented but with different spring stiffnesses. From the From the results
obtained, the greater
results obtained, the stiffness
the greater of the elastic
the stiffness element
of the elastic or spring,
element the greater
or spring, the force
the greater the
provided by the device. This is visibly noticeable since each graph
force provided by the device. This is visibly noticeable since each graph presents curvespresents curves with
different inclinations
with different according
inclinations to thetostiffness
according of theofspring.
the stiffness the spring.It canIt also be seen
can also that that
be seen the
greater the coefficient of friction, the greater the force the device provides in the loading
the greater the coefficient of friction, the greater the force the device provides in the load-
branch. Regarding the energy dissipated in a load-unload cycle, the energy dissipated is
ing branch. Regarding the energy dissipated in a load-unload cycle, the energy dissipated
is proportional to the friction coefficient, and if this is increased, the energy dissipated by
the device in a complete cycle is greater. Furthermore, it can be seen that the dissipated
energy is also related to the stiffness of the elastic element inside the device, and if there
is a greater rigidity, the greater energy will be dissipated by the device. The foregoing is
consistent with what was observed in the results of the tests carried out on the machine
built on a 3D printer in the previous section.
 Buildings 2023, 13, 726 20 of 30

Buildings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW

proportional to the friction coefficient, and if this is increased, the energy dissipated by
the device in a complete cycle is greater. Furthermore, it can be seen that the dissipated
energy is also related to the stiffness of the elastic element inside the device, and if there
is a greater rigidity, the greater energy will be dissipated by the device. The foregoing is
Table 8. Parameters of the forcing device and the execution of the cyclical load tests in a
consistent with what was observed in the results of the tests carried out on the machine
withon
built ana electromechanical actuator,
3D printer in the previous commercial load and displacement sensors.
section.

Table
Cycle Deformation Am-
8. Parameters Average
of the forcing device and the execution of Coefficient
the cyclical loadof Fric-
tests Spring Stiff
in a machine
Test N°
plitude,
with an electromechanical umaxcommercial
actuator, (mm) load and displacement tion,sensors.
µm (N/mm
1B 34
Cycle Deformation Average Coefficient of0.233 Spring Stiffness, Kr 0.83
Test N◦
2B 34(mm)
Amplitude, umax Friction, µm 0.233 (N/mm) 1.16
1B3B 34 34 0.233 0.233 0.83 4.75
2B 34 0.233 1.16
3B4B 34 34 0.233 0.233 4.75 5.05
4B5B 34 34 0.233 0.672 5.05 0.83
5B 34 0.672 0.83
6B
6B 34
34 0.672
0.672 1.16
1.16
7B7B 34 34 0.672 0.672 4.75 4.75
8B 34 0.672 5.05
8B 34 0.672 5.05

Figure
Figure 16.16. Hysterical
Hysterical cycles cycles of the
of the device device
with with coefficients
two different two different coefficients
of friction of friction and
and four stiffnesses.
nesses.
The legendThe legend
shows showsstiffness
the spring the spring stiffness
kr within kr within
the device, theaverage
and the device,dissipated
and the average
energy EDdissipate
over a complete
ED over charge-discharge
a complete cycle.
charge-discharge cycle.
3.5. Comparison of the Analytical and Experimental Results
3.5.The
Comparison of the
experimental Analytical
results and Experimental
of the cyclic Results
load-unload tests on the device, shown in
SectionThe
3.4, were compared with the numerical predictions.
experimental results of the cyclic load-unload For thetests
above,
onthe analytical
the device, show
model of the device defined by Equation (10) was used, with the coefficients
Section 3.4, were compared with the numerical predictions. For the above, of friction and the a
stiffnesses of springs determined experimentally in Sections 3.1 and 3.3, respectively. The
model of the device defined by Equation (10) was used, with the coefficients o
experimental results in Sections 3.1 and 3.3 are independent of the results of the cyclic load-
and stiffnesses
unload tests of the of springs
device shown determined
in Section 3.4.experimentally
These tests—Sectionsin Sections
3.1 and 3.1 and 3.3, resp
3.3 versus
The experimental
Section resultsand,
3.4—are double-blind in Sections 3.1 and
therefore, allow the 3.3 are independent
analytical formulation ofof the
the results of t
device
toload-unload
be validated with its experimental results. The comparison of the experimental
tests of the device shown in Section 3.4. These tests—Sections 3.1 and results
and analytical predictions are only shown for load-unload cycles of greater amplitude in
sus Section 3.4—are double-blind and, therefore, allow the analytical formulatio
each of the tests carried out.
device to be validated with its experimental results. The comparison of the expe
results and analytical predictions are only shown for load-unload cycles of greate
tude in each of the tests carried out.
The experimental results from Section 3.4 are shown in Figure 17, superimpo
the respective analytical predictions, calculated as above. In the figure, the area
by each curve corresponds to the energy dissipated by the device in the load-unlo
Buildings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 22 of 30

Buildings 2023, 13, 726 21 of 30

overestimates the dissipation capacity of the device for larger friction coefficients and un-
derestimates it for lower friction coefficients. This may be due to the fact that the rough-
nessThe
of theexperimental
surface covered resultswithfromsandpaper
Section 3.4isare veryshown
high,inandFigure
there17,is superimposed
a mechanical bond
with the respective analytical predictions, calculated as above. In the figure, the area
that leads to Coulomb friction—friction force proportional to the product between the
enclosed by each curve corresponds to the energy dissipated by the device in the load-
friction coefficient and normal force—is not a good approximation in this case. Due to the
unload cycle. It can be seen that these areas, although they are not the same between the
above, Equation (26)—which uses individual test results calculated with Equation (25)—
experimental and analytical results, are similar and follow the same trend. That is, the
may not
greater thebestiffness
a good of estimator
the spring, of the
the effective
greater the coefficient
force withofwhich
frictionthebetween surfaces. An-
device responds,
other
as wellpossible explanation
as the greater the energy for the differences
dissipation between
in one cycle.the analytical predictions
Furthermore, the dissipated and ex-
energy increases when the coefficient of friction between the sliding surfaces increases. sur-
perimental results is that the items used in the test in Section 3.1 are not flat, smooth
faces.the
Also, Instead, these
greatest elementsbetween
differences have perforations
the analytical to allow
modeltheand fastening of the interchange-
the experimental tests
able frictional
occur elements
for the highest (Figureof8b).
coefficient TheseThese
friction. holesdifferences
could have areridges that to
attributed could generate
the fact
that the analytical
mechanical bindingmodel
that overestimates
would lead tothe dissipation capacity
an overestimation of theofcoefficient
the deviceof forfriction.
larger This
friction
would coefficients and underestimates
lead to analytical results that itwouldfor lower friction coefficients.
overestimate the energy Thisdissipation
may be duecapacity
to
the fact that the roughness of the surface covered with sandpaper is
by using a friction coefficient higher than that corresponding to the sliding surfaces of thevery high, and there
is a mechanical
device tested inbondSectionthat3.4,leads to Coulomb
where the surfaces friction—friction
are flat. force proportional to the
product between the friction coefficient and normal force—is not a good approximation in
The shapes of the load-displacement curves and the dissipated energy—area en-
this case. Due to the above, Equation (26)—which uses individual test results calculated
closed between the charge-discharge curves—are similar between the experimental tests
with Equation (25)—may not be a good estimator of the effective coefficient of friction
and the analytical predictions of the device. The greatest difference between the two
between surfaces. Another possible explanation for the differences between the analytical
groups of curves
predictions is observedresults
and experimental between the the
is that discharge branches,
items used in the this
test difference
in Section 3.1 beingare more
noticeable
not at the
flat, smooth beginning
surfaces. of the
Instead, discharge.
these elements This
have can be attributed
perforations to thethe
to allow friction
fasteningbetween
thethe
of pieces of the device,
interchangeable whichelements
frictional are slightly different
(Figure fromholes
8b). These thosecould
that have
the analytical
ridges thatmodel
considers.
could generateThemechanical
physical device binding included
that would “rings-shape heads” installed
lead to an overestimation on coefficient
of the the load trans-
mission
of friction.cylindrical
This would shaft thattointeract
lead analytical with the clamps
results (Figure
that would 6b). However,
overestimate in the ana-
the energy
dissipation
lytical model, capacity
the loadby using
transfer a friction
occurscoefficient higher than
directly between that corresponding
the cylindrical axis and to thethe
clamps
sliding
(elementssurfaces of the
(5) and (3) device
in Figure tested
1a).in Section 3.4, where the surfaces are flat.

Figure17.
Figure 17.Comparison
Comparison between
between thethe theoretical
theoretical model
model and experimental
and experimental resultsresults of the dissipa-
of the energy energy dissi-
pation
tion device
device for afor a PLA-PLA
PLA-PLA contact
contact surface.
surface.

The
Fromshapes of the load-displacement
the experimental results andcurves and the
analytical dissipatedshown
predictions energy—area enclosed
in Figure 17, the en-
between the charge-discharge curves—are similar between the experimental tests and
ergy dissipated in each of the tests was determined. It corresponds to the area enclosed the
analytical predictions of the device. The greatest difference between the
between the charge and discharge curves and was determined using the command two groups of
curves is observed between the discharge branches, this difference being more noticeable at
trapz(X, Y) in the Matlab software. This command performs a numerical integration using
the beginning of the discharge. This can be attributed to the friction between the pieces of
Simpson’s rule, which evaluates the area between two discrete points, considering a
the device, which are slightly different from those that the analytical model considers. The
straight line between them. Table 9 shows the calculated results of the energy dissipated
by the device in each experimental test, as well as its equivalent analytical prediction, in-
dicating the maximum displacement amplitude with which they were obtained. With the
data shown in the table, it can be confirmed that in the experimental tests with sliding
between PLA–PLA, the device behaves more similarly to the analytical prediction than in
Buildings 2023, 13, 726 22 of 30

physical device included “rings-shape heads” installed on the load transmission cylindrical
shaft that interact with the clamps (Figure 6b). However, in the analytical model, the load
transfer occurs directly between the cylindrical axis and the clamps (elements (5) and (3)
in Figure 1a).
From the experimental results and analytical predictions shown in Figure 17, the
energy dissipated in each of the tests was determined. It corresponds to the area en-
closed between the charge and discharge curves and was determined using the command
trapz(X, Y) in the Matlab software. This command performs a numerical integration using
Simpson’s rule, which evaluates the area between two discrete points, considering a straight
line between them. Table 9 shows the calculated results of the energy dissipated by the
device in each experimental test, as well as its equivalent analytical prediction, indicating
the maximum displacement amplitude with which they were obtained. With the data
shown in the table, it can be confirmed that in the experimental tests with sliding between
PLA–PLA, the device behaves more similarly to the analytical prediction than in the case
of sliding between PLA-Sandpaper. Table 9 also shows the relative error, ε e , between the
dissipated energy determined experimentally, eexp , and the corresponding one calculated
analytically, ean , defined as:  
ean − eexp 
εe = 100% (28)
ean

Table 9. Dissipated energy values were calculated with the experimental results and the analyti-
cal models.

Maximum
Average Coefficient Experimental Theoretical Relative
Test N◦ Amplitude,
of Friction, µm Energy (J) Energy (J) Error (%)
umax (mm)
1 0.233 34 0.126 0.108 16.6
2 0.233 34 0.141 0.129 9.3
3 0.233 34 0.521 0.501 4
4 0.233 34 0.589 0.551 6.9
5 0.672 34 0.178 0.229 22.3
6 0.672 34 0.255 0.316 19.3
7 0.672 34 0.707 1.289 45.15
8 0.672 34 0.869 1.352 35.72

It must be taken into account that the experimental results shown in Figure 17 and
Table 9 were made in a model built in PLA material in a 3D printer. In other words, it is not
a prototype for use in real structures. In continuation of this line of research, the authors of
this paper are working on designing and constructing a functional prototype for use in the
seismic protection of industrial storage racks. The preliminary experimental results of the
prototype have a much better fit with the numerical model. These results allow us to infer
that the relatively large errors observed in Table 9 are not attributed to the analysis model
but to the characteristics and materiality of the prototype built on a 3D printer. Despite
the above, the results below mark a clear trend and indicate that, in general terms, the
proposed device behaves as the analysis model predicts.
Table 9 shows all the tests carried out, but Figure 17 only shows half of them. This is
because, with the figure, we only wanted to show the tendency that the curves show when
changing the stiffness and the coefficient of friction.

3.6. Device Differentiation with the Existing Technologies

This section shows a comparison of attributes of a group of 7 energy dissipation
devices, considering the one proposed here, for their use in the seismic protection of
structures. Each device has been cataloged with a code from D0 to D6 to cite in Table 10,
which shows the summary of the comparison made. Each device is described below in
terms of its operation, attributes and bibliographical reference.
Buildings 2023, 13, 726 23 of 30

D1: Most common Metal Creep Devices such as the TADAS, described by Tsai et al. [12],
the honeycomb damper proposed by Kobori et al. [13], and the one proposed by Behkam-
Rad et al. [24]. These heatsinks lack an autonomous self-centering system. They work in
one direction but not in both directions. They require a minimal activation force—yield
force—to achieve energy dissipation. After a severe earthquake, they must be inspected
to verify that there is no material fatigue or severe damage. If the above is detected,
the device must be completely changed. This device can be manufactured by a metal-
working company.

Table 10. Comparison of the attributes of the proposed device with those described in the literature.

Devices
Attributes (1)
D0 (2) D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6
Bibliographic reference [12,13,24] [15–17,28] [20,21,27] [22,23,25] [26,32,33] [34]
Wich is the way of dissipation?
F FM VE FV F F FM
(FV, VE, FM, F) (3)
self-centering capability? (1) 1 0 0 0 0 1 1
Usable in prestressed cables? (4) 1 0 0 0 0 0 1
Requires activation force? (4) 1 0 1 1 0 1 1
Energy dissipated increases
1 1 0 0 0 1 1
quadratic to displacement? (4)
Fatigue is local or global? (4*) 1 0 1 1 1 1 1
Maintenance requires
1 1 0 0 1 1 1
qualified personnel? (4)
Manufacturing in
1 1 0 0 1 1 NC (5)
metalworking industry? (4)
Total 7 3 2 2 3 6 6
(1)It is called “1” when the attribute is favorable and “0” when it is unfavorable, in order to add the points per
device. (2) Device proposed in this investigation. (3) FV: Viscous fluid flow, VE: Viscoelastic, FM: Metal creep,
F: Frictional. (4) Yes: 1, No: 0; (4*) Local: 1, Global: 0. (5) Not conclusive.

D2: Devices that dissipate by deformation of a viscoelastic material. Some of them are
the ones proposed by Wang et al. [15], Chang et al. [16], Lai et al. [17] and Aiken [28]. They
are characterized by their dependence on the strain rate. They lack a self-centering system,
but they do not oppose resistance to the structure so that they return to their original
position. They can work in both load directions and do not require a minimum activation
force. However, they must be inspected to verify that there is no loss of viscoelastic material
or severe damage after an earthquake. If damage is determined, they must be changed by
the companies in charge of the manufacture.
D3: Devices that dissipate by the flow of a viscous fluid. They are those of Lee et al. [20],
Sorace et al. [21], and Li et al. [27]. They are characterized by depending on the speed of
excitation to dissipate energy. They lack self-centering, but they do not oppose resistance to
the structure so that they return to their original position. They can work in compression
or traction equally. They must be inspected to verify that there is no loss of fluid after a
severe earthquake. If damage is detected, it must be changed by the companies in charge of
the manufacture.
D4: Devices that dissipate by the frictions between two or more surfaces. Some of
them are those of Dai et al. [22] and Lee et al. [23,25]. They are characterized by not
depending on the excitation speed to dissipate energy but on the displacement. They lack
self-centering and can resist the structure so that they return to their original position. They
can work in both load directions and require a minimum activation force. After a severe
earthquake, they must be verified that there is no excessive wear of the materials. If there
is some wear, the contact surface can be changed, which is easily manufactured by metal-
mechanic companies.
Buildings 2023, 13, 726 24 of 30

D5: Devices that dissipate via the frictions between two or more surfaces and add
a component that allows self-centering. Some of them are those of Wang et al. [26],
Veismoradi et al. [32] and Westenenk [33]. They are characterized by not depending on the
excitation speed to dissipate energy but only on the displacement. They can work in both
load directions and require a minimum activation force. After a severe earthquake, it must
be verified that there is no excessive wear of the materials. If there is some wear, the contact
surface can be changed, which is easily manufactured by metal-mechanic companies.
D6: Device that dissipates by deforming a metal with shape memory, which gives it
the ability to self-center. It was proposed by Gao et al. [34] and can be implemented with
cross-bracing cables. The damper dissipates proportionally to the deformation and does
not require an activation force for its operation. After a severe earthquake, the fatigue of
the material must be verified, and, in such a case, the metal ring must be changed carefully.
As shown in Table 10, the device proposed here differs from a state-of-the-art device
in several aspects. It has comparative advantages with respect to the existing technologies,
and the idea of a dissipator has the potential to be implemented in seismic protection and
rehabilitation of structures.

3.7. Discussion, Attributes and Application of the Proposed Dissipator

An energy dissipation device by friction that works in tension and has a self-centering
capacity, whose design is original by the authors, is presented in this investigation. The
device was thought to be used in structures to control vibrations produced by dynamic
loads such as earthquakes.
It must be noted that the experimental results presented in this paper correspond to a
prototype built in PLA material in a 3D printer. Therefore, it does not have the resistance
nor the dissipation capacity to be used in real structures. The objective of the experimental
tests presented here points to two aspects. The first is to verify that the device has the
attributes expected of it based on its conceptual model, that is, to verify the proof of concept.
The second is to verify that the simplified analytical model of the device reproduces its
experimental behavior with relative fidelity.
The expected attributes of the device are (1) self-centering capability and (2) energy
dissipation capability that increases in approximately quadratic proportion with strain
demand. The first attribute was satisfactorily fulfilled since the tested device was able to
recover its original shape without permanent deformations (Figures 15 and 16). It was also
possible to verify the second attribute, which is not so evident, but it can be demonstrated
by analyzing the information of the legends in Figure 15, which are summarized in Table 11
and Figure 18.

Table 11. Energy dissipation capacity of the device was tested on a machine built on a 3D printer for
different amplitudes of the imposed deformation, friction coefficient and spring stiffness.

Amplitude Spring Stiffness, Kr Energy Dissipated,

Test N◦ Av. coeff. of Friction µm
umax (mm) (N/mm) ED (mJ)
6 0.233 1.16 7
1A 20 0.233 1.16 79
34 0.233 1.16 184
6 0.233 5.05 24
2A 20 0.233 5.05 177
27 0.233 5.05 276
6 0.672 1.16 17
3A 20 0.672 1.16 116
34 0.672 1.16 271
6 0.672 5.05 31
4A 20 0.672 5.05 257
27 0.672 5.05 416
 Amplitude Av. coeff. of Friction Spring Stiffness, Energy Dissip
Test N°
umax (mm) µm Kr (N/mm) (mJ)
6 0.233 1.16 7
Buildings 2023, 13, 726 1A 20 0.233 1.16 25 of 30 79
34 0.233 1.16 184
6 0.233 5.05 24
Figure 18 clarifies that the energy dissipation capacity of the device follows a non-linear
2A
relationship with the20displacement amplitude 0.233in the load-unload cycle.
5.05 This relationship 177
27 behavior. It is also0.233
approaches a quadratic 5.05 can be increased 276
noted that the dissipated energy
in the device by increasing
6 the coefficient of
0.672 friction and by increasing
1.16 the stiffness of 17
the spring within the device. The coefficient of friction between two surfaces assumes
3A bounded20values, so the increase
physically 0.672
in dissipation capacity1.16
that can be achieved 116
34
by increasing it is limited. However, the 0.672
stiffness of the spring can1.16
be as great as desired, 271
depending on the application
6 for which0.672
the device is used. Therefore,
5.05 the attributes of 31
the proposed device are easily scalable in resistance and energy dissipation capacity by
3A 20 0.672 5.05
increasing the stiffness of the spring inside. This makes the proposed device versatile and
257
can be implemented27 0.672
in various applications. 5.05 416
Buildings 2023, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 26 of 30

Figure 18 clarifies that the energy dissipation capacity of the device follows a non-
linear relationship with the displacement amplitude in the load-unload cycle. This rela-
tionship approaches a quadratic behavior. It is also noted that the dissipated energy can
be increased in the device by increasing the coefficient of friction and by increasing the
stiffness of the spring within the device. The coefficient of friction between two surfaces
assumes physically bounded values, so the increase in dissipation capacity that can be
achieved by increasing it is limited. However, the stiffness of the spring can be as great as
desired, depending on the application for which the device is used. Therefore, the attrib-
utes
Figureof18.
theEnergy
proposed device
dissipated in are easily scalable
the complete in resistance
load-unload cycles forand energy
different dissipation
deformation capac-
amplitudes,
ity by increasing
spring stiffnesses andthefriction
stiffness of the spring inside. This makes the proposed device versa-
coefficients.
tile and can be implemented in various applications.
Because the
Because thedevice
deviceworks
worksonly onlyin in tension,
tension, to effective
to be be effective in protecting
in protecting structures
structures sub-
subjected
jected to cyclical
to cyclical vibrations,
vibrations, it must
it must bebe pre-tensioned.Considering
pre-tensioned. Consideringthe theabove,
above,itit can
can be
implemented in
implemented in post-tensioned
post-tensioned diagonal
diagonal bracing
bracing ofof structural
structural frames,
frames, such
such as in bracing
towers of industrial storage racks of the selective type (Figure 19).
of industrial storage racks of the selective type (Figure 19). In this In this case,case,
it is required
it is re-
that in the same span, there are two post-tensioned diagonals bracing,
quired that in the same span, there are two post-tensioned diagonals bracing, each each with an energy
with
dissipation
an device. The device.
energy dissipation arrangement can be similarcan
The arrangement to the
be one presented
similar to the byoneSorace et al. [25]
presented by
for his et
Sorace energy
al. [25]dissipation
for his energydevice (Figuredevice
dissipation 20a). This
(Figurehas20a).
the This
advantage
has thethat it makes
advantage thatit
possible
it makes to take advantage
it possible of the attributes
to take advantage of the device
of the attributes mentioned
of the above, inabove,
device mentioned addition in
to increasing
addition the energy
to increasing dissipation
the energy capacity
dissipation for small
capacity deformations.
for small deformations.In Figure 20b,20b,
In Figure the
characteristic hysteresis curve for the arrangement of Figure 20a is shown,
the characteristic hysteresis curve for the arrangement of Figure 20a is shown, calculated calculated with
the analytical
with model
the analytical of Section
model 2.2, considering
of Section the contributions
2.2, considering of theoftwo
the contributions thedevices.
two devices.

Figure
Figure 19.
19. Example
Example ofof aa selective
selective type
type industrial
industrial storage
storage rack
rack structure,
structure, with
with post-tensioned
post-tensioned bracing
bracing
diagonals (cables) that include the proposed dissipation
diagonals (cables) that include the proposed dissipation device.device.

u v0 umax -umax -v0

Fu v1 Fu
v1=-u v2 =u
F F2
Buildings 2023, 13, 726 26 of 30

As seen in Figure 20b, a potentiated effect is achieved by including in flexible frames

the combined action of two prestressed devices such as the one proposed here. The
result is a macro-device that dissipates a greater amount of energy, even for low levels
of imposed deformation. It has a self-centering capacity and provides additional rigidity
to the structural system. The last two attributes allow for reducing residual story drifts,
Figure 19. Example of a selective type industrial storage rack structure, with post-tensioned bracing
having the(cables)
diagonals potential
thatto enhance
include the overall
the proposed structural
dissipation resilience [37].
device.

u v0 umax -umax -v0

Fu v1 Fu
v1=-u v2 =u
F1 F2
F1
F2 -v0 -umax umax v0 u

V0: post-stressing deformation

: Dissipation device
-v0 -umax umax v0 v2
(a) (b)
Figure20.
Figure 20.Practical
Practicaluse
useofofthe
theproposed
proposedenergy
energy dissipation
dissipation device.
device. (a)(a) Arrangement
Arrangement of two
of two devices
devices in
in series, (b) Characteristic hysteresis curves of each device and of the set, in a complete load−unload
series, (b) Characteristic hysteresis curves of each device and of the set, in a complete load−unload cycle.
cycle.
The authors are beginning to research the design and construction of a functional
prototype made of steel for use in the seismic protection of industrial storage racks. The
preliminary experimental results of the prototype have a much better fit with the numerical
model than here. These results allow us to infer that the relatively large errors observed in
Table 9 are not attributed to the analysis model but to the characteristics and materiality
of the prototype built in a 3D printer. Despite the above, the results presented mark a
clear trend and indicate that, in general terms, the proposed device behaves as the analysis
model predicts.

4. Conclusions
In this investigation, a novel device for dissipating energy by friction with self-
centering capacity, originally designed by the co-authors of this article for its use in the
control of vibrations in structures, was presented. A conceptual model of the device was
presented, which describes its fundamental components. An analytical model for the
mechanical characterization of the device was formulated, based on the mechanical equi-
librium of it and its components, considering the interaction between them in a deformed
condition with large displacements.
A modular prototype of the proposed device was designed and built in a 3D printer
with PLA material. This device allows the exchange of the frictional element and the elastic
element inside it. This makes it possible to modify the coefficient of friction between the
sliding parts and the rigidity of the elastic component of the device, being able to obtain
different versions of the device. A theoretical design of the elastic element constituting the
device was carried out, which was validated by means of experimental stress-elongation
tests that allowed for determining its effective rigidity. The friction coefficients between
two pairs of sliding surfaces, PLA-PLA and PLA-Lija, were also experimentally determined.
This allowed the assembly of eight dissipation devices with different characteristics, which
were subsequently tested and experimentally subjected to charge-discharge cycles with
different displacement amplitudes. The experimental results were contrasted with the
analytical predictions that used the results of stiffnesses and friction coefficients previ-
ously determined. The foregoing is in order to perform a validation of the double-blind
analytical model.
Buildings 2023, 13, 726 27 of 30

Based on the results above, it was possible to determine that the device behaves
experimentally in the way the analytical model predicts it, being capable of self-centering
and dissipating energy proportionally to the imposed displacement. The behavior trends
of the device response in terms of force and energy dissipated in a charge-discharge cycle
are consistent between the experimental results and the analytical predictions. It was
determined that the greater the rigidity of the elastic element, the greater the force with
which the device responds and the greater its energy dissipation capacity. This dissipation
capacity is also amplified by increasing the coefficient of friction between the sliding
surfaces subjected to friction. It was possible to verify that the energy dissipated in a charge-
discharge cycle increases significantly as the maximum imposed displacement increases.
This is because a greater displacement leads to a greater force reaction by the device, which
also increases the normal force between the sliding surfaces subjected to friction. This, in
conjunction with the increase in slip with the increase in imposed displacement, causes
the dissipated energy to increase approximately in a quadratic proportion to the imposed
displacement amplitude.
In general, the design of the proposed device meets the energy dissipation expectations
predicted in the conceptual model, the experimental results being consistent with the
analytical predictions. The device showed great potential for structural applications and
vibration control of mechanical systems.

5. Patents
The technology presented in this research has intellectual property protection through
patent application N◦ PCT/IB2022/057524, dated 12 August 2022, and filed at the WIPO In-
ternational Office, by the UNIVERSIDAD CATÓLICA DE LA SANTÍSIMA CONCEPCIÓN,
with the title: ENERGY DISSIPATER FOR TRACTION LOADS.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, N.M.-C. and E.B.-C.; methodology, N.M.-C.; software,

E.B.-C.; validation, E.B.-C., M.S.-C. and C.S.; formal analysis, C.S. and M.S.-C.; investigation, M.S.-C.;
resources, E.N.; data curation, N.M.-C.; writing—original draft preparation, N.M.-C., E.B.-C. and
M.S.-C.; writing—review and editing, Á.R.-V. and E.N.; visualization, Á.R.-V.; supervision, E.N.;
project administration, N.M.-C.; funding acquisition, E.B.-C. and N.M.-C. All authors have read and
agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the “ANID VIU project”, grant number “VIU21P0091”, titled
“Development of a frictional energy dissipator with self-centering capacity for seismic protection of
structures”; and the “Scientific Equipment Maintenance Fund”, grant number “DI-FME 08/2021”,
granted by the Research Directorate of the Universidad Católica de la Santísima Concepción, Con-
cepción, Chile.
Data Availability Statement: The data are not publicly available due to institutional policy.
Acknowledgments: The authors are grateful for the contributions of the “Emprende UCSC 2021
Fund”, grant number “04/2021” of the Innovation Directorate of the Universidad Católica de la
Santísima Concepción, Concepción, Chile.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Nomenclature

Distance between the pivot of the caliper and the pivot of the connecting rod
a
against the caliper of the device (mm),
0 Length of the portion of the “accordion spring” of the device, attached to
a
the load-transmitting element (mm),
b Average width of the device measured between centers of rotation of its clamps (mm),
0 Length of the undeformed device, measured between the fixed e
b
nd and the pivots of its clamps (mm),
Depth of the spring of the device, measured perpendicular to the
B
plane of deformation (mm).
Buildings 2023, 13, 726 28 of 30

Distance between the pivot of the clamps and the point of action of
c(u)
the normal load and friction (mm).
e Wall thickness of device spring corrugations (mm).
E Modulus of elasticity (N/mm2 ),
F(u) Force product of displacement or imposed on the device (N),
(T )
Fmax Theoretical maximum force calculated for each spring using the analytical equations (N),
FN Normal force (N),
FR Friction force (N),
FE Elastic force (N),
g Gravity acceleration (9810 mm/s2 ),
I Flexural inertia of the cross section (mm4 ),
Kr Spring stiffness inside the device (N/mm),
K1 Stiffness of half a corrugation of length L of the theoretical spring (N/mm),
K2 Theoretical spring support stiffness (N/mm),
(1/2)
Keq Theoretical equivalent stiffness of half the spring (N/mm),
(T )
Keq Spring stiffness calculated theoretically (N/mm),
( E)
Keq Experimentally determined spring stiffness (N/mm),
(c)
Kr Experimental stiffness of the load curve of a spring (N/mm),
(d)
Kr Experimental stiffness of the unloading curve of a spring (N/mm),
Length of the rigid connecting rods that connect the spring with the clamps of
l
the device (mm),
Length of the undulations of the spring, measured perpendicular to the imposed
L
deformation (mm),
Lg Length of the straight part of the clamp of the device measured up to its pivot (mm).
M Mass (kg),
N Number of undulations of the spring of the device on each side of its longitudinal axis,
P External gravitational load (N),
s Separation between undulations of the spring of the device (mm),
Ss Spring length between its supports in undeformed condition of the device (mm),
u Displacement applied to the device (mm),
ue Deformation or elongation of the spring inside the device (mm),
ü Acceleration (mm/s2 ),
θ Rotation of device clamps due to u imposed deformation (◦ ),
β Rotation of device connecting rods due to u imposed deformation (◦ ),
σ1max Maximum stress of half an undulation of length L of the spring (N/mm2 ),
σ2max Maximum effort that a support support of the spring of length ‘a’ has (N/mm2 ),
σmax Maximum stress in the spring material defined at imposed elongation (N/mm2 ),
ε max Maximum deformation in the spring material due to imposed elongation,
∆u Travel or displacement (mm),
∆t Elapsed time (s),
µc Kinematic friction coefficient,
µm Average kinematic coefficient of friction.

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