Computers and Geotechnics 158 (2023) 105377

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Computers and Geotechnics

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/compgeo

An analytical solution for consolidation of soils with stone columns and

vertical drains by considering the deformation of stone columns
Chuanxun Li a, *, Xiangzong Lu a, Wenbing Wu b, Guoxiong Mei c
a
Department of Civil Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu 212013, PR China
b
Faculty of Engineering, Engineering Research of Center of Rock-Soil Drilling ＆ Excavation and Protection, Ministry of Education, China University of Geosciences,
Wuhan, Hubei 430074, PR China
c
Ocean College, Zhejiang University, Zhoushan, Zhejiang 316021, PR China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The composite foundation reinforced by stone columns and vertical drains is widely used in various projects.
Stone columns However, available calculation methods for such consolidation are rarely reported in the literature. Firstly, a set
Vertical drains of basic equations are proposed to describe the seepage relations among stone columns, vertical drains, and soft
Composite foundation
soils in this study. Then, the governing consolidation equation, in which the average total excess pore water
Consolidation
Analytical solution
pressure (EPWP) serves as a variable, is derived by considering the deformation of stone columns during
consolidation under the assumption of equal strain conditions. Moreover, the analytical solution for the
consolidation equation is obtained by the method of separation of variables, and its reliability is verified by
degenerating into the solution for the consolidation of composite foundations reinforced by stone columns and
comparing it with the field measurements. Finally, a parametric study is performed to investigate the consoli­
dation behavior. The results show that the consolidation rate can be significantly increased by installing vertical
drains between the stone columns compared to reducing the column spacing; for some composite foundations
reinforced by stone columns with a high ratio of replacement, the deformation of columns during consolidation
cannot be ignored; the smear effect caused by vertical drains can be ignored in such composite foundations.

columns mainly exhibits swelling destruction under external loads,

which leads to its bearing capacity mainly depending on the strength of
1. Introduction
the surrounding soils. Additionally, the vertical drainage path provided
by stone columns can accelerate the consolidation of soils, hence
Several ground consolidation techniques have been widely used to
improving the early strength of soils around columns. On this basis, it is
accelerate the consolidation or enhance the strength of soft soil deposits
of great theoretical and practical significance to study the consolidation
around the world, including drainage consolidation methods (Samar­
theory of composite foundations reinforced by stone columns.
akoon and McCartney, 2023), chemical consolidation methods (Lei
The consolidation theory of composite foundations reinforced by
et al., 2019; Pu et al., 2020), mechanical compaction methods (Bernaud
stone columns basically followed the classical consolidation theory of
et al., 2006), and composite foundations reinforced by various columns
drain wells originally. Moreover, consideration of the stress concentra­
(Voottipruex et al., 2011; Yang et al., 2014; Zhang et al., 2022; Zhu
tion effect of columns was a fresh start in the consolidation theory of
et al., 2022).
composite foundations reinforced by stone columns (Yoshikuni 1979).
As a classical drainage consolidation method, prefabricated vertical
Then, many studies were conducted on the basis of various factors as
drains (PVDs) are popular and widely implemented due to their
regards the smearing effect of soils (Zhang et al., 2006a; Xie et al.,
simplicity and economy (Chai et al., 2020; Geng and Yu, 2017; Nguyen
2009a), the nonlinear and viscoelastic properties (Hu 2013), different
et al., 2020). However, the bearing capacity of soils with PVDs cannot be
surcharge load forms (Lei et al., 2016; Wang 2009), the deformation of
greatly improved, and stability failure occurs during construction
columns (Castro and Sagaseta, 2009; Castro and Sagaseta 2011; Xie
(Zhang and Li, 2000). Therefore, stone columns are often adopted to
et al., 2009b), the free strain of the soft soil ground (Doan and Fatahi,
improve the consolidation rate and strength of saturated or partially
2020; Doan and Fatahi, 2021), the partial or time-dependent drainage
saturated soil deposits. The composite foundation reinforced by stone

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: lichuanxun@yeah.net (C. Li), 2222123020@stmail.ujs.edu.cn (X. Lu), zjuwwb1126@163.com (W. Wu).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compgeo.2023.105377
Received 13 December 2022; Received in revised form 17 February 2023; Accepted 1 March 2023
Available online 10 March 2023
0266-352X/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
C. Li et al.
Nomenclature
Ep compression modulus of the stone column
Es compression modulus of the soft soil layers
Esp compression modulus of the composite foundation
H thickness of the penetrated soft soil layers as well as the
column length
kh horizontal permeability coefficient of undisturbed zone
kp vertical permeability coefficient of stone columns
ks1 horizontal permeability coefficient of disturbed zone
caused by the stone column
ks2 horizontal permeability coefficient of disturbed zone
caused by vertical drains
kw vertical permeability coefficient of vertical drains
m1 ratio of rp2 to re2
m2 ratio of rd2 to re2
n equivalent quantity of vertical drains
r horizontal coordinate
rd distance from center of the column to the internal
boundary of the permeable wall
re radius of the influencing zone of each stone column
rp radius of the stone column
boundaries (Chen et al., 2021; Zhou et al., 2017), and the optimization
of drainage holes for permeable piles (Xiao et al., 2022). What’s more,
considering that stone columns with a high displacement rate possess a
large column diameter and the nonnegligible radial seepage in the col­
umn body, scholars established a more rigorous consolidation theory of
the composite foundation reinforced by stone columns under the
assumption of equal strain (Lu et al., 2017a; Zhang et al., 2012). In
addition to the above studies, advances have been made in the consol­
idation theory of unsaturated soils improved with various columns
(Wang et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2022; Wijerathna et al., 2017; Zhang
et al., 2021).
However, the single-column composite foundations cannot meet the
need of some practice projects for a short construction time and a high
bearing capacity of the foundation. Therefore, the multiple-column
composite foundations have been widely applied in various fields in
recent years, including the high-rise buildings, bridge construction and
expressway. Moreover, related illustrations for multiple-column com­
posite foundations have been added to the technical code for composite
foundations in China (GB/T 50783-2012). In addition, great progress
has been made in the calculation of the average consolidation degree of
multiple-column composite foundations, including the consolidation of
composite foundations reinforced by impervious columns and vertical
drains (Lu et al., 2018a; Zhang et al., 2015; Ye et al., 2015).
Nevertheless, only one type of vertical drainage body exists in
consolidation models for multiple-column composite foundations so far
(Lu et al., 2017b; Yu et al., 2020). Additionally, a new foundation
treatment method has been developed in recent years, which is to install
PVDs between stone columns in the composite foundation. For example,
the soft soil at Chengdu Tianfu International Airport is improved by
using such technology (Wu et al., 2018). Two advantages of this com­
posite foundation are as follows: Firstly, compared with the single-
column composite foundation, installing vertical drains between col­
umns can further shorten the radial drainage distance of pore water to
improve the bearing capacity of soils in the early term. Secondly,
compared with the single drainage consolidation method of traditional
infilled PVDs, stone columns effectively enhance the final bearing ca­
pacity of the composite foundation. Moreover, it is worth noting that the
bidirectional seepage of pore water in the soil by such ground treatment
method differs from the one-way seepage of pore water in the soil based
on traditional single-column composite foundations. Unfortunately, few
2
Computers and Geotechnics 158 (2023) 105377
rs1 radius of the disturbed zone caused by the stone column
rs2 radius of the disturbed zone caused by vertical drains
rw equivalent radius of each vertical drain
s1 smear ratio of the soil surrounding the stone column
s2 smear ratio of the soil surrounding vertical drains
St settlement of composite foundation
μ total average EPWP of the composite foundation at any
depth
μp average EPWP of the stone column at any depth
μs EPWP for any point in the soft soil layers
μs average EPWP of the soft soil layers at any depth
μw average EPWP of the vertical drains at any depth
U(t) average degree of consolidation
z vertical coordinate
γw specific gravity of water
εv vertical strains value
σ external load applied instantly
σp average total vertical stress within stone column
σs average total vertical stress within soft soil layers
σw average total vertical stress within vertical drains
studies about the consolidation under the bidirectional seepage of pore
water have been reported in the literature, and investigations about the
consolidation theory of multiple-column composite foundations are
confined to one type of drainage body.
Taking the composite foundation reinforced by stone columns and
vertical drains as the object, the consolidation model for soft soils with
stone columns and vertical drains is established. Then, the correspond­
ing theoretical analytical solution for the model is obtained under the
condition of constant drainage boundary. Additionally, some important
objective conditions are considered, including the radial bidirectional
seepage of pore water in soft soils, the well resistance of drainage bodies
and the smear effect caused by columns and vertical drains. Finally, to
provide a theoretical and design basis for solving such consolidation
issues, massive calculations are made by using the proposed analytical
solution to analyze the consolidation behavior of the combined com­
posite foundation.
2. Mathematical modeling
2.1. Calculation unit cell
Commonly used plane layouts of stone columns combined with
vertical drains are triangular configuration, compact triangular config­
uration, square configuration and compact square configuration. As an
example, Fig. 1 shows that six vertical drains installed around each stone
column are all equally divided by the area of influencing zones of three
stone columns under the compact triangular configuration. The equiv­
alent quantity of vertical drains within the influencing zone of each
stone column is n = 2. Similarly, the equivalent quantity is altered to n =
1 under the triangular or square configuration and n = 3 under the
compact square configuration. The influencing zone of each stone col­
umn can be transformed into a circular area whose radius is re according
to the area equivalence principle. In addition, assuming that the column
distance is l, the circular radius can be indicated as re = 0.564l and re =
0.525l under the square and triangular layouts for stone columns,
respectively.
According to the area equivalence principle, vertical drains installed
between columns can be transformed into a circumferential permeable
wall with an internal drainage boundary. As shown in Fig. 2, the dis­
tance from the center of the column to the internal boundary of the
C. Li et al.
Fig. 1. The plane layout of the composite foundation reinforced by stone columns and vertical drains.
Fig. 2. Schematic diagram of calculation element.
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
permeable wall can be represented as rd = r2e − nr2w , where rw is
defined as the equivalent radius of each vertical drain. For example, rw =
0.033 m corresponds to 100 mm × 4 mm of the normal band-shaped
drains (Lu et al. 2018b), and the thickness of the equivalent annulus is
0.002 m. Under this condition, a calculation unit cell composed of soft
soils, a stone column and a lateral permeable wall (shown in Fig. 3) is
used in the following work.
2.2. Governing equations
This paper presents a new model with two kinds of vertical drainage
bodies that differs from the traditional consolidation model of a single-
column or multiple-column composite foundation. As shown in Fig. 3,
the calculation unit cell is assumed to be an axisymmetric model, in
which the thickness of soft soil layers penetrated by the stone column
and the column length are H; the radius of the stone column is rp ; radii of
3
Computers and Geotechnics 158 (2023) 105377
disturbed zones caused by the stone column and the vertical drain are rs1
and rs2 , respectively. To investigate the model above conveniently,
partial assumptions are made as follows:
(1) The external load is applied instantly and remains constant dur­
ing consolidation, and the additional stress caused by the external
load keeps constant along the depth.
(2) The stone column, soft soil layer and vertical drains have equal
vertical strains at any depth, ignoring the lateral strain of the
calculation unit cell.
(3) The average excess pore water pressure (EPWP) remains constant
along the radial direction at the same depth in the stone column,
soft soil layer and vertical drains, respectively.
(4) The vertical flow in the soil is ignored by its slight effect on the
consolidation degree (Chen et al., 2021) and the radial flow of
soils obeys Darcy’s law.
(5) Vertical drains have the same properties as the soft soil layer
except for the permeability coefficient.
(6) The quantity of water flowing through surrounding soils into the
stone column is not the same as that flowing out from the stone
column. Their difference is equal to the vertical deformation of
the stone column. In addition, the quantity of water flowing
through surrounding soils into vertical drains is the same as that
flowing out from vertical drains.
(7) The top and bottom drainage boundaries are permeable and
impermeable in this model, respectively.
The bidirectional seepage of pore water in the soft soil layer occurs in
the radial direction. Moreover, the seepage direction consistent with the
forward direction of r-axis is specified as positive. Similarly, the direc­
tion of pore water flowing to vertical drains is positive, and that to the
C. Li et al. Computers and Geotechnics 158 (2023) 105377

Fig. 3. Computation module.

stone column is negative. In addition, the upward seepage is specified as [ ]

positive, i.e. opposite to the z-axis. Based on assumption (6), the seepage kr (r) ∂us kw ∂2 uw
2πr = nπrw2 (4)
continuity equation of the stone column and soft soil layer can be γ w ∂r r=rd γw ∂z2
expressed as: where kw is the vertical permeability coefficient of vertical drains; uw
[
kr (r) ∂us
]
kp ∂2 up 2 ∂εv 2 is the average EPWP of vertical drains at any depth.
− 2πr − πr = πr (1) Since the stone column, soft soil layer and vertical drains share the
γ w ∂r r=rp γw ∂z2 p ∂t p
average vertical stress which caused by the external load σ together, the
where kr (r) is the horizontal permeability coefficient of the soft soil equilibrium equation can be obtained as follows
layer; kp is the vertical permeability coefficient of the stone column; γ w ( ) ( )
denotes the specific gravity of water; us represents the EPWP at any point π rd2 − rp2 σs + πrp2 σ p + π re2 − rd2 σ w = πre2 σ (5)
in the soft soil layer; up is the average EPWP of the stone column at any
where σ s , σ p and σw are the average total vertical stresses within the
depth, and kr (r) can be expressed as:
soft soil layer, stone column, and vertical drains, respectively.
kr (r) = kh f (r) (2) An equation describing the average EPWP relationship in the com­
posite foundation can be expressed as:
where kh is the horizontal permeability coefficient of the undisturbed
zone; f(r) is a function about r used to describe the smear effect and can u = (m2 − m1 )us + m1 up + (1 − m2 )uw (6)
be given as:
⎧ where m1 = rp2 /re2
and m2 = rd2 /re2 ;
u is the average total EPWP of the
⎨ α1 rp ⩽r⩽rs1 composite foundation at any depth; us is the average EPWP of the soft
f (r) = 1 rs1 ⩽r⩽rs2 (3) soil layer at any depth, which can be obtained by the following integral
⎩
α2 rs2 ⩽r⩽rd relation:
where α1 = ks1 /kh , α2 = ks2 /kh , rs1 = s1 rp and rs2 = 1
∫ rd
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
̅
r2d − n(r2s − r2w ). ks1 and ks2 are the horizontal permeability coefficients us = 2
2π rus dr (7)
π(rd − rp ) rp
2

of the disturbed zones caused by the stone column and vertical drains,
respectively. The radius of the disturbed zone caused by a vertical drain According to assumptions (2) and (5), an equation about strain can
can be expressed as rs = s2 rw . s1 and s2 are the smear ratio of the soil be obtained:
surrounding the stone column and vertical drains, respectively. σ s − us σ p − up σ w − uw σ− u
Similarly, the seepage continuity equation of vertical drains and the = = = = εv (8)
Es Ep Es Esp
soft soil layer can be written as:
where εv is the strain value; Es is the compression modulus of the soft
soil layer; Ep is the compression modulus of the stone column; Esp is the
compression modulus of the composite foundation, which can be

4
C. Li et al. Computers and Geotechnics 158 (2023) 105377

expressed as: respect to z, Eq. (20) and Eq. (21) can derive:
Esp = m1 Ep + (1 − m1 )Es (9) 1 ∂2 u B ∂εv C ∂3 εv
uw − up = − − (22)
The corresponding continuity conditions for the EPWP of the soft soil A ∂z2 A ∂t A ∂z2 ∂t
{[ ] [
layer located on the boundaries of the column and vertical drain are as where A = 4 r12 A0A(r1d ) − 2m2 + 2 kkwh 1
+ kkhp 1
4 r12 A1
−
2 A (r )
nrw rp2 A0 (rd ) A0 (rd )
follows: ]} e 0 d e

⃒ 2m2 and
us ⃒r = rp = up (10)
{[ ][ ] [
B0 (rd ) 1 A1 1 γw 1 A1
us |r = rd = uw (11) B= − rd2 2 2 − m2 + 1 + 2 2
A0 (rd ) re A0 (rd ) nrw2 kw re A0 (rd )
Based on the existing results of the consolidation theory proposed by ] }
B0 (rd ) γw
Wang and Jiao (2004), the consolidation governing equation only − m2 C
rp2 A0 (rd ) kp
considering the radial flow in soft soil layers can be expressed as:
[ ]
[ ] A1 B0 (rd ) 1 γw
1 ∂ kr (r) ∂us ∂εv = − B1
r = − (12) A0 (rd ) re2 kh
r ∂r γ w ∂r ∂t
Substituting Eq. (22) into Eq. (19) and Eq. (20) can derive the
Integrating Eq. (12), the following equation can be derived:
following equations, respectively:
kr (r) ∂us 1 ∂εv [ ]( 2 ) [
r = − r 2 + c1 (13) 1 A1 1 ∂ u B ∂εv C ∂3 εv A1 B0 (rd )
γw ∂r 2 ∂t up = u − 2 2 − m2 + 1 − − −
re A0 (rd ) A ∂z2 A ∂t A ∂z2 ∂t A0 (rd )
where c1 is an integration constant. ]
1 γw ∂εv
Further integrating Eq. (13) at (rp , r) with the continuity condition − B1
re2 kh ∂t
Eq. (10) can derive the following equation:
(23)
1 γw ∂εv γw
us = up − B0 (r) + A (r)c1 (14) [
2 kh ∂ t kh 0 ∂2 up kh 1 B
= 2
∫r 1 ∫r ξ ∂2 z kp rp2 A0 (rd ) A
where A0 (r) = rp ξf(ξ) dξ and B0 (r) = rp f(ξ) dξ, with ξ being the vari­ ]
able of integration. B0 (rd ) γw ∂εv kh 1 1 ∂2 u kh 1 C ∂3 εv
− 2 − 2 +2
Substituting Eq. (11) into Eq. (14), c1 can be written as: rp A0 (rd ) kp ∂t kp rp A0 (rd ) A ∂z
2 2 kp rp A0 (rd ) A ∂z2 ∂t
2

( ) kh 1 B0 (rd ) ∂εv (24)

c1 = uw − up + (15)
γ w A0 (rd ) 2 A0 (rd ) ∂t Combining Eq. (8), Eq. (23) and Eq. (24), the final governing equa­
tion about u can be obtained:
Substituting Eq. (15) into Eq. (14) and Eq. (13) can derive the
following equations: ∂5 u ∂4 u ∂3 u ∂2 u ∂u
( ) λ1 + λ2 4 + λ3 2 + λ4 2 + λ5 = 0 (25)
1 γw ∂εv A0 (r) uw − up 1 γ B0 (rd )A0 (r) ∂εv
∂z ∂t
4 ∂z ∂z ∂t ∂z ∂t
us = up − B0 (r) + + w (16) [ ] [ ]
2 kh ∂t A0 (rd ) 2 kh A0 (rd ) ∂t 1 C 1 A1 1 1 A1
λ1 = − 2 2 − m2 + 1 λ2 = − 2 2 − m2 + 1
Esp A re A0 (rd ) A re A0 (rd )
kr (r) ∂us 1 ∂εv ( ) kh 1 B0 (rd ) ∂εv
r = − r2 + uw − up + (17) { [
γw ∂r 2 ∂t γw A0 (rd ) 2 A0 (rd ) ∂t ] [ ]
1 B 1 A1 A1 B0 (rd ) 1 γw
λ3 = − 2 2 − m2 + 1 − − B1
Substituting Eq. (16) into Eq. (7) can derive the following equation: Esp A re A0 (rd ) A0 (rd ) re2 kh
( ) }
1 γw ∂εv uw − up A1 1 A1 B0 (rd ) γw ∂εv kh 1 C
u s = u p − B1 2 + 2 + − 2
(rd − rp2 ) kh ∂t (rd − rp2 ) A0 (rd ) (rd2 − rp2 ) A0 (rd ) kh ∂t
2
kp rp2 A0 (rd ) A
(18)
[ ]
∫ rd ∫ rd
where A1 = rp
rA0 (r)dr and B1 = rp
rB0 (r)dr. λ4 = 1 + 2
kh 1 1
λ 5 =
1
2
kh 1 B
−
B0 (rd ) γ w
kp rp2 A0 (rd ) A Esp kp rp2 A0 (rd ) A rp2 A0 (rd ) kp
Combining Eq. (18) with Eq. (6), the equation without us can be
obtained as:
[ ] [ ] [ 3. Solution for equations
1 A1 1 A1 A1 B0 (rd )
u= 2 2 − m2 + 1 uw − 2 2 − m2 + 1 up +
re A0 (rd )
]
re A0 (rd ) A0 (rd ) 3.1. The analytical solution for this model
1 γw ∂εv
− B1 + up
re2 kh ∂t The analytical solution can be derived using the method of separa­
(19) tion of variables. The average total EPWP u is a function about z and t,
which can be expressed as:
Combining Eq. (1) with Eq. (17) can derive the following equation:
u = F(z)G(t) (26)
∂2 up ( ) kh 1 B0 (rd ) γw ∂εv
2
= − 2 uw − up − (20) where F(z) is the function of the total average EPWP about z, and G(t)
∂z kp rp2 A0 (rd ) rp2 A0 (rd ) kp ∂t
is the function of the total average EPWP about t.
A similar result can be obtained by Eq. (4) and Eq. (17): Substituting Eq. (26) into Eq. (25) can obtain the following equation:
2 [ ] [ (4) ]
∂ uw ( ) kh 1 B0 (rd ) 1 γw ∂εv λ2 F (z) + λ4 F′′ (z)
′
= 2 uw − u p + − rd
2
(21) − [ ]=
G (t)
= − β (27)
∂z2 kw nrw2 A0 (rd ) A0 (rd ) nrw2 kw ∂t λ5 F(z) + λ1 F(4) (z) + λ3 F ′′ (z) G(t)
Combining the second order partial derivative of Eq. (19) with where β is a coefficient greater than 0. Ordinary differential

5
C. Li et al. Computers and Geotechnics 158 (2023) 105377

equations about z and t can be obtained by Eq. (27): series expression for u can be obtained as:

(28) ∑
′ ∞
G (t) + βG(t) = 0
u = A2 a1 sin(ζm z)e− βm t
(43)
m=1
(4)
(λ1 β − λ2 )F (z) + (λ3 β − λ4 )F (z) + λ5 βF(z) = 0 (2)
(29)
Substituting the initial condition Eq. (36) into Eq. (43) and
According to the theory of ordinary differential equation, solutions combining the orthogonality of trigonometric functions, the final gen­
for Eq. (28) and Eq. (29) can be expressed as: eral formula for u can be expressed as:
G(t) = A2 e− βt
(30) ∑
∞
2σ
u= sin(ζm z)e− βm t
(44)
M
(31)
m=1
F(z) = a1 sin(ζz) + b1 cos(ζz) + c2 sinh(ξz) + d1 cosh(ξz)
Substituting Eq. (44) into Eq. (23), the general formula for up can be
where A2 , a1 , b1 , c2 and d1 are indeterminate coefficients; ξ and ζ can
written as:
be derived as:
{[( ) [
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ B 1 A1 B0 (rd )
√
√− (βλ − λ ) + (βλ − λ )2 − 4(βλ − λ )βλ up = 1 − λ1 βm − (λ2 − λ1 βm )ζ2m −
√ 3 4 3 4 1 2 5 C Esp A0 (rd )
ξ = (32) ] ]}∑∞
2(βλ1 − λ2 ) 1 γw 2σ
− B1 β sin(ζm z)e− βm t (45)
re2 kh m m=1
M
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
√
√(βλ − λ ) + (βλ − λ )2 − 4(βλ − λ )βλ
√ 3 4 3 4 1 2 5 Substituting Eq. (45) into Eq. (22), the general formula for uw can be
ζ = (33) given as:
2(βλ1 − λ2 )
( )∑∞
Substituting Eq. (30) and Eq. (31) into Eq. (26) can obtain the so­ uw = up +
1 C
βm ζ2m −
1 B 1
βm − ζ2m
2σ
sin(ζm z)e− βm t (46)
lution for the average total EPWP: Esp A Esp A A m=1
M

u = A2 [a1 sin(ζz) + b1 cos(ζz) + c2 sinh(ξz) + d1 cosh(ξz) ]e− βt

(34) According to the theory of elasticity, the settlement of the composite
foundation at any time can be expressed as:
Substituting Eq. (34) into Eq. (23), the solution for the average EPWP
in the column can be given as:

⎧ [( ) [ ] ] ⎫
⎪ B 2 1 A1 B0 (rd ) 1 γw ⎪
⎪
⎪ 1 − λ 1 β − (λ2 − λ1 β)ζ − − B 1 β [a1 sin(ζz) + b1 cos(ζz) ] ⎪
⎪
⎨ C Esp A0 (rd ) 2
re kh ⎬
up = [( ) [ ] ] A2 e− βt
(35)
⎪
⎪ B 1 A1 B0 (rd ) 1 γw ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎩ + 1 − λ1 β + (λ2 − λ1 β)ξ2 − − B1 β [c2 sinh(ξz) + d1 cosh(ξz) ] ⎪
⎭
C Esp A0 (rd ) re2 kh

( ∑∞ 2e− βm t )
Hσ 1 −
According to assumptions (1) and (7), the initial and vertical St =
m=1 M 2
(47)
boundary conditions can be derived as: Esp

u(z, 0) = σ (36) When t→∞, the final settlement of the composite foundation can
been derived by Eq. (47):
⃒ ⃒
∂u⃒⃒ ∂up ⃒⃒
= 0, =0 (37) Hσ
(48)
∂z ⃒z=H ∂z ⃒z=H S∞ =
Esp

u(0, t) = 0, up (0, t) = 0 (38) The average consolidation degree of the composite foundation
reinforced by stone columns and vertical drains defined by deformation
Substituting Eq. (37) and Eq. (38) into Eq. (34) and Eq. (35), the is the same as that defined by stress in this paper, which can be obtained
equation and values for b1 , c2 and d1 can be expressed as: as:
b1 = c2 = d1 = 0 (39) ∑∞
2 −
U(t) = 1 − e βm t
(49)
M2
a1 ζcos(ζH) = 0 (40) m=1

where a1 ∕= 0 (or the solution has no significance), so the general

3.2. Solution verification
formula for ζm can be obtained as:
M (2m − 1) 3.2.1. Verification of degenerate solutions
ζm = , M= π, m = 1, 2, 3⋅⋅⋅ (41)
H 2 When rd →re and kw →0, the equivalent circumferential permeable
Substituting Eq. (41) into Eq. (33), the general formula for βm can be wall is transformed into an impermeable boundary, monodirectional
derived as: seepage of pore water from the soft soil layer occurs to the column, and
βm can be degenerated as:
− λ4 ζ2m + λ2 ζ4m
βm = ( ) (42) Esp − ζ2m
λ1 ζ4m − λ3 ζ2m + λ5 βm = ( ) (50)
γw − A1 + 12 B1 1 ζ2 − 1 1
Further substituting Eq. (39), Eq. (41) and Eq. (42) into Eq. (34), the
r kh m
e m1 kp

6
C. Li et al. Computers and Geotechnics 158 (2023) 105377

Fig. 5. Comparison between the proposed analytical solution and field

Fig. 4. Comparison between the proposed analytical solution and the exist­ measurement.
ing solution.

[ ] The composite foundation was loaded with the clays filling in seven
If m1 = 1/n21 , Fc1 = 2(A1 re2 − B1 )/ re2 rp2 (n21 − 1) and Y = Ep /Es , Eq. stages. Filling to a height of 4 m was conducted within approximately
(50) can be expressed as: 150 days, and then the height of the clay remained constant for 300
days. Then, the height of the clay was rapidly reduced from 4 to 2.5 m
βm =
k
[ p ] (51) and remained unchanged until the completion of construction. To
γw
(n21
( )
4 H 2 r2 F (n2 −
− 1 + Y) n1 M + e c1 2k1h
1)kp simulate the effect of impermeable columns, the permeability coefficient
of stone columns kp was assumed as infinitesimal in this paper.
Es

Eq. (51) is consistent with the solution given by (Lu et al., 2017a), As shown in Fig. 5, the settlement rate in this paper is significantly
ignoring the vertical seepage of the soft soil layer. higher than that of the field measurement in the early and middle term
of the construction process. The difference between external load ap­
3.2.2. Verification of existing models plications is the main reason for this case. The external load is assumed
Th is defined as the time factor, which can be expressed as Th = to be applied instantly in this paper, while it is assumed to be a multiple-
( ) stage application in the practice field. However, as the settlement pro­
ch t/ 4re2 , where the radial consolidation coefficient of soil is ch =
gresses, the value of settlement given by the filed measurement ap­
Es kh /γw . When kp →kw , Ep →Es and rp →rw , the stone column of the
proaches gradually to that given in the proposed analytical solution.
calculation unit cell can be considered to be completely replaced by a
Two sets of data tend to be consistent in the later term of the con­
vertical drain. Then, the composite foundation in this paper is equiva­
struction process. Therefore, the proposed analytical solution in this
lent to a multiple vertical drain ground (Lu et al., 2016). As shown in
paper possesses certain accuracy and can provide a better theoretical
Fig. 4, the average degree of consolidation calculated by the proposed
basis for composite foundations reinforced by permeable or imperme­
analytical solution in this paper is slightly higher than that of the
able columns and vertical drains.
existing solution. The main reason is that this paper considers the
thickness of the equivalent circumferential permeable wall, which is
4. Analysis of consolidation behaviors
ignored in the existing solution. In addition, the overall trend of
consolidation rates calculated by two types of solution keeps consistent
In this section, influences of some important parameters on the
throughout the whole consolidation process. Therefore, the analytical
consolidation behaviors of the composite foundation are investigated,
solution derived in this study is correct to a certain extent.
such as the thickness of soil layers, the permeability coefficient capacity
of drainage bodies, the replacement rate of stone columns, etc. Initial
3.2.3. Verification of field measurements
parameters of the calculation unit are listed in Table 2, and parameters
In this section, the proposed analytical solution is used to calculate
changed in different working conditions are noted in the corresponding
the settlement at an investigation point of the soft soil in a real case
figures.
study. The case study for verification is a composite foundation rein­
forced by Dry Jet Mixed (DJM) and Prefabricated Vertical Drains (PVD)
on the Huai-yan highway in China. The geotechnical data of this project
presented in the existing studies (Zhang et al., 2006b) are summarized in
Table 1 for reference. Table 2
Details of parameters.
Parameter Value Parameter Value
Table 1
Details of parameters. σ(kPa) 200 H/re 10
H (m) 10 re/rp 5
H rw re σ Ep/Es kh/ks2 kw/kh kh (m/s) 10− 8 Ep/Es 5
Es (kPa) 2000 kw/kh 104
(m) (m) (m) (kPa)
s1 2 kp/kh 103
Field measurement 13 0.025 1.155 80 − 3 104 s2 2 a1 0.5
Proposed analytical 13 0.025 1.155 80 32 3 104 z/H 0.5 a2 0.5
solution n 3

7
C. Li et al. Computers and Geotechnics 158 (2023) 105377

Fig. 6. The dissipation of the average EPWP with time and depth: (a) Th=0.001, (b) Th=0.01, (c) Th=0.1, (d) Th=1, and (e) the whole consolidation process.

8
C. Li et al. Computers and Geotechnics 158 (2023) 105377

Fig. 6. (continued).

4.1. Analysis of EPWP

The dissipation of EPWP should be analyzed carefully due to its vital

Fig. 7. The variation of ns with time at different depths.
relevance to the average degree of consolidation for the composite
foundation.
The value on the color bar represents the ratio of the average EPWP
to the consistent additional stress caused by the external load. Fig. 6
shows the distribution with depth for the average EPWP in the com­
posite foundation at four different moments and the whole process of
dissipation.
The average EPWP in the soft soil layers is almost consistent with
that in the whole composite foundation at any moment. The large dif­
ference between the undrained compression modulus of the soft soil
layer and stone column (The former is much greater than the latter)
leads to the fact that the average EPWP of the soft soil layers is greater
than the additional stress caused by the external load. However, the
average total EPWP of the whole composite foundation equals the total
additional stress caused by the external load. As shown in Fig. 6a, at the
beginning of the consolidation process, the average EPWP increases with
depth in both columns and vertical drains. On the contrary, the average
EPWP changes insignificantly in the soft soil layers. Fig. 6b and Fig. 6c
show that in the medium term of consolidation, both the average EPWP
in the soft soil layers and the total average EPWP change significantly.
Moreover, the average EPWP dissipates faster at smaller depths because

9
C. Li et al.
Fig. 8. Influence of n on the average degree of consolidation and settlement.
Fig. 9. Comparison of different types of composite foundations.
faster pore water discharges at a shorter distance to the surface of the
ground.
The total column-soil stress ratio can be defined as ns = σp /σs . As
shown in Fig. 7, ns increases with depth early in the consolidation pro­
cess because the average EPWP in the column increases with depth,
while the average EPWP in the soft soil layer remains constant with
depth. However, ns decreases with depth in the middle and later stages
of the consolidation process because the dissipation rate of EPWP in both
stone column and soft soil layer increases significantly and the former is
larger than the latter. In addition, the closer to the surface the column is
subjected to higher stresses, while the corresponding soft soil layer is
subjected to lower stresses. Finally, the total column-soil stress ratio ns
tends to the column-soil modulus ratio Ep /Es .
4.2. Analysis of consolidation degree and settlement
Different parameters of the soft soil layer, stone column and vertical
drains are changed to investigate the average degree of consolidation
and settlement.
As shown in Fig. 8, the consolidation rate enhances significantly with
the increase of vertical drain number n, especially raising n from 0 to 1.
Similarly, the time for finishing the settlement process decreases
significantly. Additionally, the difference of settlement between the
10
Computers and Geotechnics 158 (2023) 105377
value of vertical drain number at n = 0 and n = 3 can reach 0.27 m at Th
of 10− 1 and the principal reason for this case is that the radial drainage
path is further shortened by installing vertical drains between columns,
so the deformation rate of the soft soil layer enhances greatly. Although
installing vertical drains can significantly accelerate the rate of consol­
idation of composite foundations, in order to avoid economic waste, the
layout of vertical drains can be designed on specific working conditions
to meet construction schedule requirements.
High drainage rate and bearing capacity are two main advantages of
the composite foundation proposed here. As shown in Fig. 9, three
different types of composite foundations, including multiple vertical
drains (Lu et al., 2016), single stone columns (Zhang et al., 2006a), and
impervious piles and vertical drains (Lu et al., 2018a), are compared in
the average degree of consolidation and settlement. The consolidation
rate obtained in this study is higher than that of the other three types of
composite foundations. Correspondingly, the settlement rate possesses a
similar characteristic.
However, a new pattern of the ultimate settlement value for each
composite foundation appears, i.e., multiple vertical drains, single stone
columns, stone columns and vertical drains, impervious piles and ver­
tical drains from the largest to the smallest. The main reason for this is
the difference in the properties of the materials used to replace natural
foundations. According to the high compression modulus, composite
foundations reinforced by impervious piles have been applied in abun­
dant engineering projects, and the installed vertical drains between piles
increase the consolidation rate. Unfortunately, for some soft soil foun­
dations with low bearing capacity requirements, the capacity of
impervious piles for improving the stability of the foundation cannot be
fully utilized, and the complex construction technology of impervious
piles is not economical. Additionally, the low drainage rate of composite
foundations reinforced by single stone columns sometimes cannot meet
the time limit requirement. Therefore, the installation of vertical drains
between stone columns is a better treatment in practical projects when
moderate load-bearing capacity and rapid consolidation rates are
required.
For some stone columns with a medium or high rate of replacement,
the ideal assumption that the quantity of water flowing through the
surrounding soil into the column is the same as that flowing out from the
column tends to be unreasonable. As shown in Fig. 10, the error value is
up to about 32 % when m1 = 0.7. This situation also appears in tradi­
tional composite foundations reinforced by stone columns. Therefore, in
some projects using composite foundations reinforced by stone columns
with large column diameters, considering the column deformation
during the consolidation process is indispensable for both calculating
the average degree of consolidation and predicting the settlement
variation.
The reduction of column spacing can enhance the average degree of
consolidation to some extent. As shown in Fig. 11, the range of the
diameter ratio re /rp = (2 − 5) is adopted for the verification. However,
significantly reducing the column spacing means installing more col­
umns in the ground, which may cause economic pressures in many
practical projects. In addition, the effect of increasing the consolidation
rate by reducing the column spacing is not as significant as expected
when re/rp is dropped from 5 to 4 and 4 from 3. Comparatively, installing
vertical drains between columns achieves a good result in enhancing the
consolidation rate with a high diameter ratio re /rp = 5, which is almost
in line with reducing the diameter ratio re /rp to 2. Therefore, under the
condition that the bearing capacity of the foundation is satisfied,
installing vertical drains between stone columns possess higher eco­
nomic and practical values than enhancing the replacement rate of stone
columns.
Increasing the permeability coefficient of the vertical drainage ma­
terial plays an important role in enhancing the consolidation rate. As
shown in Fig. 12, keeping kp from 1 × 10− 6 to 1 × 10− 5 and kw from 1 ×
10− 5 to 1 × 10− 4 both make the composite foundation spend less time
C. Li et al.
Fig. 10. Influence of m1 on the error caused by ignoring the column deformation.
Fig. 11. Influence of re /rp with n on the average degree of consolidation.
finishing the consolidation process, and the influence on enhancing the
consolidation rate by increasing kw is more significantly than that by
increasing kp when replacement rate of the stone column is low. More­
over, the economic cost of enhancing the permeability of drainage
bodies varies due to differences in the nature of their materials. There­
fore, it is vital to choose to increase kw or kp depending on the actual
layout of drainage bodies and economic conditions.
As shown in Fig. 13, almost no changes appear in the consolidation
rate when enhancing α2 from 0.125 to 0.5. The main reason is that the
area of vertical drains is extremely small compared to that of the whole
influence zone, so the relative radial distance of pore water flowing
through the disturbed zone caused by vertical drains is highly short. In
addition, enhancing α1 from 0.125 to 0.5 changes the consolidation rate
significantly. Therefore, the smear effect caused by vertical drains can be
ignored, and that caused by stone columns needs to be considered ac­
cording to the practical situation.
11
Computers and Geotechnics 158 (2023) 105377
Fig. 12. Influences of kw and kp on the average degree of consolidation.
5. Conclusions
The radial bidirectional seepage of pore water occurs under two
types of vertical drainage bodies, but few consolidation studies about
such seepage characteristics have been reported. An analytical solution
for the consolidation of the composite foundation reinforced by stone
columns and vertical drains is provided in this paper, and the proposed
solution is universal for the consolidation of some common calculation
models, including multiple vertical drain grounds, the single stone col­
umn composite foundation and the composite foundation reinforced by
impermeable piles and vertical drains.
Moreover, the results calculated by the model proposed in this paper
are analyzed and applied in the actual engineering to evaluate the in­
fluence of each parameter on the consolidation rate and settlement.
Then, conclusions can be summarized as follows:
(1) Installing vertical drains between columns possesses the same
effect on enhancing the consolidation rate of the composite
C. Li et al.
Fig. 13. Influences of α1 and α2 on the average degree of consolidation.
foundation as shortening the distance between columns, but the
former is more economical and practical. Therefore, the com­
posite foundation in this paper is a suitable foundation treatment
method for projects requiring a certain bearing capacity and
drainage consolidation efficiency.
(2) Although two types of vertical drainage bodies are considered,
ignoring the deformation of columns with the growth of m1
during consolidation causes a large error in calculating the
average degree of consolidation, with the maximum error value
exceeding 32 %. Therefore, it is necessary to consider the defor­
mation of columns when calculating the consolidation degree or
predicting the settlement in the composite foundation reinforced
by stone columns with medium or high replacement ratios.
(3) Permeability coefficients of the stone column kp and vertical
drains kw significantly enhance the consolidation rate of the
composite foundation. However, owing to the difference of the
material property between the two types of drainage bodies, it is
important to enhance kp or kw according to the practical layout of
the composite foundation and economic factors.
(4) The smear effect caused by vertical drains can be ignored, and
that caused by the stone column needs to be noticed according to
the actual situation when calculating the consolidation degree
and the settlement in practical engineering.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Chuanxun Li: Investigation, Methodology, Data curation, Funding
acquisition, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing.
Xiangzong Lu: Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing,
Visualization, Data curation. Wenbing Wu: Conceptualization, Inves­
tigation, Writing – review & editing, Validation. Guoxiong Mei:
Conceptualization, Validation, Supervision, Writing – review & editing.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
12
Computers and Geotechnics 158 (2023) 105377
Data availability
https://doi.org/10.1002/nag.2508 and https://doi.org/10.1061/
40864(196)5.
Acknowledgements
This research is supported by the National Natural Science Founda­
tion of China (Grant No. 51878320).
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