13652206, 2022, 3, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/cfs.12906 by Université De Lorraine, Wiley Online Library on [11/03/2023].

See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
Received: 26 May 2021 Revised: 29 December 2021 Accepted: 2 February 2022
DOI: 10.1111/cfs.12906

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

The ambivalent visit: Children's experiences of relating with

their fathers during staying in shelters for women survivors of
domestic violence

Anat Vass PhD1,2 | Muhammad M. Haj-Yahia PhD2

1
School of Social Work, McGill University,
Montreal, Quebec, Canada Abstract
2
Paul Baerwald School of Social Work and Children's exposure to intimate partner violence (IPV) is a serious problem that has
Social Welfare, The Hebrew University of
been increasingly examined during the last four decades. In the case of severe IPV,
Jerusalem, Mt. Scopus, Jerusalem, Israel
children are placed with their mothers in shelters for women survivors of domestic
Correspondence
violence (SDV). The current study aimed to understand young children's descriptions
Anat Vass, PhD, Post-doctoral fellow, School
of Social Work, McGill University, Montreal, of relating with their fathers during their stay in SDVs. Interviews were conducted
Quebec, Canada; or Paul Baerwald School of
with 32 Israeli children, aged 7 to 12 years. Two main themes and five subthemes
Social Work and Social Welfare, The Hebrew
University of Jerusalem, Mt. Scopus, Jerusalem were identified through thematic analysis: (1) Atypical visiting arrangements (sub-
91905, Israel.
themes: a lack of understanding about the meaning of supervised visitations, incon-
Email: anatdanan@walla.co.il
sistent and unstable visitations); (2) ambivalent attitudes towards the visiting
Funding information
arrangements (subthemes: enjoying fathers' attention and shared family time, worry
The Haruv Institute; The Henry Zucker
Foundation at The Hebrew University of and guilt following the visitations, controversial messages from fathers). The findings
Jerusalem
demonstrate the children's subjective views and emphasize the benefit of gathering
qualitative data from young children in the context of exposure to IPV. Findings are
discussed in light of the cognitive dissonance reduction theory. Limitations of the
study are discussed, along with implications for practice, theory and future research.

KEYWORDS
children's exposure to IPV, domestic violence shelters, experiences of children, father–child
relations, intimate partner violence

1 | I N T RO DU CT I O N intergenerational cycle of disadvantage (Gartland et al., 2021;

In the last four decades, we have witnessed increased research
regarding children's exposure to intimate partner violence (IPV). Stud-
ies have primarily addressed IPV between mothers and fathers, mainly
father-to-mother violence and examined the multiple implications of
such exposure on children (Gartland et al., 2019, 2021; Graham-
Bermann et al., 2012; Hague & Mullender, 2006; Katz, 2016;
Levendosky et al., 2003). The high prevalence of IPV and increased
risk of poorer mental health among children exposed to IPV highlights
the burden carried by these children (Cook et al., 2021; Gartland
et al., 2021; Thompson-Walsh et al., 2018). The increased risk for
exposure to IPV within families emphasizes the need for effective
intervention to limit the negative impact and to break the
Goldstein et al., 2021).
In cases where children are exposed to an escalated IPV against
their mothers, the most common plan of action is to place them in
shelters for survivors of domestic violence (SDVs). When children are
unable to safely live with both of their parents, contact between these
children and their parents, in most cases is considered important for
maintaining children's sense of identity. However, the research evi-
dence on such contact is relatively absent and provides little guidance
on how to manage contact (Taplin et al., 2015).
The studies that have qualitatively examined children's and
youth's experiences in SDVs have yielded interesting insights; how-
ever, they primarily relied on mothers' and/or practitioners' reports of
the children's experiences (Chanmugam, 2011; Haj-Yahia &

Child & Family Social Work. 2022;27:535–544. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/cfs © 2022 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. 535

536
Cohen, 2009; Helfrich et al., 2008). Subjective views of children about
sensitive issues associated with exposure to IPV remain understudied
(Figge et al., 2021; Pernebo & Almqvist, 2017). Not much attention
has been paid to the consequences of communicating with a perpetra-
tor father among children who grow up in families dealing with IPV
(Leon et al., 2016; Yoon et al., 2018). The present study aimed to fill
this gap by documenting experiences of children who were living with
their mothers in SDVs regarding their perceptions about relating with
their fathers. We utilized Dissonance Reduction Theory (DRT)
(Cancino-Montecinos et al., 2018, 2020; Festinger, 1957) as the con-
ceptualizing framework for interpreting and understanding the study
findings.
1.1 | Children's exposure to IPV
Studies have shown that there has been growing concern about chil-
dren's exposure to their father's violence worldwide (Borrego
et al., 2008; Gartland et al., 2021, 2019; Gjelsvik et al., 2003; Graham-
Bermann et al., 2012; Thompson-Walsh et al., 2018). According to the
UK Government's definition of domestic violence and abuse (2018),
IPV can occur “between those aged 16 or over who are or have been
intimate partners or family members, regardless of gender or sexual-
ity” (p. 1). Most commonly, IPV occurs against women and leads to
substantial consequences to their physical and mental health, as well
as the general welfare of both women and children (Coker
et al., 2003; Goldstein et al., 2021; Hague & Mullender, 2006;
Levendosky et al., 2003). Exposure to father-to-mother violence in
childhood has negative implications for children's development and
threatens their sense of security (Cook et al., 2021; Gartland
et al., 2021; Mohr et al., 2000). Studies have indicated that children
exposed to IPV are prone to suffer from numerous problems, includ-
ing externalizing and internalizing behavioural problems, emotional
difficulties, as well as cognitive and learning difficulties (e.g., ADHD)
(Figge et al., 2021; Hague & Mullender, 2006; Hungerford
et al., 2012; Levendosky et al., 2003; Thompson-Walsh et al., 2018).
Furthermore, children's exposure to IPV among caregivers was found
to jeopardize their adaptive functioning (Cook et al., 2021;
Hungerford et al., 2012; Jouriles & McDonald, 2015), cause adverse
psychosocial problems (e.g., low self-esteem and high levels of anxiety
and depression), and lead to complicated interpersonal relationships,
as well as various maladaptive cognitions (Anderson & van Ee, 2018;
Figge et al., 2021; Holt et al., 2008).
As a result of escalated IPV, a substantial number of women and
children around the world are forced to leave their homes, schools,
and broader social networks each year as they seek safety at SDVs
(Chanmugam, 2011; Haj-Yahia & Cohen, 2009; Jarvis et al., 2005).
SDVs are used as a last resort for protecting women affected by
severe IPV (Haj-Yahia & Cohen, 2009; McDonald et al., 2006;
Shostack, 2001). These shelters serve as a short-term arrangement,
providing a temporary placement for women under threat and their
children (Lyon et al., 2008; Tutty et al., 1999). As children typically
accompany their mothers to the SDVs, research indicates that
13652206, 2022, 3, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/cfs.12906 by Université De Lorraine, Wiley Online Library on [11/03/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
VASS AND HAJ-YAHIA
children aged 0–12 make up the majority of the population at SDVs
(Edleson, 2001; Shostack, 2001; Tutty, 2006). Children who reside at
SDVs have typically been exposed to IPV against their mothers and
witnessed the escalation and negative consequences of IPV before
arriving to the SDV (Vass & Haj-Yahia, 2019, 2020).
1.2 | Children's relations with their perpetrator
fathers
Children's connection with their perpetrator fathers usually does not
end after the parents' separation even after the transition to the
SDV. An interesting study about the “absent presence” of the per-
petrator in the lives of children argues that fathers who use vio-
lence are actually more present than absent in the lives of children
(and women), even following separation. Recent studies have found
that fathers may continue behaving violently during visitations with
children, making them feel unsafe (Galántai et al., 2019). Legal visi-
tation rights may be used as a form of custodial violence, which
sometimes promote IPV. Other studies have indicated that children
can take an active role in the parents' conflict, and/or feel that they
should serve as a bridge between their parents (Galántai
et al., 2019; Moss et al., 2004). Such experiences may result
in adverse consequences for the child's emotional well-being
(Bronte-Tinkew et al., 2006; Moss et al., 2004; Thiara &
Humphreys, 2017; Thompson-Walsh et al., 2018). In Israel, the
social welfare system typically encourages visiting arrangements
between children and fathers, with or without the involvement of
law authorities. Children meet with their fathers under the circum-
stances of the aftermath of IPV against their mothers, and/or during
the parental conflict. However, despite these circumstances, parent-
ing research has pointed to the significance of communicating with
fathers, and emphasized the role of father involvement in shaping
children's development and well-being (McWayne et al., 2013; Yoon
et al., 2018).
The association between fathers' involvement and children's posi-
tive development is well documented (Chang et al., 2007; Palm &
Fagan, 2008; Yoon et al., 2018). Specifically, positive father–child
communication can promote children's well-being (McWayne
et al., 2013), physical and psychological health (Allgood et al., 2012),
and cognitive functioning and behaviour (Chang et al., 2007). Further,
a positive father–child relationship has been shown to be associated
with lower internalizing and externalizing problems among children
(Yoon et al., 2018). However, the consequences of communicating
with a perpetrator father among children at risk (e.g., children who
grow up in families dealing with IPV) have been relatively under-
studied (Leon et al., 2016; Yoon et al., 2018). A few studies revealed
contradicting findings about the outcomes of father–child relation-
ships among at high risk families. For example, fathers' warmth and
support can decrease symptoms of children's depression, promote
their social competence, and decrease likelihood for delinquency and
substance use (Callaghan et al., 2018; Yoon et al., 2018). Other studies
suggested a more critical attitude, indicating that such involvement

VASS AND HAJ-YAHIA
may jeopardize children's psychological well-being. In households
experiencing IPV, the quantity and quality of the father–child relation-
ship may be troubled (e.g., an abusive father may keep maintaining
control over his wife, exposing his children to controlling behaviour)
(Hardesty et al., 2015; Thiara & Humphreys, 2017).
In families that are involved in child custody, fathers with legal
visitation rights may retain coercive behaviour by forcing both the
mother and the child to cooperate with the visitations. In their recent
study, Galántai et al. (2019) used the term “custodial violence” to
demonstrate the specific form of IPV during visitation periods. Their
study emphasized that visitation rights may contribute to IPV, as the
perpetrator can use legal rights to visit his children (Callaghan, 2015;
Galántai et al., 2019). In relation to children's perspectives of commu-
nicating with fathers, studies have shown that children described
wanting to engage in a process of reparation with their fathers after
domestic violence (Lamb et al., 2018; Pernebo & Almqvist, 2017).
Components of reparation described included addressing the
past, making a commitment to change and rebuilding trust (Lamb
et al., 2018).
1.3 | Dissonance reduction and emotion regulation
The Cognitive Dissonance Theory (CDT) assumes that when an indi-
vidual experiences inconsistency between his or her attitudes or
beliefs, psychological discomfort will follow (Cancino-Montecinos
et al., 2018; Festinger, 1957). Festinger (1957) was the first to address
this term along with the following assumptions: (a) people will experi-
ence psychological discomfort when several cognitions are perceived
to be in conflict; (b) this discomfort will motivate people to reduce the
uncomfortable feeling and restore consonance; and (c) people will
avoid situations that could increase the dissonance (Festinger, 1957,
p. 3). In order to reduce discomfort, people usually seek reduction
strategies. Festinger indicated three techniques to reduce dissonance:
(1) changing one of the attitudes or perceptions (i.e., the dissonant
cognitions); (2) decreasing inconsistency by seeking information that
explains the inconsistent behaviour; and (3) trivializing the importance
of the conflicting attitude.
Cancino-Montecinos et al. (2020) offered a new comprehensive
view by suggesting that dissonance reduction can be a form of emo-
tion regulation. They argued that dissonance reduction strategies
(e.g., mostly attitude change, trivialization, and denial of responsibility)
can be understood as emotion regulation strategies. In a dissonance
situation, for example, if an individual experiences negative emotions
(e.g., frustration and hostility) towards a specific event, he or she will
most likely change the attitude towards the event. This model inspired
us when discussing the findings.
Existing research on young children's experiences of communicat-
ing with their violent fathers is relatively rare (Staf & Almqvist, 2015),
especially among children living in SDVs. A few studies have explored
children's and youth's experiences in SDVs in general, documenting
their attitudes towards various components of their lives there. These
studies examined the process of leaving home and familiar
13652206, 2022, 3, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/cfs.12906 by Université De Lorraine, Wiley Online Library on [11/03/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
537
surroundings before moving to the shelter (Vass & Haj-Yahia, 2020),
perspectives about the lifestyle in the shelter (Chanmugam, 2011),
psychological well-being when living in the shelter (Jarvis et al., 2005),
future expectations about life outside the shelter (Qverlien, 2011),
and the process of leaving the shelter and integrating back into the
community (Vass & Haj-Yahia, 2019). Current understandings of how
children experience their relationships with their parents during their
stay in SDVs are absent. This dearth of knowledge sets the stage for
the current study. This study examined the following research
questions:
1. What are the experiences of children who reside in SDVs regard-
ing their relationships with their fathers?
2. How do children perceive the type of communication they have
with their fathers during their stay in SDVs?
2 | METHOD
2.1 | Study design and participants
The present study was based on a qualitative-naturalistic approach
(Braun & Clark, 2006; Lincoln & Guba, 1985), which allowed us to
explore participants' perceptions of their life experiences through
semistructured interviews. The sample included 32 children (18 boys,
14 girls) who had previously lived in one of four SDVs in Israel. Partici-
pants were between 7 and 12 years old, with a mean age of 10.26,
resided in the SDV for an average of 4 months (range: 1–11 months),
had been exposed to escalated IPV and returned to living in the com-
munity with their mothers. The interviews were conducted between
1 and 3 months after leaving the SDV, lasted between 45 and 90 min
each, and were recorded and transcribed for the initial analysis. Addi-
tionally, the children were given the option to choose the location of
the interview to ensure that they were in an environment that was
comfortable to them.
The child privacy was kept during the interview (i.e., the parents,
siblings, and/or other adults were not present during interviews).
However, the mother stayed in another room in the house, the porch
or the kitchen. In cases the interview was conducted in a park or at
the back yard, the mother was waiting somewhere close. In all cases,
the researcher had her phone number and could call her when the
interview was over or when the child wanted to finish it. After the
interviews, the children had been given contact details of youth sup-
port lines and/or social welfare services and so were their mothers.
We also informed the mothers and the children before the interview
that all information delivered by the child will be kept strictly confi-
dential. However, they were informed that in cases when concern
information would arise we will have to inform child protection. The
mothers were familiar with theses instructions as most of them were
in contact with the local social welfare department. To retain ano-
nymity, a fictitious name was chosen for each of the participating
children (e.g., this was done for the research analysis and reporting
purposes).

538
2.2 | Data collection
Before children were approached, the researcher first spoke by phone
with two mothers who had recently left SDVs (a social worker
referred the researcher to the mothers). These two mothers agreed to
let their children participate in a pilot study. All further mothers were
recruited using “snowball sampling” (i.e., the first mother referred us
to other mothers who left the shelter and so on). The researcher con-
ducted a short conversation with all mothers and provided informa-
tion about the aims and procedures of the research. Each mother
completed a socio-demographic questionnaire. The questionnaire col-
lected data about participants' characteristics such as gender, age,
country of origin, duration of stay in the SDV, the date on which they
left the SDV, and the reason for leaving (e.g., the questionnaire related
to the child participants' characteristics).
Each mother approved her child's participation in the study and
signed a letter of informed consent. Additionally, all the children gave
verbal consent to participate. The main researcher (first author) talked
with every child before the interview, gave him or her a detailed expla-
nation about the research topic and aims, and asked him or her specifi-
cally if he or she is willing to participate and talk about his or her
relationship with the father. In an effort to build trust the researcher
had spent some time playing with each child before the interview. While
doing this, she had a small talk with the child, asking general questions
(e.g., what does he or she like to do in his or her free time and what his
or her favourite game is). In appreciation of the time spent by the chil-
dren, each of them received a toy as a gift which was given to the child
at the end of the interview in the presence of his or her mother.
Data were gathered through semistructured face-to-face inter-
views (Patton, 1990), which provided a framework for evaluating sub-
jective perceptions about personal experiences (Creswell, 1998;
Guest et al., 2006). The interviews were prepared with the purpose of
obtaining “rich” descriptions of attitudes, perceptions, feelings, and
thoughts about significant events and experiences that occurred dur-
ing the children's encounters with their fathers (Denzin, 1989;
McLeod, 2001). We asked the children open-ended questions
(e.g., “Tell me about your relationship with your father during your
stay in the shelter”; “Tell me about how it was for you to meet with
him”) and close-ended questions (“Were you worried about some-
thing after meeting with your father?”); both sets of questions were
related to our general research questions. The interview guide was
flexible, offering examples of general questions. When interviewing
the children, the researcher changed the topic or the way of asking a
question according to the child's level of understanding. When the
child could not find the worlds to answer or when it seemed difficult
for him or her to understand a question, the researcher explained it to
him or her in his or her words, and/or gave an example.
All the study procedures were approved by the Ethics Committee
at The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Paul Baerwald School of
Social Work and Social Welfare. Additionally, the study was guided by
an academic committee composed of the research supervisor and two
senior researchers in the field of child welfare, who served as external
referees for the doctoral committee of the first author.
13652206, 2022, 3, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/cfs.12906 by Université De Lorraine, Wiley Online Library on [11/03/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
VASS AND HAJ-YAHIA
2.3 | Data analysis
A thematic analysis was conducted to identify, analyse, and present
patterns that arose in the interviews which reflected the children's
experiences (Braun & Clark, 2006). The main stages of the analysis
were as follows: (1) the first author read each interview individually
several times to obtain familiarity with the data; (2) the overall text
was divided into units of meanings (codes); (3) codes that were found
to repeat across interviews were then grouped into themes and sub-
themes; (4) selected quotations from the children were identified;
(5) themes were reviewed until the final thematic map was con-
structed; and (6) findings were presented using children's exact quota-
tions. Additionally, we presented the findings (i.e., coding scheme and
thematic map) to social work graduate students enrolled in a course
of advanced qualitative research methods for peer review. This pro-
cess expanded the identification of themes and subthemes.
The dataset was analysed using inductive strategies
(Patton, 2002) and the NVivo-7 digital program was utilized
(Auerbach & Silverstein, 2003). After the initial analysis, we tried to
identify key theoretical concepts that would serve as a framework for
conceptualizing and interpreting the findings. It is important to note
that, due to the naturalistic design of the study, we strived to mini-
mize our interpretations in an effort to present the most authentic
picture of the children's views under the circumstances following IPV
in the family and during their stay at the SDVs. Our in-depth examina-
tion of our findings will be presented in three sections. The first and
second sections address each of the themes separately, indicating dis-
tinctive and unique aspects for each theme. The third
section highlights the similarities and common aspects of both
themes.
3 | FI ND I NG S
Two distinctive themes and five subthemes were identified through a
thematic analysis of the interviews with the children (see Table 1).
The first theme, atypical visiting arrangements, referred to children's
experiences regarding the visitation model. The second theme, ambiv-
alence towards the visiting arrangements, demonstrated children's sub-
jective experiences of relating with their fathers during the visitations.
Each of the subthemes illustrated a distinctive aspect of the children's
experiences. Altogether, the combination of the themes and sub-
themes represented a complementary and broad picture of the chil-
dren's experiences (see Table 1).
3.1 | Atypical visiting arrangements
All of the participating children held contact arrangements (visitations)
with their fathers during their stay in the SBWs. The visitations were
carried out in accordance with approved parental agreements or court
decisions. All fathers possessed visitation rights, which addressed the
frequency and times of visitations. However, because the location of

VASS AND HAJ-YAHIA
T A B L E 1 Children's subjective experiences of relating with their
father during visiting arrangements
Main theme Subtheme
Atypical visiting arrangements Lack of understanding the
meaning of supervised
visitations
Inconsistent and unstable
visitations
Ambivalence attitude towards Enjoying fathers' attention and
the visiting arrangements shared family time
Worry and guilt following the
visitations
Controversial messages from the
father
the SBW was confidential and family members did not have permis-
sion to visit (according to the SBWs' guidelines), all of the visitations
took place at the Family Contact Center (FCC). FCCs in Israel are typi-
cally associated with social welfare departments, and they provide a
safe and secure setting for visitations between noncustodial parents
and their children. Social workers, students and volunteers constitute
the professional staff, and are responsible for accompanying the child
and/or supervising the visitations. In cases of custody disputes,
and/or escalated IPV, as well as in cases in which families reside in
SBWs, the visitations are typically supervised; that is, a social worker
or a qualified staff member remains present during the visitations. The
children in our study frequently mentioned the supervision of the visi-
tations and described their views on it. However, it was not clear to
what extent their descriptions were based on their own points of view
or whether they were based on the messages and complaints they
heard from their fathers and mothers. Regardless, we can conclude
that the supervised model was perceived as an atypical manner in
which to conduct visitations.
3.1.1 | A lack of understanding regarding the
meaning of supervised visitations
The supervised visitation model was often perceived as an atypical
model for meeting with one's father. Most of the participating chil-
dren described it as inconvenient and/or noted that having supervi-
sion created a stressful atmosphere. Toby (7.5-years-old) reported
that she did not see her father during the first 3 months of her stay at
the SBW. After a period of no contact, she and her two brothers had
to meet their father under full supervision. Toby's interview responses
revealed that she had difficulty understanding why a social worker
was present during the visitations and why they took place at a con-
tact centre:
Toby: Mom told us that we can meet Dad only at the contact
center, we cannot see him alone.
13652206, 2022, 3, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/cfs.12906 by Université De Lorraine, Wiley Online Library on [11/03/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
539
Interviewer: Tell me how did you feel when you had to meet your
father with someone else in the room.
Toby: a woman (the social worker) will be with us. Dad said
he wanted to visit us in the shelter and did not know
where to go. I did not understand why he should see
us at the contact center with this woman … I think
maybe we should meet with dad without her.
3.1.2 | Inconsistent visitations
Another common experience mentioned by the children related to the
consistency and frequency of the visitations. Some of the children
reported that their father complained about the contact centre's poli-
cies and instructions and therefore decided to stop the visitations.
According to some of the children's descriptions, the father was will-
ing to meet them outside of the contact centre, independently and
without any supervision. However, due to the restrictions, it was
impossible to meet outside of the centre, and thus, the visitations
either stopped or occurred rarely. The inconsistent and infrequent vis-
itations occurred for one of two reasons: the father frequently trav-
elled abroad or the father decided that he was no longer interested in
supervised visitations. The following quotes illustrate parts of the chil-
dren's experiences:
Yossi At first, my brothers and I came to the contact center
(12): every week. When Dad came back from abroad, he came
to meet us there, and after a few weeks he left again. He
came back to see us, but it was not like every week or
anything, we did not know exactly when he would come.
Assaf Every time the social worker came into the contact center
(10): she sat there and heard what we were talking about. Dad
did not want her to stay with us, he wanted to see us out-
side and take us for pizza. He did not want to stay there,
so we did not see him for a long time.
3.2 | Ambivalence towards the visiting
arrangements
This theme represented another distinctive aspect of children's expe-
riences following visitations with their fathers. The participating chil-
dren's responses reflected a kind of ambivalence regarding the nature
of the visitations, as well as the complex experience of relating with
their fathers under the challenging circumstances (i.e., meeting with
the father in the aftermath of severe IPV towards the mother). Some
of the children's comments reflected a positive experience; for exam-
ple, they described enjoying the time with their father and siblings.
Other children indicated a more complex experience, which resulted
in negative feelings towards the visitations and, for some children, the
experience of relating with their fathers in the contact centre was

540
much less distinctive (i.e., neither conclusively negative nor positive).
These children expressed a mix of satisfaction, enjoyment, fear and
guilt. This ambivalence towards the visitations with the fathers is fur-
ther addressed in the following subthemes.
3.2.1 | Enjoying the father's attention and shared
family time
Benny (9) shared his ambivalent attitudes towards meeting his father.
On the one hand, he expressed satisfaction over meeting his father at
the contact centre; he indicated that he enjoyed the attention he
received from his father, the games that they played together, and the
snacks that his father brought him. On the other hand, he described
feelings of guilt and fear that resulted from the conversations he had
with his father.
Benny: Dad came to the contact centre many times and he
played with us.
Interviewer: And what did you think about your Dad coming to the
contact centre?
Benny: It was fun. Dad brought us bags full of snacks and
candies, and I played with him.
3.2.2 | Worry and guilt following the visitations
Some of the children described feeling worried and guilt after encoun-
tering their fathers. It is likely that these feelings derived from the chil-
dren's interactions and conversations with their fathers, as well as
from the types of messages they received from them. Benny, who
was introduced in the previous subtheme, reflected on his experience
after meeting his father:
Benny: Dad wanted us to go back to our house with Mom,
but Mom said we could not go back with him because
he did bad things to her. So, I went to see Dad at the
contact center.
Interviewer: And how did you feel then?
Benny: I was afraid that, because we stayed in the shelter,
Dad had no home to go to, and I wasn't sure if it was
good or bad that we met Dad there [in the contact
center]. I mean I wanted to see Dad but … I do not
know, it was kind of … not really easy. Mom said Dad
left our home since we moved to the shelter. Well …
maybe if we were staying at our house Dad would
have stayed with us.
A few children reported that their father had been imprisoned
while they were in the SBW. Knowing that their father was in prison
aroused feelings of anxiety, fear, and guilt among these children. The
following quotations demonstrate some of these experiences:
13652206, 2022, 3, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/cfs.12906 by Université De Lorraine, Wiley Online Library on [11/03/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
VASS AND HAJ-YAHIA
Interviewer: And where was your dad when you went to the
shelter?
Linoy Maybe in our basement, because he is a D.J. and he
(11.5): practices there, but he might be in jail, I think. I was
afraid he was going to jail. I think it's because of us
that he is in jail.
Interviewer: And what did you think when Dad no longer came to
the contact center?
Shimon I thought the police took him. Maybe if we did not go
(11): to the shelter, we could stay with Dad, but I know
Mom did not want that, I think I was worried about
him.
3.2.3 | Controversial messages from fathers
It appears that the most complex experience for children in regard to
relating with their fathers was the exposure to controversial and dis-
tressing messages from him. A few children reported they had been
asked to convey messages to their mother (e.g., to ask her to come
back home to live with the violent father and to reunite the family so
that he would not be imprisoned). The children clearly described the
problematic messages that they had been exposed to during the visi-
tations. Yossi (12) described that his father informed him that he was
going to be imprisoned soon. In his detailed description, Yossi revealed
his fear that his father might be imprisoned and reported that his dad
requested that he convey the following message to his mother:
Yossi: Dad asked me to tell Mom to bring us home and that she
should also come home. He said he might soon be taken to
prison because of what Mom said about him. And I did not
really want my father to go to jail. I think I was frightened
that he will go to jail.
An overall view of the findings gives us the impression of the chil-
dren's narrative that included more thoughts than feelings. The quota-
tions presented in the findings section showed what the children
were thinking rather than what they were feeling, even though they
were asked what were they feeling about a situation (“how did you
feel when you had to meet your father with someone else in the
room?”). To better understand this research findings, we decided to
choose the cognitive dissonance reduction theory as a conceptual
framework.
4 | DI SCU SSION
The current study addressed experiences of children who met with
their fathers during staying in an SDV. In this section, we discuss the
results along with the main premises of CDT.
The first theme, atypical visiting arrangements, addressed experi-
ences regarding the visitation model. Although the need for

VASS AND HAJ-YAHIA
supervision during visitations is clear to practitioners and to parents,
our findings show that the need for supervision was not evident to
the children. This lack of understanding may be associated with their
young age and the limited capacity of young children to perceive and
interpret events (Staf & Almqvist, 2015). Another option could be the
lack of adequate explanations by the adults (e.g., social workers or
mothers not providing information adapted to the child's level of
understanding). Children in out-of-home care, for example, are often
not adequately informed of important issues that involve them.
Increasing evidence point to the need to promote child-centred inter-
vention aimed at identifying their needs (Bowyer et al., 2015).
Another reason for the children's lack of understanding might be asso-
ciated with their intense exposure to their fathers' dissatisfaction with
the visitation model. The father's experiences might be transferred to
his children, who may have been overwhelmed by listening to his
complaints, and had to take his side. The children who confronted
with an attitude that differs from their father's attitude may experi-
ence psychological discomfort. In order to reduce this discomfort (dis-
sonance), they can change their attitude towards the supervised
visitation or increase their understanding by seeking information
about the need for supervision (Cancino-Montecinos et al., 2020;
Festinger, 1957). For example, if they are explained about the impor-
tance of having someone accompany the visitations to help them
rebuild a fulfilling father–child relationship, they might believe super-
vision is necessary.
The second aspect addressed in the second theme is the chil-
dren's ambivalence towards the visiting arrangements. Research indi-
cates that visiting arrangements can offer an opportunity for the
perpetrator to maintain power and control over the mother and the
child (Moss et al., 2004). In their mixed methods study, Galántai
et al. (2019) found that fathers may continue violent behaviours dur-
ing visitations with children. Other studies that dealt with the impact
of IPV after parents' separation, have indicated that children keep tak-
ing an active role in the conflict, and/or feel that they should serve as
a bridge between their parents (Galántai et al., 2019; Moss
et al., 2004). Such experiences may result in adverse consequences
for the child's emotional well-being (Bronte-Tinkew et al., 2006; Moss
et al., 2004). Some of the children in our study clearly described their
sense of worry and that their father might be imprisoned, and some of
them felt partially to blame for this situation. This finding corresponds
with previous research findings, indicating that children might engage
in the maladaptive coping strategy of blaming the mother or them-
selves for the outcomes of IPV. This self-blame jeopardizes children's
ability to solve problems within both interpersonal and environmental
situations (Graham-Bermann et al., 2007),
Despite these complicated circumstances, it appears that chil-
dren's relationships with their fathers were somewhat important to
them. Along with studies indicating that fathers engage in maladaptive
strategies during visitations (Callaghan et al., 2018; Dubowitz
et al., 2001; Galántai et al., 2019), few studies highlighted the sincere
intentions of fathers to meet with their children, and to successfully
fulfil their parental role. Fathers typically show a strong desire to be
good fathers, and strive to be involved in their children's lives (Perel &
13652206, 2022, 3, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/cfs.12906 by Université De Lorraine, Wiley Online Library on [11/03/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
541
Peled, 2008; Stover & Spink, 2012). Our findings show that the chil-
dren were holding more than one image of the father (e.g., father who
cares and brings them food and at the same time wants them to con-
vey messages to their mother). This ambivalence reflects how compli-
cated this experience was for them. The contradicting perceptions
may lead to psychological discomfort which, in turn lead the children
to seek strategies to reduce the dissonance (Cancino-Montecinos
et al., 2018).
Apart from reviewing specific aspects of each theme, we would
like to highlight the common aspects of the children's overall experi-
ence. Children had to meet with their fathers in atypical new settings,
under the circumstances of the parents' separation following IPV. This
situation may lead to varied cognitive conflicts: a conflict between
two different attitudes (e.g., “it is important to meet my father” vs. “it
is not fair to meet with him after what he has done to mother”), two
different desires (e.g., “I want to meet my father” vs. “I don't under-
stand why it has to be under supervision”), and two different experi-
ences (e.g., “I enjoy meeting my father and eating pizza together”
vs. “I feel bad when he is telling me about him going to jail”). The chil-
dren who confront these opposing cognitions in the “here and now”
(i.e., before, during, and/or after the visitation) are prone to experi-
ence psychological discomfort.
Another interesting finding associated with both themes is the
lack of emotional expressions. The children mostly reflected on their
experiences through cognitive components (e.g., thoughts and
insights). Their narrative included more thoughts and way of thinking
than feelings. Their descriptions primarily revolved around three
dimensions: the type of visitation (e.g., supervised), its essence
(e.g., inconsistent and unstable), and its content (e.g., father's attempt
to convey messages to the mother). This finding might be explained
by the difficulty of children to express anger and frustration towards
their caregivers (Callaghan et al., 2018). When a child inhibits
him/herself from having aggressive thoughts towards a perpetrator
caregiver, the probability of survival is increased (Dubowitz
et al., 2001). In relation to our findings, we assume that the children
tried to avoid negative feelings towards the father as an attempt to
cope with meeting him. The children's disconnection from their own
negative emotions may be an outcome of the dissonance, or a strat-
egy to cope with it. According to emotional regulation theory, the
child would have to change his or her attitude towards meeting the
father under supervision, in order to regulate the negative feelings
(Cancino-Montecinos et al., 2018, 2020).
4.1 | Limitations
The current study significantly contributes to the body of knowledge
in the field of children's exposure to IPV by providing insights into an
understudied domain. The findings described experiences of con-
necting with fathers amidst the challenging circumstances of staying
in an SDV. Although the valuable contributions of our results to prac-
tice and theory, there are several limitations related to the sample and
analysis procedures. The main limitation of this study concerns the
 13652206, 2022, 3, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/cfs.12906 by Université De Lorraine, Wiley Online Library on [11/03/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
542 VASS AND HAJ-YAHIA

lack of presentation of children's emotions. We assume that the inter-
view procedure (e.g., one face-to-face interview with each child) may
not have suitably enabled the children to openly express and/or
expand on their emotions within the interview setting. For future
research it is highly recommended to include creative techniques such
as projection games, plays, and crafts to be used within the interview
setting. Other limitation concerns the range of time in which the chil-
dren had stayed in an SDV. Of the inclusion criteria for the current
study, one was that the child must have stayed in the SDV for 1–
12 months. Due to the limited scope of the study, we did not examine
whether children who stayed in the SDV for a short period of time
had different experiences than those who were there for longer
period. We assume that there would be differences in the experiences
depending on the length of their stay in the SDV.
4.2 | Implications
Children's descriptions show that relating with one's father in atypical
setting of the FCC, and under the circumstances of living in an SDV, is
a difficult situation for young children to manage. We strongly recom-
mend that practitioners listen directly to the children and optimize
efforts to meet their needs (Galántai et al., 2019; Staf &
Almqvist, 2015). Below the surface of their descriptions, it appears
they were striving for privacy and stability when meeting their fathers.
In an effort to understand the experiences of children and relate to
their needs, we suggest the following model, based on the DRT.
4.3 | A dissonance reduction based intervention
model for children and fathers at FCCs
This model is inspired by Cancino-Montecinos et al.'s (2020) recent
work, as well as by Festinger's (1957) main premises. The model sug-
gests several steps (see Table 2). The first step is to conduct follow-up
T A B L E 2 Dissonance reduction-based intervention model for
children meeting their father in FCC
Psychological
Recommended step Main task outcome
conversations with both children and fathers, as well as with the
staff, with an aim to increase the understanding of each person's
experiences. Second, we recommend taking into consideration
the ambivalent experience that children may have underwent,
reflect this ambivalence to the children, fathers, and staff, and to
address the dissonance. Through this second step, practitioners
would be able to help the children recognize their attitudes
towards the situation and validate the dissonance. Third, we recom-
mend developing appropriate strategies to reduce the dissonance
(see Table 2). By drawing on DRT, we assume that children's
positive emotions towards relating with their fathers would relate to
attitude change (Festinger, 1957).
Lastly, practitioners at SDVs and FCCs may benefit from using a
simplified strategy of dissonance reduction, which involves paying
attention to their own personal attitudes about how to manage visita-
tions, while also noticing when their attitudes contradict with what
would best promote children's well-being. Although it is a policy
imperative for children to remain having contact with their fathers in
most cases, our findings raise the question whether this policy is suit-
able for all children, particularly whilst they are living in SDVs. The real
and felt safety concerns expressed by the children in our study bring
the topic of legal visitations with perpetrator's fathers into a serious
dilemma.
4.4 | Conclusions
The current study provides an added value to the field of exposure to
IPV, and specifically to the study of children in SDVs. The combination
of examining a sensitive topic and conducting a study with a sample
of vulnerable children adds significant value to the body of knowledge
in the field. In this study, we have addressed the classic conceptual
framework DRT, which shed a light on examining specific needs of
children that communicating with their fathers under circumstances
of IPV and SDVs. As for future research, we recommend conducting
more theory-based research on sensitive topics among this popula-
tion, drawing upon relevant frameworks with an aim to better under-
stand these children and determine useful strategies to address their
needs. We particularly recommend conducting research examining
the emotional state of these children for the purpose of promoting
their emotional well-being.

(1) Follow-up Help the child Relief, increased

conversations with recognize his or her AC KNOW LEDG EME NT
children, fathers, attitudes or This study was financially supported by The Henry Zucker Foundation
and staff perceptions at The Hebrew University of Jerusalem and The Haruv Institute.
acknowledgment
(2) Addressing the Help the child Better emotions
DATA AVAILABILITY STAT EMEN T
ambivalence and understand the regulation
validating the dissonance, help him The data that support the findings of this study are available from the
dissonance process feelings corresponding author upon reasonable request.
(3) Implementing Identify the strategy Reduced
strategies to that works better to psychological OR CID
reduce the achieve dissonance discomfort Anat Vass https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6305-9531
dissonance reduction
Muhammad M. Haj-Yahia https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0918-8030

VASS AND HAJ-YAHIA
RE FE R ENC E S
Allgood, S. M., Beckert, T. E., & Peterson, C. (2012). The role of father
involvement in the perceived psychological well-being of young adult
daughters: A retrospective study. North American Journal of Psychology,
14, 95–110.
Anderson, K., & van Ee, E. (2018). Mothers and children exposed to inti-
mate partner violence: A review of treatment interventions. Interna-
tional Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 15, 2–25.
https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15091955
Auerbach, C. F., & Silverstein, L. B. (2003). Qualitative data: An introduction
to coding and analysis. New York University Press.
Borrego, J. Jr., Gutow, M. R., Reichert, S., & Barker, C. H. (2008). Parent–
child interaction therapy with domestic violence populations. Journal
of Family Violence, 23, 295–505. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-
008-9177-4
Bowyer, L., Swanston, J., & Vetere, A. (2015). ‘Eventually you just get used
to it’: An interpretative phenomenological analysis of 10–16year old
girls' experiences of the transition into temporary accommodation
after exposure to domestic violence. Clinical Child Psychology and Psy-
chiatry, 20, 304–323. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359104513508963
Braun, V., & Clark, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Quali-
tative Research in Psychology, 3, 77–101. https://doi.org/10.1191/
1478088706qp063oa
Bronte-Tinkew, J., Moore, K. A., & Carrano, J. (2006). The father–child
relationship, parenting styles, and adolescent risk behaviors in intact
families. Journal of Family Issues, 27, 850–881. https://doi.org/10.
1177/0192513X05285296
Callaghan, J. E. M. (2015). Mothers and children? Representations of
mothers in research on children's outcomes in domestic violence. Psy-
chology of Women Quarterly, 16, 2–5.
Callaghan, J. E. M., Alexander, J. H., Sixsmith, J., & Fellin, L. C. (2018).
Beyond “witnessing”: Children's experiences of coercive control in
domestic violence and abuse. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 33,
1551–1581. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260515618946
Cancino-Montecinos, S., Björklund, F., & Lindholm, T. (2018). Dissonance
reduction as emotion regulation: Attitude change is related to positive
emotions in the induced compliance paradigm. PLoS ONE, 13(12),
e0209012. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0209012
Cancino-Montecinos, S., Björklund, F., & Lindholm, T. (2020). A general
model of dissonance reduction: Unifying past accounts via an emotion
regulation perspective. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 3184. https://doi.
org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.540081
Chang, J. J., Halpern, C. T., & Kaufman, J. S. (2007). Maternal depressive
symptoms, father's involvement, and the trajectories of child problem
behaviors in a US national sample. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent
Medicine, 161, 697–703. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpedi.161.7.697
Chanmugam, A. (2011). Perspectives on US domestic violence emergency
shelters: What do young adolescent residents and their mothers say?
Child Care in Practice, 17, 393–415. https://doi.org/10.1080/
13575279.2011.596814
Coker, A. L., Watkins, K. W., Smith, P. H., & Brandt, H. M. (2003). Social
support reduces the impact of partner violence on health: Application
of structural equation models. Preventative Medicine, 37, 259–267.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0091-7435(03)00122-1
Cook, F., Hegarty, K., Herrman, H., Nicholson, J., Reilly, S., Hiscock, H.,
Sciberras, E., & Brown, S. J. (2021). Intimate partner violence and child
outcomes at age 10: A pregnancy cohort. Archives of Disease in Child-
hood, 106, 1066–1074. https://doi.org/10.1136/archdischild-2020-
320321
Creswell, J. W. (1998). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing
among five traditions. Sage.
Denzin, N. K. (1989). Interpretive interactionism. Sage.
Dubowitz, H., Black, M. M., Cox, C. E., Kerr, M. A., Litrownik, A. J.,
Radhakrishna, A., & Runyan, D. K. (2001). Father involvement and
children's functioning at age 6 years: A multisite study. Child
13652206, 2022, 3, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/cfs.12906 by Université De Lorraine, Wiley Online Library on [11/03/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
543
Maltreatment, 6, 300–309. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077559501006
004003
Edleson, J. L. (2001). Studying the co-occurrence of child maltreatment
and domestic violence in families. In J. L. Edleson & S. A. Graham-
Bermann (Eds.), Domestic violence in the lives of children: The future of
research, intervention, and social policy (pp. 91–110). American Psycho-
logical Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/10408-005
Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford University
Press.
Figge, C. J., Martinez-Torteya, C., Bogat, G. A., & Levendosky, A. A. (2021).
Child appraisals of interparental conflict: The effects of intimate part-
ner violence and parent–child relationship quality. Journal of Interper-
sonal Violence, 36(9–10), NP4919–NP4940. https://doi.org/10.1177/
0886260518794509
Galántai, J., Ligeti, A. S., & Wirth, J. (2019). Children exposed to violence:
Child custody and its effects on children in intimate partner violence
related cases in Hungary. Journal of Family Violence, 34, 399–409.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-019-00066-y
Gartland, D., Conway, L. J., Giallo, R., Mensah, F. K., Cook, F., Hegarty, K.,
Herrman, H., Nicholson, J., Reilly, S., Hiscock, H., Sciberras, E., &
Brown, S. J. (2021). Intimate partner violence and child outcomes at
age 10: A pregnancy cohort. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 106,
1066–1074. https://doi.org/10.1136/archdischild-2020-320321
Gartland, D., Giallo, R., Woolhouse, H., Mensah, F., & Brown, S. J. (2019).
Intergenerational impacts of family violence—Mothers and children in
a large prospective pregnancy cohort study. EClinical Medicine, 15, 51–
61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eclinm.2019.08.008
Gjelsvik, A., Verhoek-Oftedahl, W., & Pearlman, D. N. (2003). Domestic
violence incidents with children witnesses: Findings from Rhode Island
surveillance data. Women's Health Issues, 13, 68–73. https://doi.org/
10.1016/S1049-3867(02)00197-4
Goldstein, B. L., Briggs-Gowan, M., & Grasso, D. J. (2021). The effects of
intimate partner violence and a history of childhood abuse on mental
health and stress during pregnancy. Journal of Family Violence, 36(3),
337–346. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-020-00149-1
Graham-Bermann, S. A., Castor, L., Miller, L. E., & Howell, K. H. (2012). The
impact of additional traumatic events to trauma symptoms and PTSD
in children exposed to intimate partner violence. Journal of Traumatic
Stress, 25, 393–400. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.21724
Graham-Bermann, S. A., Lynch, S., Banyard, V., DeVoe, E., & Halabu, H.
(2007). Community-based intervention for children exposed to inti-
mate partner violence: An efficacy trial. Journal of Consulting and Clini-
cal Psychology, 75, 199–209. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.75.
2.199
Guest, G., Bunce, A., & Johnson, L. (2006). How many interviews are
enough? Field Methods, 18, 59–82. https://doi.org/10.1177/
1525822X05279903
Hague, G., & Mullender, A. (2006). Who listens? The voices of domestic
violence survivors in service provision in the United Kingdom. Violence
against Women, 12, 568–587. https://doi.org/10.1177/
1077801206289132
Haj-Yahia, M. M., & Cohen, H. C. (2009). On the lived experience of
battered women residing in shelters. Journal of Family Violence, 24,
95–109. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-008-9214-3
Hardesty, J. L., Crossman, K. A., Haselschwerdt, M. L., Raffaelli, M.,
Ogolsky, B. G., & Johnson, M. P. (2015). Toward a standard approach
to operationalizing coercive control and classifying violence types.
Journal of Marriage and Family, 77, 833–843. https://doi.org/10.1111/
jomf.12201
Helfrich, C. A., Fujiura, G. T., & Rutkowski-Kmitta, V. (2008). Mental health
disorders and functioning of women in domestic violence shelters.
Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 23, 437–453. https://doi.org/10.
1177/0886260507312942
Holt, S., Buckley, H., & Whelan, S. (2008). The impact of exposure to
domestic violence on children and young people: A review of the

544
literature. Child Abuse & Neglect, 32, 797–810. https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.chiabu.02.004
Hungerford, A., Sierra, K. W., Alyssa, M. F., & Caroline, M. C. (2012). Expo-
sure to intimate partner violence and children's psychological adjust-
ment, cognitive functioning, and social competence: A review.
Aggression and Violent Behavior, 17, 373–382. https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.avb.2012.04.002
Jarvis, K. L., Gordon, E. E., & Novaco, R. W. (2005). Psychological distress
of children and mothers in domestic violence emergency shelters.
Journal of Family Violence, 20, 389–402. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s10896-005-7800-1
Jouriles, E. N., & McDonald, R. (2015). Intimate partner violence,
coercive control, and child adjustment problems. Journal of Interper-
sonal Violence, 30, 459–474. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260514
535099
Katz, E. (2016). Beyond the physical incident model: How children living
with domestic violence are harmed by and resist regimes of coercive
control. Child Abuse Review, 25, 46–59. https://doi.org/10.1002/car.
2422
Lamb, K., Humphreys, C., & Hegarty, K. (2018). “Your behavior has conse-
quences”: Children and young people's perspectives on reparation
with their fathers after domestic violence. Children and Youth Services
Review, 88, 164–169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2018.
03.013
Leon, S. C., Bai, G. J., & Fuller, A. K. (2016). Father involvement in child
welfare: Associations with changes in externalizing behavior. Child
Abuse & Neglect, 55, 73–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2016.
04.003
Levendosky, A. A., Huth-Bocks, A. C., Shapiro, D. L., & Semel, M. A. (2003).
The impact of domestic violence on the maternal-child relationship
and preschool-age children's functioning. Journal of Family Psychology,
17, 275–287. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.17.3.275
Lincoln, Y. S., & Guba, E. G. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry (Vol. 9) (pp. 438–
439). Sage. https://doi.org/10.1016/0147-1767(85)90062-8
Lyon, E., Lane, S., & Menard, A. (2008). Meeting survivors' needs: A multi-
state study of domestic violence shelter experiences. National Institute of
Justice.
McDonald, R., Jouriles, E. N., & Skopp, N. A. (2006). Reducing conduct
problems among children brought to women's shelters: Intervention
effects 24 months following termination of services. Journal of Family
Psychology, 20, 127–136. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.20.
1.127
McLeod, J. (2001). Qualitative research in counseling and psychotherapy.
Sage. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781849209663
McWayne, C., Downer, J. T., Campos, R., & Harris, R. D. (2013). Father
involvement during early childhood and its association with children's
early learning: A meta-analysis. Early Education & Development, 24,
898–922. https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2013.746932
Mohr, W. K., Lutz, M. J. N., Fantuzzo, J. W., & Perry, M. A. (2000). Children
exposed to family violence: A review of empirical research from a
developmental–ecological perspective. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 1,
264–283. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838000001003004
Moss, E., Cyr, C., & Dubois-Comtois, K. (2004). Attachment at early school
age and developmental risk: Examining family contexts and behavior
problems of controlling- caregiving, controlling-punitive, and behavior-
ally disorganized children. Developmental Psychology, 40, 519–532.
https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.40.4.519
Palm, G., & Fagan, J. (2008). Father involvement in early childhood pro-
grams: Review of the literature. Early Child Development & Care, 178,
745–759. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430802352137
Patton, M. Q. (1990). Qualitative evaluation and research methods (2nd ed.).
Sage.
13652206, 2022, 3, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/cfs.12906 by Université De Lorraine, Wiley Online Library on [11/03/2023]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
VASS AND HAJ-YAHIA
Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative research & evaluation methods. Sage.
Perel, G., & Peled, E. (2008). The fathering of violent men constriction and
yearning. Violence against Women, 14, 457–482. https://doi.org/10.
1177/1077801208314846
Pernebo, K., & Almqvist, K. (2017). Young children exposed to intimate
partner violence describe their parent: A qualitative study. Journal of
Family Violence, 32, 169–178. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-016-
9856-5
Qverlien, C. (2011). Narrating the good life—Children in shelters for
abused women talk about the future. Qualitative Social Work, 11, 470–
485. https://doi.org/10.1177/1473325011401469
Shostack, A. L. (2001). Shelters for battered women and their children: A
comprehensive guide to planning and operating safe and caring residential
programs. Charles C. Thomas.
Staf, G. A., & Almqvist, K. (2015). How children with experiences of inti-
mate partner violence towards the mother understand and relate to
their father. Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 20, 148–163.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1359104513503352
Stover, C. S., & Spink, A. (2012). Affective awareness in parenting of
fathers with co-occurring substance abuse and intimate partner vio-
lence. Advances in Dual Diagnosis, 5, 74–85. https://doi.org/10.1108/
17570971211241903
Taplin, S., Bullen, T., McArthur, M., Humphreys, C., Kertesz, M., &
Dobbins, T. (2015). KContact, an enhanced intervention for contact
between children in out-of-home care and their parents: Protocol for a
cluster randomized controlled trial. BMC Public Health, 15, 1134.
https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-015-2461-3
Thiara, R. K., & Humphreys, C. (2017). Absent presence: The on-going
impact of men's violence on the mother–child relationship. Child &
Family Social Work, 22, 137–145. https://doi.org/10.1111/cfs.12210
Thompson-Walsh, C., Scott, K., Dyson, A., & Lishank, V. (2018). Are we in
this together? Post-separation co-parenting of fathers with and with-
out a history of domestic violence. Child Abuse Review., 27, 137–149.
https://doi.org/10.1002/car
Tutty, L. M. (2006). Effective practices in sheltering women: Leaving violence
in intimate relationships. YWCA Canada.
Tutty, M. L., Weaver, G., & Rothery, M. A. (1999). Resident's view of the
efficacy of shelter for assault women. Violence against Women, 5, 898–
925. https://doi.org/10.1177/10778019922181545
Vass, A., & Haj-Yahia, M. M. (2019). “Which home are we going back to?”
Children's lived experiences after leaving shelters for battered women.
Children and Youth Services Review, 108, 104670. https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.childyouth.2019.104670
Vass, A., & Haj-Yahia, M. M. (2020). “Pay attention to me”: Children's sub-
jective perceptions of the process of leaving home with their mothers
to shelters for battered women. Violence against Women, 27, 295–319.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801219890421
Yoon, S., Bellamy, J. L., Kim, W., & Yoon, D. (2018). Father involvement
and behavior problems among preadolescents at risk of maltreatment.
Journal of Child and Family Studies, 27, 494–504. https://doi.org/10.
1007/s10826-017-0890-6
How to cite this article: Vass, A., & Haj-Yahia, M. M. (2022).
The ambivalent visit: Children's experiences of relating with
their fathers during staying in shelters for women survivors of
domestic violence. Child & Family Social Work, 27(3), 535–544.
https://doi.org/10.1111/cfs.12906