(1) DRLG STRG

DRILL PIPE
Drill pipe is seamless tube, equipped with special threaded couplings called tool joints. It is used to transmit
rotary power from the surface to the bottom of the hole and to supply fluid at sufficient volume and pressure to
the bit.
1.1.1.1 LENGTH
Drill pipe is available in singles or joints which refers to one piece of tube with a tool joint at each end. "Single"
is a term arising from the frequent use of three joints connected together to form a stand or a "triple" of drill
pipe, thus one joint is referred to as "a single".
Drill pipe singles can be supplied in three length ranges. Ranges I, II & III. The most commonly used is Range
II, this being 9·14 m (30 ft) in length, not including the tool joint. Actual lengths in all ranges are normally
irregular, Range II can be from 9·1 to 9·2 m long for example. Uniform lengths can be specified at extra cost,
but this is not normally done.
Range I (6.7 m or 22 ft) is now obsolete and Range III (12.19 m or 40 ft) is not common. However, as Range I
drill pipe was the original standard length supplied by the manufacturers, the nominal weight for Range I is still
quoted when ordering or supplying pipe.
1.1.1.2 SIZE (OUTSIDE DIAMETER - OD) AND WEIGHT
When referring to the size of drill pipe we are talking about the outside diameter (OD) of the drill pipe tube. The
sizes most commonly used are 5" [127mm], 41/2" [114·3 mm] ( mainly USA) and 31/2" [88·9 mm]. Less
frequently used sizes are 65/8" [168·2 mm], 51/2" [139.7 mm], 27/8" [73 mm] and 23/8" [60·3 mm]. The reason
for choosing a given size of drill pipe will be explained in detail later in this Part.
In a number of Operating Companies 6-5/8" (168.2 mm) DP and 51/2" (139.7mm) DP are increasingly being
used in large and high angle hole size sections (e.g. 23" [584.2 mm], 17-1/2" [444.5 mm] etc.) to reduce the
pressure loss down the inside of the drill pipe. This allows an increased annular flow for the same maximum
pump pressure and improves hole cleaning.
In addition to normal drill pipe, heavy wall drill pipe with a reduced I.D. is available for special purposes. It is
used mainly as an intermediate member of the drill string between the drill collars and the normal drill pipe.
This will be discussed later (see Topic 1.3).
The drill pipe weight per foot is determined by the tube wall thickness and the dimensions of the tool joint.
This weight depends on the type of tool joint and range of pipe used. It is known as the approximate weight or
adjusted weight and is quoted either in kg/m or lbs/ft (mass). The name nominal weight per foot refers to an
outmoded standard of drill pipe and is nowadays used only as an indication of the sort of drill pipe being
specified. The nominal weight per foot should not therefore be used for calculation purposes.
1.1.1.3 GRADE
The grade of drill pipe is a letter code given to drill pipe to indicate its tensile strength. Drill pipe is available in
the four grades given in Table 2.1.1. In order to understand the relevance of drill pipe grade an understanding of
the response of metal to stress and strain is required.
• Stress is the total load divided by the original cross-sectional area of the test piece.
• Strain is the deformation or elongation between two gauge points marked on a test piece divided by the
original gauge length.
• Elastic strain - The material deforms but returns to its original shape when the load is removed. Plastic
strain - The material deforms but does not return to its original shape when the load is removed.

6:12 AM 12/11/2006 M A-
A-Mohsen
(2) DRLG STRG
Various load tests can be made to establish the load at which certain materials will alter shape temporarily, alter
shape permanently or break. The tests are: tension, torsion, compression and shear. The tension test is the
most common and is qualitatively characteristic of all the other types of tests. The behaviour of a material under
the gradual increase of tension is usually represented by plotting apparent stress as ordinate (y-axis) against the
apparent strain as abscissa (x-axis). A typical curve for steel is shown in Figure 2.1.2.

Figure 2.1.2 : Stress-Strain Diagram

In Figure 2.1.2 the elastic deformation is approximately a straight line (as required by Hooke's law), and the
slope of this line, or the ratio of stress to strain within the elastic range, is called the modulus of elasticity E
(sometimes called Young's modulus).
Beyond the elastic limit (Point A in Figure 2.1.2), permanent or plastic deformation results. If the stress is
relieved in the region between the elastic limit (A) and the yield strength (B) the material will contract along a
line generally almost straight and parallel to the original elastic line (to C) leaving a permanent set (from the
origin of the axis to C).
In the harder and stronger steels, and under certain temperature conditions, the yield phenomenon is less
prominent and is correspondingly harder to measure.
For steels used in manufacturing tubular goods API specifies the yield strength as the tensile strength required
to produce a total elongation of 0·5%, 0·6% or 0·7% (depending on the type of steel) of the gauge length. This
value corresponds to a permanent set of 0·2 %. However, to determine the acceptability of a steel for a
particular purpose, the yield strength value must be between a pre-determined maximum and minimum value.
The lower value is referred to as "the minimum yield for strength" and is used in calculations.
The integer part of the drill pipe (and casing!) 'grade' letter is based on the minimum yield strength, e.g.:

6:12 AM 12/11/2006 M A-
A-Mohsen
(3) DRLG STRG
for drill pipe:

D(55) : minimum yield strength = 379 MPa = 55,000 psi

E(75) : minimum yield strength = 517 MPa = 75,000 psi

X(95) : minimum yield strength = 655 MPa = 95,000 psi

G(105) : minimum yield strength = 724 MPa = 105,000 psi

S(135) : minimum yield strength = 931 MPa = 135,000 psi

for tubing and casing:

H40 : minimum yield strength = 276 MPa = 40,000 psi

K55/J55 : minimum yield strength = 379 MPa = 55,000 psi

N80/L80 : minimum yield strength = 552 MPa = 80,000 psi

P110 : minimum yield strength = 758 MPa = 110,000 psi

For further reference, the mechanical and chemical properties of drill pipe are described in the API documents
listed on page 2/1/3.
The minimum yield stress is the parameter used in design calculations. To ensure that the tensile stress applied
to the pipe remains in the elastic behaviour range for steel, a design factor of 1·15 is used during calculations to
determine the maximum allowable load.
One further step can now be taken to find the maximum tension that can be applied to any grade of drill pipe.
The cross-sectional area of the tube is multiplied by the tensile strength of the steel used in the tube.
1.1.1.4 DIMENSION AND STRENGTH DATA SOURCES
The source of all data concerning the dimensions and strength of drill string components, including drill
pipe, is the API documentation. These documents form the foundations upon which most other drill
string design manuals, notebooks and handbooks are based. Most drilling engineering tables and graphs
are constructed from the equations in API RP 7G.
1.1.1.5 API CLASSIFICATION FOR DRILL PIPE
As drill pipe is used it wears, just like any moving component, and is also affected by high loads such as those
experienced during fishing operations and by damage inflicted by handling equipment. All this has an effect on
its properties. The rate of deterioration depends on the severity of the drilling conditions. The API takes this into
account and classifies drill pipe into three different classes - Class 1, Premium and Class 2 - based on the
amount and type of wear/defects. (Class 1 drill pipe is as new with no defects.) For easy recognition in the field
the API also recommends that the different classes should be colour coded, using bands at the box end of the
pipe. The classification and colour coding are given in API RP 7G. They can also be found in the Well
Engineers Notebook, Section C and the IFP Drilling Data Handbook, section B. Drill pipe should be inspected
regularly during its use and if necessary reclassified in accordance with API specification.

6:12 AM 12/11/2006 M A-
A-Mohsen
(4) DRLG STRG
Even drill pipe in apparently as-new condition is rarely classed as new when being used for drilling. It is usually
considered as Premium. This is done for several reasons:
• Once the drill pipe has been in the hole there is no guarantee that each connection is still Class 1. It
would be very expensive to re qualify a whole string of pipe before each use.
• By using 'Premium' classification another safety factor is introduced for tensile yield.
1.1.2 THE TOOL JOINT
A tool joint is a heavy coupling element for drill pipe. Tool joints have coarse, tapered threads and seating
shoulders designed to:
• suspend the weight of the drill string.
• withstand the strain of frequent makeup and breakout.
• provide a leak proof seal.
The tool joint is attached to the pipe by welding during the manufacture of the drill pipe joint. It has two parts, a
pin and a box.

Figure 2.1.3b : DP Tool joint - Box

Figure 2.1.3a : DP Tool joint - Pin

1.1.2.1 TYPES OF TOOL JOINT

Tool joints were developed starting with simple screwed-on, welded and shrunk-on designs, which could be
replaced in the field.
Today, these field replaceable tool joints are no longer API standard, and have largely been replaced by flash-
weld and inertia or friction welded tool joints.
Flash-welding means the pipe and tool joint are held in correct alignment while the weld zone is heated by a
surrounding induction coil. An arc is struck between the two items, pipe and tool joint, and at welding
temperature they are forced together with a pressure sufficient to weld them and extrude molten metal from the
joint. The physical properties of the weld area are subsequently restored by quenching and tempering (a process
of cooling quickly followed by re-heating and slow cooling).
Inertia friction welding means that the pipe is clamped and the tool joint is rotated while being pressed against
the pipe. The friction heat increases the temperature of the pipe in a very localised zone until welding
temperature has been achieved. Rotation is then stopped and the tool joint is pressed onto the pipe.
1.1.2.2 DRILL PIPE UPSETS
At each end of the drill pipe tube, where the tool joint is attached, the wall thickness of the pipe is increased.
This is called an "upset".
Upsets increase the strength of the welding areas and change the transition from pipe to tool joint more
gradually.Internal (see Figure 2.1.4a), external (Figure 2.1.4b)or internal/external upsets (Figure 2.1.4c) are
used.

6:12 AM 12/11/2006 M A-
A-Mohsen
(5) DRLG STRG

Figure 2.1.4d : DP Internal Upset

Figure 2.1.4a-c : Drill pipe upset types

Figure 2.1.4d shows a cross section of new drill pipe. The internal upset can be seen clearly. With this piece of
pipe there was a flaw in the manufacture giving a smooth upset on the left but a sharp undesirable one on the
right. This could cause premature failure.
1.1.2.3 API DRILL PIPE CONNECTIONS
During the early days of drilling oil wells drill pipe and drill collars from different manufacturers often did not
match up. Wall thickness, inside and outside diameters differed for similar weights of pipe. This lead to
confusion and failures. The American Petroleum Institute (API) took it upon themselves to standardise threads
and fittings and it is this standard that is used in today's drilling industry. To understand the API standards it is
essential to be familiar with the terminology used. This section will explain the terminology used and enable the
reader to understand better the standards used in the industry today.
Thread connections
The most common API thread connections used to be:
• Regular (Reg).
• Full Hole (FH).
• Internal Flush (IF).
Regular (Reg.) and Full Hole (FH) types of threads have a thread profile that is V- shaped, the bottom of which
is rounded and the top slightly flattened. However, as their pin length and taper differ, Reg. and FH threads are
not interchangeable. Internal Flush (IF) thread also has a V-shaped profile but the thread is flattened both at the
bottom and the top producing a trapezium shape (see Figure 2.1.5).

6:12 AM 12/11/2006 M A-
A-Mohsen
(6) DRLG STRG

Figure 2.1.6 : Tool joint pin dimensions

Figure 2.1.5 : API Thread forms

In 1964 the API adopted a new series of rotary shouldered connections. These connection were designed to
improve the performance of drill collar connections and drill pipe tool joints. The new series set new standards,
providing connection designs more suited to the harsher drilling conditions of the day. In 1968 most of the
numbered connections were given "standard" status and all API "IF" (Internal Flush) and FH (Full Hole)
references became theoretically obsolete.
In the new style of connection reference, the number following the letters "NC" indicates the pitch diameter for
the pin at the gauge point (see Figure 2.1.1.5). Five of the NC connections correspond to the same size in the IF
style, and one to the 4" FH connection, as shown below:
• NC 26 replaced 23/8" IF NC 40 replaced 4" FH
• NC 31 replaced 27/8" IF NC 46 replaced 41/4" IF
• NC 38 replaced 31/2" IF NC 50 replaced 41/2" IF
In Figure 2.1.6, Dp is the pitch diameter at the gauge point, expressed in inches. The NC number is derived from
the first two figures of the pitch diameter value, as shown in the example below.
Note: Drill collars with 81/4" (209·55 mm) and 91/2" (241·3 mm) outside diameter are shown as having API
65/8" and 75/8" Reg. connections as standard since there are no NC connections in this range.
You may logically think it unnecessary in a learning package to make reference to, and give details of,
connections that became obsolete thirty years ago. In practice however, the old connections are still widely
used, and you need to be familiar with them. Indeed, the 51/2" FH connection was officially reinstated in 1978
and the 65/8" FH connection was officially reinstated in 1993 (probably due to its popularity as the connection
for 65/8" DP).

6:12 AM 12/11/2006 M A-
A-Mohsen
(7) DRLG STRG
Tool joint specification
A considerable range of tool joint thread and upset types are available for a particular pipe size, but tool joints
for standard weights and grades of drill pipe have been established by API, together with dimensions of the
upsets required for weld-on connections to be applied (IADC Drilling Manual, Section B1, or API specification
RP 7G).
Examples of drill pipe and corresponding tool joint dimensions can be seen below in Table 2.1.2. This
illustrates some of the different tool joint dimensions that can be attached to the same size tube.

Beware of using API tables if the drill pipe you have has non-standard tool joints.

Table 2.1.2 : Examples of drill pipe - tool joint combinations

Common types of tool joint design dimensions include those shown in Table 2.1.3 below. This table illustrates
the different dimensions of the same sized but different type of tool joint. Note that tube size does not appear in
this table.
Other tool joint dimensions
Almost all weld on tool joint boxes have 18° tapered elevator shoulders. The equivalent taper on the tool joint
pins is usually 35°. Older non-welded tool joints may have tapered or square (90°) elevator shoulders, but it is
unlikely that any of these are still used in Shell operations.
Table 2.1.3 : Examples of tool joint dimensions

The drill pipe elevators support the pipe under the elevator shoulder of the box connection. If the elevator
shoulder is tapered the elevators are heavier design to accept the radial loads generated by the engaging tapers.
Older elevators designed for 90° elevator shoulders should not be used on welded connections with tapered
elevator shoulders.

1.1.3 TOOL JOINT STRENGTH

The strength of tool joints is dependent on a number of factors; the material used to make the tool joint, the
dimensions of the joint and the type of thread used. The strength of the pin may be different from that of the
box.

6:12 AM 12/11/2006 M A-
A-Mohsen
(8) DRLG STRG
1.1.3.1 MATERIAL STRENGTH
For API tool joints the material yield strength is the same, regardless of the grade of tube to which it is fitted.
All API tool joints have a minimum yield strength of 120,000 psi.
Bearing in mind the above, one may think fitting a tool joint with a minimum yield strength of 120,000 psi to a
grade S tube with a minimum yield strength of 135,000 psi may be a bit ridiculous. However, the minimum
tensile yield of new 5", S grade, 19.5 lbs/ft nominal wt tube is 712 k.lbs. The minimum tensile yield of an NC50
connector is 1,390 k.lbs (2.75" ID, pin weak). The weakest part of the tool joint has larger cross-sectional area
than the tube and is therefore the stronger.
1.1.3.2 PIN WEAK OR BOX WEAK
"Pin weak" means that the pin is weaker than the box. This can mean a tensile or torsional weakness relative to
the box. "Box weak" is the other way around. The box is weaker than the pin.
1.1.3.3 TOOL JOINT STRENGTH IN TORSION
The main factors which control tool joint torsional strength are the pin or box metal cross-sectional area and the
minimum yield strength of the metal. Tool joint OD affects the box cross-sectional area, and tool joint ID
controls the pin cross-sectional area.
It is normal for the tool joint OD to wear down during service. If the box cross-sectional area becomes less than
the pin cross-sectional area there will be a reduction in torsional strength of that joint (box weak).
The API sets the joint torsional strength at an arbitrary value of about 80% of the tube torsional strength. It is
this 0·8 design factor that is used to establish the tool joint IDs and ODs for all three classes of drill pipe.
1.1.3.4 TOOL JOINT MAKE-UP
Sealing
The connection must be able to ensure that the shoulder of the box and pin will make up together so tightly that
they will seal when exposed to operating conditions in the well bore. Threaded connections must withstand
tensile, pressure and bending forces under normal drilling conditions, without allowing the shoulders of the
connection to separate. The only pressure seal in a tool joint connection is formed by the shoulder to shoulder
contact between pin and box end (see Figure 2.1.7a). The thread does not form a pressure seal.

Figure 2.1.7b : Make-up torque forces

Figure 2.1.7a : Tool joint seal

Make-up torque
The parameter that governs the contact pressure between the pin and box shoulders is the make-up torque. This
is the torque value used to screw the pin and box connections together. It compresses the box and stretches the

6:12 AM 12/11/2006 M A-
A-Mohsen
(9) DRLG STRG
pin. The effect of the two elastic displacements keeps properly made-up connections from leaking even when
bent around a dogleg.
It should be noted that excessive make-up torque decreases the tensile capacity of a connection pin by pre-
loading it. If a tool joint is over-torqued the tensile capacity changes. Tool joint combined load curves should be
used to determine the acceptability of particular combinations of tension and torque. See Topic 1.4.2.16

Consign to the waste paper basket any tables that show drill pipe make-up torque as a function of pipe weight and size.

The minimum tensile yield of all API connections is 120,000 psi. Tool joint make up torque is set at a value that
pre-stresses the box and pin to 60% of their minimum tensile yield, i.e.72,000 psi for all drill pipe tool joints.
The make up torque is therefore determined by the ID and OD of the tool joint regardless of the pipe weights or
dimensions.
Calculation of make up torques is not recommended as the formula contains thread dimensions and other tool
joint dimensions that are not readily available in the field. There are tables available in the Well Engineers
Notebook and the IFP Drilling Data HandbookB.
Bending
As the drill string bends under down hole conditions the opposite sides of the tool joint are subjected to an
additional compression or tension due to bending. These compressions and tensions are applied to a different
part of the tool joint as the string rotates. As long as the additional tension does not reach 72,000 psi it will not
cause the connection make-up face to part. If the make-up face were to part during every rotation, fluid would
escape and soon cause a washout, a type of drill string failure (see Topic 1.5).
Dope friction factor
The substance used to lubricate tool joints when they are being made-up is called "dope". It is commonly a
zinc/copper based lubricant. When considering the make up torque of any connection, not just drill pipe, the
dope friction factor (ff) must be taken into account. Dope friction factor (ff) will normally be 1·0 if the dope
conforms to the API specification. However, there are dopes that have higher or lower friction factors. This
leads to the requirement for a revised makeup torque:
Revised makeup torque = makeup torque x dope friction factor.
1.1.4 DRILL PIPE IDENTIFICATION MARKS
Code marks, which are stencilled on the tool joint pin to identify drill pipe and drill string, record the following
information:
• Manufacturers' symbols.
• Month connections welded on.
• Year connections welded on.
• Pipe mill code.
• Pipe steel grade.
Sometimes a mill slot plus one circumferential groove, about 3/8" (9·5mm) wide is milled onto the pin end of
drill pipe grades higher than "E" (see Figure 2.1.3), but be in the habit of checking, as this can vary from
contractor to contractor and rig to rig. A series of letter and number codes will be present on all API drill pipe
giving manufacturing data such as date of manufacture, manufacturers code, the grade of steel - see Figure
2.1.8a & b.

6:12 AM 12/11/2006 M A-
A-Mohsen
(10) DRLG STRG

Figure 2.1.8 (a & b) : Identification of drill pipe - markings used

1.1.4.1 REFACING
MARKS AND LIMITS
API re-facing bench marks show the position of the original shoulder so an inspector can determine if too much
re-facing has taken place - Figure 2.1.9.

Figure 2.1.9 : API - Refacing benchmarks

The re-facing benchmark is positioned 1/8" from the make up face. The tolerance on this measurement is ±1/16".
Once re-facing has taken place such that 1/16" of the make-up face has been removed the joint must be re-cut or
belled and split boxes become a risk.
The API benchmark is only present at one location around the circumference of the tool joint. If re-facing is
uneven around the make up face area it will not be shown by the API benchmark. Proprietary benchmarks are
available. Figure 2.1.10 shows the Grant-TFW benchmark. As it is a continuous line it shows how
perpendicular the re-facing is as well as how much has occurred.

Figure 2.1.10 : Grant-TFW refacing benchmarks

6:12 AM 12/11/2006 M A-
A-Mohsen
(11) DRLG STRG

DRILL COLLARS
1.2.1.1 GENERAL
Drill collars (DCs) are heavy, thick-walled steel tubes with threaded connections cut (NB not welded) on both
ends. They are designed to withstand down hole conditions while under compression as well as under tension.
Drill collars are manufactured from chrome-molybdenum alloy 4140 (4140 is a code that indicates the chemical
makeup of the metal). They are fully heat treated over their entire length, with a Brinell hardness range of 255
to 341. The bore of a drill collar is accurately machined to ensure smooth, balanced rotation. Collars are
manufactured in a wide range of sizes(ODs) and are available in length ranges 2: 9·15 - 9·76 m (30 - 32 ft); and
3: 12·8 - 13·27 m (42 ft-43 ft).
Drill collars are used to provide Weight on Bit (WOB) and, in combination with other components of the BHA,
to provide directional control.
The parameters used to specify drill collars are:

• OD: 91/2", 8", 6", 43/4" etc.,

• ID: 31/2", 3", 21/2"", 23/8" etc.,

• Length: Usually range II

• Material: Steel, Monel

• Connection: 65/8" REG etc.

1.2.1.2 DIMENSIONS AND WEIGHTS OF DRILL COLLARS

As drill collars are uniform tubes of steel with few upsets (changes in ID or OD) across their length it is easy to
calculate their weight. The weight of drill collars in kg/m or lbs/ft can be calculated using the following
formulae:
SI units: 6·16 x 10-3 x (D2 - d2)
Field units: 2·67 x (D2 - d2)
Where :
D = Outside diameter in mm / inches
d = Inside diameter in mm / inches.
1.2.1.3 SPECIAL TYPES OF DRILL COLLARS
Spiral drill collars
These are commonly used and have spiral flats or shallow depressions machined in their surface along the
greater part of their lengths. This reduces their effective weight per unit length by approximately 4%.
The reduction of wall contact area between the drill collar and the wall of the hole greatly reduces the
possibility of differential wall sticking. Wall sticking occurs when part of the drill string (usually the drill
collars) becomes embedded in the filter cake, resulting in a non-uniform distribution of pressure around the
circumference of the pipe (see Section 5 Part 1 - Stuck pipe prevention and fishing operations).

6:12 AM 12/11/2006 M A-
A-Mohsen
 (12) DRLG STRG
Square drill collars
These are drill collars with a square section and a diagonal dimension 1·6 mm (1/16") less than the bit size, with
hard facing material applied to the corners.They are run in the string when drilling crooked hole formations to
provide maximum stabilisation and prevent deviation from the existing course of the hole. Their use is,
however, not commonplace.
Non-magnetic drill collars (NMDCs)
These are drill collars manufactured from a non-magnetic steel alloy and are used to shield directional survey
instruments from the influence of the magnetic field that exists around a normal steel drill collar.
Special care should be taken when making up NMDCs because the material is more susceptible to galling of the
threads and shoulders than normal DCs.

1.2.2 API DRILL COLLAR CONNECTIONS

Drill collars, like all other drill string components must be connected together. To do this a threaded connection
is cut into each end of the DC. API connections are precision cut by milling. After the milling process the
connection is protected by a phosphate surface treatment to minimise galling during makeup. Drill collar
connections should be provided with stress relief grooves on pins, and a "bore-back" feature on boxes to reduce
fatigue failures.

Figure 2.1.12 : Drill collar connections

Thread roots may also be "cold-rolled". Standard drill collars have both pin and box connections. The most
common types of threads for ODs larger than 177·8 mm (7") are Regular and H 90, and for ODs smaller than
177·8 mm (7") the most common are NC and H90. The only pressure seal is formed by the shoulder to shoulder
metal seal (see Figure 2.1.7) in a similar manner to drill pipe connections.

When makeup shoulders are damaged, site repairs, using a shoulder redressing tool, are usually carried out. This is acceptable as a
single treatment. However, if the dressing is extensive the treated surface will be removed and galling will become excessive with
increased risk of washouts. Treatment in the machine shop is then necessary.

1.2.2.1 REGULAR CONNECTIONS

For some reason Regular connections remain the most common choice for BHA components even though an
NC connection of the same bending strength is superior due to its thread having a less sharp root radius and
being therefore more resilient to thread root cracking.

6:12 AM 12/11/2006 M A-
A-Mohsen
(13) DRLG STRG
1.2.2.2 H90 CONNECTIONS
These connections were originally a proprietary product of Hughes Tool Company and are easily recognisable
by their shallow 90° thread angle. They are about equivalent in performance to Regular connections except that
the shallow thread angle causes high box hoop stresses at high makeup torques. Again NC is a superior thread
in almost all applications but the H-90 type is still in frequent use.
1.2.3 STRESS RELIEF
As the threaded connection of the drill collars is the weakest part, bending is most likely to occur in the
connection. At the bottom of the box and in the widest part of the pin there are a few threads which are not
engaged. These threads form notches which could accelerate fatigue failure.

Figure 2.1.13 : Stress relief groove on the pin of a crossover. Figure 2.1.13 : Stress relief groove on the pin of a crossover.

As these threads do not strengthen the connection but rather weaken the joint, they are removed. The grooves
that now appear are called stress relief grooves. In boxes the bottom is often bored out over a greater length.
The length of uniform wall section now distributes bending stresses over a longer interval.
Some suppliers of components have in the past avoided putting stress relieving grooves on to pins as the
number of re-cuts to the thread are reduced to about three,depending on the component in question. This
reduces the effective commercial life of the component.

Occasionally BHA components have bore back boxes but no stress

relieving groove. This shows that the manufacturer is aware of the
requirements but chooses to save costs by not cutting a stress relieving
groove. These components should be returned to the supplier.

Figure 2.1.14 : Lack of stress relief groove

on the pin of a stabiliser.

1.2.4 LIFTING AND MAKE-UP FACILITIES FOR DRILL COLLARS

Recesses can be machined in the drill collar (Figure 2.1.15) for lifting and suspending the drill collars by slip
and elevator. When handling flush drill collars a lifting nipple or lifting head has to be used (using the same
torque as for a normal drill collar connection). The threads and shoulders of the lifting nipples should be treated
and inspected with the same care as the drill collar threads.

6:12 AM 12/11/2006 M A-
A-Mohsen
(14) DRLG STRG
To prevent a drill collar from slipping through the slips a safety clamp is installed
around the drill collar above the slips. This clamp is composed of links with
spring loaded inserts/dies with tapered backs (see Figure 2.1.16a).

Figure 2.1.15 : Recesses

machined at the box ends of DCs

Figure 2.1.16a : Drill collar safety clamp

Figure 2.1.16b : Drill collar lifting equipment

1.2.5 MAKE-UP TORQUE

During drilling, drill collars are subject to:
• buckling and bending forces
• torsion
• vibration
• alternating stresses.
If the drill collar connection is a suitable one, and the correct make-up torque has been applied, the joint should
absorb the normal bending stresses encountered, and the shoulder-to-shoulder seal will effectively contain the
internal pressures.
Drill collar connections are never referred to as tool joints although thread profiles may be the same as drill pipe
tool joints. The OD and ID are different, so the pin and box areas are larger and therefore the required make-up
torque is greater.
If make-up torque is less than, say 90% of the recommended value, the tool joint may not develop enough
strength to:
• prevent wobbling
• resist bending loads
• form an adequate seal
• resist excessive makeup due to impact torque while drilling.

6:12 AM 12/11/2006 M A-
A-Mohsen
(15) DRLG STRG
On the other hand, over-torquing is likely to distort and weaken the threaded connection, stretch the pin, or
expand the box.
Correct make-up torque is essential for trouble-free performance, and the torque applied should always be
measured conscientiously.

As drill collar make-up torques are high it is especially important to be careful when making up or breaking out connections. Should a tong slip
or a tong line break the crew not directly involved could be hurt, so make sure they remain outside the danger area.

1.2.6 NEUTRAL POINT

The total weight on the bit is obtained by having the lower section of drill collars run in compression, leaving
the upper section of drill collars and the drill pipe in tension. The crossover point of zero tension in the string is
called the neutral point. There should never be less than ten percent of the length of the drill collars in tension,
and the neutral point should never be at a jar.
1.3.1 HEAVY WALL DRILL PIPE
Heavy-wall drill pipe, normally called Hevi-Wate drill pipe and abbreviated to HWDP,
is an intermediate weight drill string member.
It consists of heavy-wall tubes with an upset in the middle, called the centre wear pad
and special long tool joints, up to twice as long as normal drill pipe. As an example of
the difference between standard drill pipe and heavy-wall drill pipe the Table 2.1.4 below
compares the two using 5" OD pipe.
As can be seen from the table the external dimensions of HWDP are the same as drill
pipe dimensions for easy handling. The extra weight comes from the additional wall
thickness of the tube, the wear pad and the longer tool joints.
Because of its weight and construction, HWDP can be run in compression in a similar
way to drill collars, subject to the normal constrains for buckling, i.e., except in large
diameter vertical holes.
HWDP is used:
for slim hole drilling because it has less chance of becoming differentially
stuck than drill collars. The contact area for unstabilised drill collars is the full length
of the collars where as HWDP has a contact area equal to the length of the tool joints
and the wear pad (normally about 6ft per joint)
for high angle drilling because it is less rigid than drill collars and has a much
lower wall contact area possibly reducing torque.
as a transition between DC's and DP, to make the crossover gradual. HWDP is
more resilient to fatigue than standard drill pipe, especially in compression.
Other advantages of HWDP are:
It permits high speed drilling with less torque which reduces drill stem wear
and tear and simplifies directional control.
Tripping is faster than with drill collars due to HWDP being handled the same
as normal DP.
There is no loss of BOP control when handling HWDP, since pipe rams can be
used around it.
Heavy wall drill pipe can be ordered as spiral or flush wall pipe

6:12 AM 12/11/2006 M A-
A-Mohsen
(16) DRLG STRG
1.3.2 STABILIZERS
Stabilisers are drill string components with blades that protrude from the body. They are usually almost the
same diameter as the bit and are located in a drill string at various points in the drill collars of the BHA,
including just above the bit.
Near bit stabilisers are recognisable by the box/box connection to accommodate the pin connection of the bit.
The blades are positioned near the bottom i.e. as close to the bit as possible. The box on the bottom is provided
with "Regular" (Reg.) thread which corresponds to the thread used on the bits.
The stabilisers in Figure 2.1.18 are all "string type" stabilisers with a pin/box connection. When new, the blades
are halfway up the body. They are often given a hard coating e.g. sintered tungsten carbide to increase their
endurance, or they are provided with inserts such as tungsten carbide buttons.

Figure 2.1.18 : Assorted stabilisers

Stabilisers are available either with fixed blades, with the blades individually
replaceable or with a replaceable sleeve to which the blades are attached.
When a fixed blade type stabiliser wears down it will have to be returned to base
for rebuilding and be replaced by a new one. The sleeve type and the replaceable
blade type stabilisers can be redressed on site.
Inserting a stabiliser in a string of drill collars can have several effects.
If drilling takes place while one or more stabilisers are still inside the casing, this must be
done carefully with low WOB and rpm.
With a sleeve type stabiliser the tongs should never be placed on the sleeve. A special sleeve
breaker is required.
If, when removing the worn blades of a changeable blade stabiliser, the wrong tools are used,
metal chips may splinter off while hitting the blade, causing serious injuries.

Figure 2.1.19 : Assorted

stabiliser

6:12 AM 12/11/2006 M A-
A-Mohsen
(17) DRLG STRG
1.3.2.1 A DIRECTIONAL EFFECT
As a fulcrum point in directional drilling. A stabiliser or stabilisers inserted at (a) certain position(s) in the string
will affect the directional performance of the BHA. In the lower 9 - 36 m (30 - 120 ft) [depending on hole size
& DC size] of the drilling assembly the spacing of the stabilisers depends on the directional drilling results
required, such as dropping off, building or maintaining hole inclination. This subject is covered in Section 2,
Part 4 - Directional drilling.
1.3.2.2 A CENTRALISING EFFECT
Stabilisers have the affect of keeping the string central in the well bore. The centralising affect is dependent on
the distance between stabilisers, the drill collar size and the hole size. Good centralisation can improve ROP and
reduce the chance of differential sticking.
Stabiliser placement is discussed in Topic 1.4.2.3.
1.3.2.3 PREVENTION OF BUCKLING EFFECT
In vertical holes, stabilisers are placed in the bottom hole assembly to prevent buckling of the bottom hole
assembly. By preventing the drill collars buckling, stabilisation allows the bit to rotate perpendicular to the
bottom of the hole which improves bit performance.
1.3.2.4 DRAG EFFECT
Stabilisers increase the torque required to rotate a drill string. Thus four stabilisers is often the maximum that
can be comfortably run.
You will have noticed the above conflict between centralisation and increase torque. In a 6" directional well
with 10 collars, 10 stabilisers are required for good stabilisation, but 10 stabilisers would cause more torque
than acceptable. This is often a dilemma in drill string design. We will see later how this dilemma can be
overcome in directional wells.
1.3.2.5 A ROCK CUTTING EFFECT
Stabilisers are often almost the same OD as the bit. Thus, if the formation round the recently cut hole relaxes
slightly and the hole becomes fractionally smaller than bit size, the stabiliser will act as a secondary cutting
device.
Similarly if the formations continue to relax, as for example in a squeezing shale, the hole will become
significantly under gauge (i.e. less than original hole size). When removing the drill string from the hole the
uppermost stabiliser in the string, referred to as the top stabiliser, can be used to cut away the rock (from below)
as the string is removed from the hole. This is called back reaming. Some stabiliser have special teeth on their
upper flutes to assist in the action of back reaming.
1.3.2.6 VIBRATION REDUCING EFFECT
Stabilisation may reduce vibration in bottom hole assemblies. Unfortunately, stabilisers may also cause an
increase in drill string vibration under certain conditions.
Drill string vibration will depend, among other things, upon the stabiliser separation, the drill collar and hole
dimensions and the revolutions per minute of the drill string. Critical rotary speeds for a given BHA and hole
can be predicted and should be avoided.
1.3.2.7 PREVENTION OF STUCK PIPE EFFECT
It was mentioned above that stabiliser are USUALLY placed in the drill collars of a BHA. There are exceptions
to this and placing a stabiliser in the string above the drill collars (some times at the top of the collars) may
prevent the string being pulled into a key seat and getting stuck refer to Section 5, Part 1 - "Stuck pipe

6:12 AM 12/11/2006 M A-
A-Mohsen
(18) DRLG STRG
prevention and fishing operations" . For this reason, there is always a stabiliser at the top of the drill collars in
deviated wells.

Stabilisers are often blamed for being the reason of getting stuck. This is seldom the case. They assist in guiding the drill
collars past the key seat. If the key seat is too large the stabiliser can get caught under the key seat (as is the case with the DC's
themselves and the bit) but will then allow limited upward reaming of the key seat, thus preventing the drill collars from getting
differentially stuck in the key seat.

Under-gauge stabilisers have also been placed in HWDP when there has been a history of HWDP becoming
differential stuck across depleted (reduced pressure) zones of a reservoir.
1.3.3 SUBS
Subs are short pieces of tubular material used to increase the versatility of the main component of the string.
The simplest is a crossover sub, used to connect two items that have different threads. Others are:
• float sub
• dart sub
• circulating sub
• bent sub
• orientating sub
• totco ring

Figure 2.1.20 : Cross-sections through a selection of subs

1.3.3.1 CROSSOVER SUBS

These are short sections of drill collar material 0.6 m (2 ft) or longer, which provide crossovers between
different diameters and types of threaded connection.
They are available configured with the following connections; box/box, pin/pin, pin/box and box/pin subs.

It may not be obvious that due to the way the thread is cut onto
connections, a box/pin cannot be used upside down to form a pin/box!
Because subs have two connections close to each other, the string is locally
weakened in comparison with the rest. This is of particular significance
when there are heavy bending stresses acting on the subs. Special attention
should be paid to rig floor inspection of subs and they should be fully
inspected regularly.

Figure 2.1.21 : A kelly saver sub

6:12 AM 12/11/2006 M A-
A-Mohsen
(19) DRLG STRG

1.3.3.2 FLOAT SUB

A float sub is a non-return valve run just above the bit. One of its
functions is to prevent back-flow of drilling fluid into the drill
string. This can occur when cuttings increase the effective density
of the drilling fluid in the annulus, and may result in the bit nozzles
being plugged by cuttings. This problem is very prevalent when
drilling top hole sections because of the large volume of cuttings
produced at high penetration rates.
Another reason for running a float sub is prevent the possibility of a
blowout through the string. In top hole, high volume swabbing can
lower the level of fluid in the string very rapidly due to the large
differential between the string and hole capacities.

When running in a string that has a float sub installed, the string has to be
filled up while running in. If empty pipe should suddenly be filled by the
annulus (failure of the valve) this would cause a significant drop of head in
the open hole and could possibly induce a kick. A float sub in the string also
increases the surge pressures created while running in.

Figure 2.1.22 : A float sub

1.3.3.3 DART SUB

The dart sub is a landing sub for a drop-in and pump-down back pressure valve. Its function is to prevent a kick
through the drill string in the same way as a float sub. The landing sub is installed near the drill collars. This
provides the driller with a means to land the valve prior to pulling out. The valve is pumped into the sub and
will latch in place automatically. Dart subs of various types are often referred to HDIS after one of the main
manufactures' of darts subs. HDIS stands for Hydril Drop In Sub.

Figure 2.1.23 : A dart sub plus the dart

6:12 AM 12/11/2006 M A-
A-Mohsen
(20) DRLG STRG

1.3.3.4 CIRCULATING SUB

This sub can be incorporated in the drill string and, if required, operated while drilling to provide a large
opening to circulate through. When drilling with a directional BHA (see Topic 1.4) it is run directly above the
MWD sub or down-hole motor; in rotary drilling it is run directly above the bit sub.

Figure 2.1.24 : A circulating sub

There are two principal reasons for using a circulating sub.
• When lost circulation material is to be pumped through the string it could plug up the small nozzles in
the bit or jam the inside of a turbine. A circulating sub in the string could be used to circulate the coarse
material through.
• To allow increased circulation rates for hole cleaning prior to pulling out of the hole
In order to operate the sub a ball is dropped down the drill string. The ball will seat on the sleeve and seal off
the fluid flow. When the fluid pressure increases to approximately 20,000 kPa (3,000 psi) the shear bolt will
break. Ball and sleeve will then be forced downwards and uncover the fluid ports. The drilling fluid flow will
then effectively by-pass everything below the circulating sub.
After use a conventional circulation sub will have to be pulled to recover the ball and re-set the sleeve. To avoid
this problem, a different type of circulating sub is now available. One ball is dropped to open the sub and a
second ball is dropped to close it. This cycle can be repeated a few times until the ball catcher, installed below
the sub, is full.
1.3.3.5 BENT SUB
A bent sub is actually made to have one tool joint set at a pre-determined offset angle, thereby creating a bend
in the drill string which in turn allows the deflection tool to be faced in a certain direction. Bent subs can be
supplied with angles of 1° - 3º in 1/2º increments. The angle (1º - 3º ) can be positioned in a pre-determined
direction, thus giving a directional BHA (a BHA designed to drill in a particular direction).
Generally the bent sub is part of a non-rotating drilling assembly and the effects of fatigue will be considered
carefully before the string is rotated whilst it contains a bent sub.
The bent sub includes a mule shoe sleeve with an alignment key to orient the mule shoe of a survey tool barrel.
The mule shoe sleeve is installed inside the bent sub and is lined up with the tool face by using the orienting
wrench prior to being secured in the sub by Allen screws.
When the survey tools are run in the hole the mule shoe assembly will lock in place inside the mule shoe sleeve,
creating a positive positioning of the survey equipment. Alternatively a UBHO can be used .
6:12 AM 12/11/2006 M A-
A-Mohsen
(21) DRLG STRG
1.3.3.6 ORIENTING SUB
This sub is used in a directional drilling assembly to align the survey equipment with the deflection tool as
described in the previous paragraphs. This is done so that the path of the well can be recorded and observed.
The orienting sub is usually a straight one and is often called a UBHO, "universal bottom hole orienting" sub.
In some cases the orienting sub is combined with a bent sub. NOTE: All special-purpose BHA components
above the UBHO sub which have a restricted inside diameter (e.g. jars), should be replaced with ones that have
an appropriate inside diameter or removed to allow passage of the instrument barrel.
1.3.3.7 TOTCO RING
A Totco ring is not really a sub, but it is included here for convenience. It is a small insert that is placed inside
the drill string between a pin and a box connection. It does not interfere with the connection. It does not
significantly restrict the flow of fluid down the string but it does act as a trap for survey tools that are dropped
from surface and retrieved later when the string is removed from the hole.

6:12 AM 12/11/2006 M A-
A-Mohsen
(22) DRLG STRG
1.3.4 THRUSTERS
A thruster is a piston device that can be included in the drill string above the bit or above a motor. It is a
specialist tool originally developed for slim hole drilling and now available in sizes from 1-11/16" up to 9-1/2"
diameter.
As the pressure inside the thruster increases it causes the thruster to be opened with a greater force. The thruster
opens or closes keeping the WOB constant and thus allows the WOB to be controlled by pump pressure. A
thruster also acts as a shock absorber, decoupling vibrations created by the bit from the drill string above. The
principle of operation is shown in Figure 2.1.25.

The applications are:

Figure 2.1.25 : Schematic of thruster
• when high drag makes it difficult to transfer the weight of
the collars to the bit
• where bit bounce or vibration is very high
• where WOB needs to be controlled to optimise ROP (rate of
penetration)
The actual design of thrusters is more complex than the simple
schematic shown in Figure 2.1.25. The following two schematics
show a more realistic, but still schematic, view of the internal
working of a thruster.
Thrusters are designed to have two surface set WOB settings for a
given flow rate. The driller controls the setting by raising or
lowering the drill string to alter the position of the choke spear. The
pressure drop across the tool is different for each position of the
choke spear, thus by observing the pressure drop the driller can tell
which position the tool is in.

In Figure 2.1.26 the choke spear is above

the restriction inside the tool body, giving
a low pressure drop, showing the tool is
fully extended.

Figure 2.1.26 : Schematic of thruster (extended)

Figure 2.1.27 shows the thrusters choke

spear in the high WOB setting, where the
pressure drop is highest. The driller can
detect the tool position by observing the
pressure gauge.
Were the string to be lowered further the
pressure would drop indicating to the
driller that the tool was about to close. Figure 2.1.27 : Schematic of thruster (partially collapsed)

6:12 AM 12/11/2006 M A-
A-Mohsen