Perceived security and World Wide Web purchase
intention
Keywords
Security, Shopping, Internet,
Modelling
Abstract
While Web-based consumer
activity is poised on the brink of
dramatic growth, concerns about
security have the potential to limit
this growth by arousing shopper's
concerns about the Web-based
channel. One key aspect to
consumer participation in Web
commerce may be the extent to
which they perceive risk to their
sensitive information. This study
describes the creation of a scale
to measure perceived Web
security. We apply the scale in a
causal model to investigate the
relative impact of beliefs about
Web shopping on intent to
purchase products using the World
Wide Web. Data from two samples
is used to develop the scale and to
perform the causal analysis. Our
findings indicate the favorable
psychometric properties of the
scale, and the causal analysis
from our sample indicates that
security is a greater influence on
intent to purchase using the Web
than is the ease and utility of
purchasing products.
Industrial Management &
Data Systems
101/4 [2001] 165±176
# MCB University Press
[ISSN 0263-5577]
W. David Salisbury
Ohio University, Athens, Ohio, USA
Rodney A. Pearson
Mississippi State University, Mississippi, USA
Allison W. Pearson
Mississippi State University, Mississippi, USA
David W. Miller
Mississippi State University, Mississippi, USA
Introduction
Internet commerce is positioned to
experience dramatic growth. International
Data Corporation reports that Internet
commerce revenues could top $1 trillion by
2003 and that the number of Web-based
shoppers worldwide should surpass 183
million by 2003 (IDC, 1999a). Furthermore, by
2003, 32 million households should be
banking online via the Internet (IDC, 1999b).
However, there are a variety of threats to
personal security (i.e. risk) when a user
shops on the World Wide Web. The popular
press abounds with stories of credit card
information theft, personal information
breaches (Blair, 1997), and even ActiveX
applications that attach themselves to online
banking programs to provide hackers with
access to an individual's bank accounts
(CSCI, 1998).
When one shops on the Web, security is a
concern. However, the growth of Internet
commerce suggests factors other than
security influence the adoption and use of
Web shopping. Drawing upon theories about
innovation adoption and risk behavior, we
believe that this phenomenon can be best
understood by measuring perceptions about
Web-based security, and then comparing
perceived Web security with other relevant
constructs to assess their relative impact on
intent to engage in Web-based purchasing.
We first describe the theory upon which we
draw to understand web-based shopping.
Because Web-based shopping is a relatively
new phenomenon, scale development in the
area has been limited; hence we undertake
the development of a new scale to measure
perceptions about World Wide Web security.
Web-based shopping may involve a trade-off
between perceptions about its utility and
security. Consequently we incorporate
known innovation adoption measures into
this particular arena and assess the relative
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impact of perceived Web security, perceived
ease of Web page navigation and perceived
usefulness on intent to purchase products
using the World Wide Web. We believe that
measurement development efforts such as
this are critical in order to address such
phenomena as consumer Web commerce.
Theoretical perspective
Perceptions about using the World Wide Web
for purchasing products will lead to the
formation of attitudes that will influence
intent to purchase products on the World
Wide Web. How such attitudes can lead to
intent to adopt an innovation such as Web
shopping draws upon a variety of sources for
its operationalization (Fishbein and Ajzen,
1975; Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980; Davis 1989;
Moore and Benbasat, 1991). The most
comprehensive treatment of attitude and its
influence on behavior is found in Fishbein
and Ajzen (1975, Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980), in
their theory of reasoned action, and in
Ajzen's follow on theory of planned behavior
(1985). The theory of reasoned action suggests
that attitudes can be used to predict
behavioral intentions and behaviors.
Behaviors are driven by behavioral
intention, which itself is the product of
attitude toward the behavior and subjective
norm with respect to the behavior. Because
the direct effect of subjective norm on
behavioral intent is difficult to isolate from
the indirect effects from attitude, Davis et al.
(1989) treatment of the theory of reasoned
action, the technology acceptance model
(TAM) focuses on attitude as a determinant
of behavioral intent (Fishbein and Ajzen,
1975; Davis 1989).
Davis' (1989) purpose in creating TAM was:
to provide an explanation of the determinants
of computer accepance that is in general,
capable of explaining user behavior across a
broad range of end-user computing
technologies and user populations, while at
the same time being both parsimonious and
theoretically justified (p. 985).
[ 165 ]
W. David Salisbury,
Rodney A. Pearson,
Allison W. Pearson and
David W. Miller
Perceived security and World
Wide Web purchase intention
Industrial Management &
Data Systems
101/4 [2001] 165±176
[ 166 ]
TAM proposes that perceived usefulness and
ease of use will influence an individual's
intentions to utilize an information
technology. Perceived usefulness is defined
by Davis (1989) as ``the degree to which a
person believes that using a particular
system would enhance his job performance''
(p. 985). He defined ease of use as ``the degree
to which a person believes that using a
particular system would be free of effort'' (p.
985). Researchers working within the general
framework of TAM have predicted user
intentions with regard to a variety of
technologies. These include electronic mail,
text editors, word processing and graphics
software (Davis, 1989; Davis et al., 1989),
spreadsheets (Hendrickson et al., 1993), voice-
mail and word processors (Adams et al., 1992;
Chin and Todd, 1995), Database Management
Systems (Szajna, 1994), and Group Support
Systems (Chin and Gopal, 1995).
Relevant to TAM is the users' attitudes
toward a particular adoption. Attitude is
based on the salient beliefs that a person has
about the consequences of a given behavior
and his or her evaluation of those
consequences. Moore (1987), Moore and
Benbasat, 1991) suggests that attitude in the
context of IT usage deals with innovations.
Consequently, he posits that attitude can be
synthesized from perceived characteristics of
innovating (Rogers, 1995).
There are a variety of salient beliefs about
Web shopping that are relevant (Jarvenpaa
and Todd, 1997). Drawing from previously
established characteristics of innovating, we
believe two likely salient beliefs about
adopting an innovation such as purchasing
products on the World Wide Web are related
to the experience of shopping (Jarvenpaa and
Todd, 1997) on the World Wide Web,
specifically its perceived ease and utility.
Consequently we adopt Davis' (1989)
perceived ease of use and perceived
usefulness. Applied to Web shopping these
become perceived ease of navigation, or the
degree to which navigating the World Wide
Web is perceived to be free of effort (Davis,
1989), and perceived usefulness or the extent
to which using the Web would enhance one's
shopping for products (Davis, 1989; Moore
and Benbasat, 1991). While the Davis
constructs were not originally developed for
this context they are relevant, because they
tap into beliefs about the ease and utility of
adopting an innovation, in this case Web
shopping.
Our causal diagram is presented in Figure
1. The first and second hypothesized links are
drawn from previous theory and research in
the innovation adoption research tradition.
Specifically, these linkages indicate that
higher perceived ease and utility with
respect to Web shopping will favorably
influence intent to purchase products on the
World Wide Web. This is consistent with
previous findings regarding the influence of
ease and utility of a particular innovation on
its subsequent adoption (e.g. Adams et al.,
1992; Davis, 1989; Davis et al., 1989; Chin and
Gopal, 1995). As a consequence, we propose
Hypotheses 1 and 2:
H1: Perceived ease of navigation will
favorably influence intent to purchase
on the World Wide Web.
H2: Perceived usefulness will favorably
influence intent to purchase on the
World Wide Web.
In addition to other, more fully investigated
perceived characteristics of innovating, our
third causal linkage investigates the
influence of perceived Web security on Web
purchase intent. We define perceived Web
security as the extent to which one believes
that the World Wide Web is secure for
transmitting sensitive information.
Perceived Web security is relevant to
introduce to the discussion because the
adoption of purchasing products on the
World Wide Web may involve a greater
degree of risk than the adoption of other IT
innovations. When one purchases products
online, there may be a perception of risk
involved in transmitting sensitive
information such as credit card numbers
across the World Wide Web. Because of this,
we believe that purchasing products over the
World Wide Web has aspects consistent with
that of risk behavior. Risk is associated with
outcome uncertainties such as lack of
knowledge about the distribution of potential
outcomes (March, 1978), and the
uncontrollability of outcome attainment
(Vlek and Stallen, 1980). To the extent that
outcomes cannot be controlled and occur
purely by chance, risk is higher than in
situations where the adopter can influence
outcomes (Sitkin and Pablo, 1992). In the case
of purchasing products on the World Wide
Web, it is possible that potential adopters
may perceive that their credit card
information may be at risk, and that they
have no control over this. These perceptions
of risk are often reinforced by stories in the
popular press about credit card and identity
theft. Further evidence for the possible
perception of risk in Web shopping is related
to the propensity of individuals to assign
excessive weight to extreme outcomes even if
the possibility of such outcomes is remote
(Kahneman and Tversky, 1979). In other
words, even though potential Web shopping
adopters might not regard the risk as being
all that high, the extreme risk involved with
having one's credit card stolen by a nefarious
agent may cause potential adopters to
perceive a greater risk than is actually
present. Given the likely influence of
W. David Salisbury,
Rodney A. Pearson,
Allison W. Pearson and
David W. Miller
Perceived security and World
Wide Web purchase intention
Industrial Management &
Data Systems
101/4 [2001] 165±176
Figure 1
Hypothesized relationships
perceived Web security on intent to
purchase, we propose Hypothesis 3.
H3: Perceived Web security will favorably
influence intent to purchase on the
World Wide Web.
Previous research (e.g. Jarvenpaa and Todd,
1997) indicates a need to address more
formally the relationship between perceived
characteristics of Web shopping and user
intentions. Consequently, it is important to
address potential Web shopping adopters'
perceptions about both the perceived utility
and the perceived risk (or inversely, the
security) of the World Wide Web channel for
purchasing products. However, we have
identified no previously existing instruments
to conveniently capture this construct. As a
result, we intend to develop a scale to
measure perceived Web security. We will
first develop this scale and assess its
psychometric properties. Next, we will test
this scale in a theoretically derived causal
model to assess the relative influence of
perceived Web security, perceived ease of
Web page navigation, and perceived
usefulness on intent to purchase products
using the World Wide Web. We believe that
perceived Web security in combination with
an adaptation of Davis' ease and usefulness
constructs (Davis, 1989) will provide greater
understanding of what consumers take into
account when deciding whether to shop
online.
Method
Our method consisted of three steps. First,
before we could test our hypotheses, we
needed to develop an instrument to measure
perceived Web security. Having developed
the perceived Web security scale, we assessed
its psychometric properties and those of the
other scales we adapted in our study using a
pilot data set. Finally, we tested our
hypothesized relationships using a
confirmation data set.
Perceived Web security scale
development
In forming the initial set of items for
perceived Web security, a working definition
for perceived Web security was developed:
The extent to which one believes that the Web
is secure for transmitting sensitive
information (e.g. credit card or social security
number).
To develop indicators that would reflect the
construct, items were created based on the
definition of perceived Web security. This
approach led to the development of the seven
original items in Table I.
Construct validity
The initial seven perceived Web security
items were presented to 168 undergraduate
students taking an introduction to computing
course at a rural Southeastern US university.
The subjects completed a survey instrument
designed to measure perceived Web security
and other relevant constructs as part of this
overall research program. After eliminating
responses due to missing items and some
misprinted questionnaires, 119 subjects were
left for analysis. Demographics on the
subjects are presented in Table II.
The reliability of the perceived Web
security scale was first examined by
Table I
Initial set of items to measure perceived Web
security
1 I would feel secure sending sensitive information
across the World Wide Web
2 The World Wide Web is a secure means through
which to send information
3 I would feel totally safe providing sensitive
information about myself over the World Wide
Web
4 I would have concerns about giving out sensitive
information over the World Wide Web
5 To what extent do you believe that the World Wide
Web is a secure place to put sensitive
information?
6 I would not give out sensitive information over the
World Wide Web
7 Overall, the World Wide Web is a safe place to
transmit sensitive information
Notes: Responses for items 1,2,3,4,6 and 7 given on a
7-point Likert scale with the following anchors:
Strongly Disagree ± Strongly Agree.
Responses for item 5 were given on a 7-point Likert
scale with the following anchors: To a very little
extent ± To a very great extent. Items 4 and 6 were
reverse coded for analysis
[ 167 ]
W. David Salisbury,
Rodney A. Pearson,
Allison W. Pearson and
David W. Miller
Perceived security and World
Wide Web purchase intention
Industrial Management &
Data Systems
101/4 [2001] 165±176
[ 168 ]
Table II
Descriptive statistics (scale development
sample)
Variable Min Max Mean s.d.
Age 18.0 41.0 20.5 3.02
GPA 1.0 4.0 3.02 0.608
Work experience 0 276 16.54 33.25
(months)
Previous gathering 1.0 7.0 4.25 1.79
Previous purchasing 1.0 7.0 1.59 1.18
Gender M = 60; F = 57; NR = 2
specifying a single factor model in a
confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) using
AMOS 4.0 (Arbuckle, 1999). The use of
structural equations modeling allows us to do
this by testing a series of confirmatory factor
analyses. As opposed to components analysis,
it is possible to test models that more closely
resemble the hypothesized construct and its
relationship to other constructs (see Long,
1983 for this distinction between exploratory
and confirmatory factor analysis). Rather
than merely specifying the number of
components and items to be analyzed,
confirmatory factor analysis allows the
researcher to specify the exact relationship
between the common factors and the items
used to measure them as well as the linkages
among the factors. Furthermore, various
overall model fit indices are obtained to
determine how well the model explains the
sample data.
When tested using CFA, items 1, 2, 3, and 7
with a Cronbach alpha of 0.93 emerged as the
``final set'' of measures for perceived Web
security (Table V). Items 4, 5, and 6 were
omitted due to rather low factor loadings (i.e.
less than the 0.60 suggested by Bagozzi and
Yi, 1988). All of the model fit indices (Table
III) surpass the recommended value for a
good model and therefore suggest the
measures are reflective of a single factor.
We also adapted scales, from Davis (1989)
and Moore and Benbasat (1991) to assess the
perceived ease and utility of Web shopping,
and adoption intention (Ajzen and Fishbein,
1980). The items for these scales are found in
Table IV. While a full scale development
effort was required for perceived Web
security (the new scale), we thought it
worthwhile to perform a similar analysis on
each of the adapted scales (purchase intent,
perceived ease of navigation, and perceived
usefulness). To generate the scales for
perceived ease of navigation and perceived
usefulness, applicable items were drawn
from Davis' (1989) and Moore and Benbasat's
(1991) scales for ease of use and usefulness/
relative advantage[1]. The selected items
were modified by changing the attitude
object to incorporate the World Wide Web
shopping context, following Ajzen and
Fishbein's (1980) suggestion. Similarly, items
for intention to purchase using the World
Wide Web were adapted from Ajzen and
Fishbein (1980). Following the procedure
outlined in Anderson and Gerbing (1991) we
tested measurement models for each of our
constructs by specifying an appropriate
model in a confirmatory factor analysis using
AMOS 4.0 (Arbuckle, 1999). For perceived
usefulness and perceived ease of navigation
each model was a single factor model. For
purchase intent we would have performed a
single-factor confirmatory analysis, however,
there were only three items in this scale,
creating a situation in which this
measurement model was just identified.
Consequently, we specified a correlated 2-
factor model (correlating purchase intent
with usefulness[2]) and tested intent to
purchase and usefulness simultaneously. The
fit indices (Table V) suggested the models
specified were appropriate for each of the
constructs in question. Hence, all three items
from purchase intent (Cronbach alpha = 0.95)
were designated as our items for purchase
intent. For perceived usefulness and ease of
navigation, the items all loaded quite highly
on their respective constructs, and the
Cronbach alphas were quite high (0.95 for
usefulness, and 0.93 for ease of navigation),
hence these items were used as presented.
Item loadings for each of the scales are found
in Table IV.
Convergent and discriminant validity
The next step was to ensure that this subset of
items provided both convergent and
discriminant validity. In other words, to what
extent do the items appear to be measuring
the construct of interest and not other
constructs? We performed two analyses to
assess this, following the procedures outlined
by Bollen (1989). First, we created a model in
which each of the constructs were modeled as
first-order, correlated factors. By looking at
the inter-construct correlations one can assess
whether or not the items are too highly
correlated. Further, the item loadings indicate
that the scales demonstrate convergent
validity (i.e. the items all have loadings
greater than 0.60 (Bagozzi and Yi, 1988). This
model is depicted in Figure 2, and the fit
assessment for this model is in Table V.
From Figure 2, one can readily identify
that the inter-construct correlations are not
unduly great (the highest is 0.67). Still, to
statistically demonstrate that the inter-
construct correlations are significantly
different from 1.0, we tested the constructs as
paired against one another to fully assess
discriminant validity.
Discriminant validity is indicated if the
correlation between constructs is not equal
W. David Salisbury, Table III
Rodney A. Pearson, Fit indices for CFA (single factor model) of perceived Web security scale
Allison W. Pearson and
David W. Miller Purchase
Perceived security and World
Wide Web purchase intention Suggested Ease of intent/
Industrial Management & Statistic value Security Usefulness navigation usefulness
Data Systems 2
4.883 0.597 7.434 31.315
101/4 [2001] 165±176
2, independence model 395.284 319.415 394.958 633.004
d.f. 2 2 2 13
d.f, independence model 6 6 6 21
2 significance p > 0.05 p = 0.087* 0.742* 0.024 0.003
2/d.f. < 5.0 2.438* 0.299* 3.717* 2.409*
RMR, (C) (Hu and Bentler, 1995) < 0.1 0.054* 0.007* 0.025* 0.051*
Goodness of fit > 0.90 0.981* 0.998* 0.969* 0.934*
AGFI > 0.80 0.907* 0.988* 0.843* 0.857*
Delta 1 (Bentler and Bonnet, 1980) > 0.90 0.988* 0.998* 0.981* 0.951*
Rho 1 (Bollen, 1986) > 0.90 0.963* 0.994* 0.944* 0.920*
Delta 2 (Bollen, 1989) > 0.90 0.993* 1.004* 0.986* 0.970*
Rho 2 (Tucker and Lewis, 1973) > 0.90 0.978* 1.013* 0.958* 0.952*
CFI (Bentler, 1990) > 0.90 0.993* 1.000* 0.986* 0.970*
RNI (McDonald and Marsh, 1990) > 0.90 0.993* 1.000* 0.986* 0.970*
Notes: * Surpass their recommended value

Table IV
Scale items (items presented here are used in all relevant analyses)
Web security ( = 0.93)
1 I would feel secure sending sensitive information across the World Wide Web ( = 0.86)
2 The World Wide Web is a secure means through which to send sensitive information ( = 0.93)
3 I would feel totally safe providing sensitive information about myself over the World Wide Web ( = 0.93)
7 Overall, the World Wide Web is a safe place to transmit sensitive information ( = 0.77)
Purchase intent ( = 0.95)
1 I would use the World Wide Web for purchasing a product ( = 0.88)
2 Using the World Wide Web for purchasing a product is something I would do ( = 0.97)
3 I could see myself using the World Wide Web to buy a product ( = 0.82)
Perceived ease of navigation ( = 0.93) (adapted from Davis, 1989)
1 Navigating pages on the World Wide Web is easy for me ( = 0.79)
2 I find my interaction with pages on the World Wide Web clear and understandable ( = 0.82)
3 It is easy for me to become skillful at navigating pages on the World Wide Web ( = 0.95)
4 Overall, I find pages on the World Wide Web easy to navigate ( = 0.92)
Perceived usefulness ( = 0.95) (adapted from Davis, 1989; Moore and Benbasat, 1991)
1 Using the World Wide Web would enable me to accomplish my tasks more quickly ( = 0.69)
2 Using the World Wide Web would make it easier for me to carry out my tasks ( = 0.87)
3 I would find the World Wide Web useful ( = 0.90)
4 Overall, I would find using the World Wide Web to be advantageous ( = 0.88)
Notes: Responses given on a seven-point Likert scale, 1 = strongly disagree, 7 = strongly agree

to 1.0 (Chin et al., 1997; Bollen, 1989). While
this is suggested in Figure 2 (by the
correlations between the constructs), it can
also be statistically demonstrated by using a
chi-square difference test where the chi-
square measures for two analyses are
compared. One analysis involves setting the
correlation between constructs at 1.0 while
the other allows the correlation to be freely
estimated, creating a nested model (Bollen,
1989). Beyond that, no other differences in the
model specification are made for the two
analyses. Thus, the difference in degrees of
freedom between the two models is 1 (i.e. the
correlation between constructs). A chi-
square difference greater than 3.84 (a of 0.05)
would suggest the two constructs are
statistically different. We tested all six pairs
of constructs using this test. The results of
this test are found in Table VI. From this we
can conclude that the correlations of all pairs
of constructs are significantly different from
1.0, hence the scales are all measuring
different things.
Thus, the final set of items for perceived
web security appear to demonstrate both
convergent and discriminant validity, as do
all construct pairings tested. Next we
[ 169 ]
W. David Salisbury,
Rodney A. Pearson,
Allison W. Pearson and
David W. Miller
Perceived security and World
Wide Web purchase intention
Industrial Management &
Data Systems
101/4 [2001] 165±176
assessed the nomological validity of the Figure 2
perceived Web security scale by testing it in a Inter-construct correlations
full causal model with our hypothesized
relationships in a second sample. This
analysis is described in the next section.
Model testing
Having assessed our measures as to
convergent and discriminant validity using
the exploratory data set, we next analyzed the
hypothesized relationships in a causal model
using a different data set, drawn at a different
time. The data set for the confirmation
assessment was taken again at a
Southeastern US university. The items were
presented to 264 undergraduate students in
an introductory computer course as part of a
survey designed to measure perceptions
about using the World Wide Web for
shopping. After dropping responses due to
missing items, we were left with 253
respondents. Demographics are found in
Table VII.
We used this second sample to test our
hypothesized relationships in a causal model,
and also to further test the nomological
validity of the perceived Web security indicate that the model is reasonably
instrument by including an endogenous consistent with the data. All of the fit indices
construct, intent to purchase using the World are above their recommended values. The
Wide Web. Specifically, we examine whether discriminant validity among the exogenous
the perceived Web security instrument is factors is apparent since the largest
useful in predicting intention to purchase correlation is that between ease of navigation
products. Thus, beyond examining how and usefulness (0.54). The correlations
perceived web security correlates with ease between perceived Web security and ease of
of navigation and usefulness, we test a model navigation and usefulness are 0.12 and 0.14,
in which all three exogenous factors are respectively.
hypothesized to affect Web purchase In terms of our hypothesized links between
intention. the exogenous factors and web shopping
The causal diagram for the model for our intent, it can be seen that, as expected,
confirmation assessment with path loadings perceived Web security ( = 0.39) favorably
is found in Figure 3. The overall model fit influences intent to purchase products on the
indices for the confirmation data (Table VIII) Web, however the influence of both ease of
navigation ( = 0.04) and perceived
Table V usefulness ( = 0.12) was not significant.
Finally, the squared multiple correlation (R2)
Model fit indices, correlated constructs
indicates that the present model explains 19
Statistic Recommended value Obtained value per cent of the variance in intent to purchase.
Chi-square 229.473 We provide the covariance matrix in the
Chi-square, independence model 291.919 Appendix so that interested parties may
d.f. 125 replicate our analyses.
Our findings with respect to the
d.f. independence model 153
anticipated effect of ease of navigation and
2 significance p  0.05 0.00
usefulness on purchase intent were not
2/d.f. < 5.0 1.836*
supported. The estimated path coefficients
RMR, (C) (Hu and Bentler, 1995) < 0.10 0.053*
(0.04 for ease of navigation and 0.12 for
GFI > 0.90 0.835
usefulness) were not significantly different
AGFI > 0.80 0.774 from zero.
Delta-1 (Bentler and Bonnet, 1980) > 0.90 0.890
Rho-1 (Bollen, 1986) > 0.90 0.866
Delta-2 (Bollen, 1989) > 0.90 0.947*
Rho-2 (Tucker and Lewis, 1973) > 0.90 0.934*
Post-hoc analyses
CFI (Bentler, 1990) > 0.90 0.946* While our analyses are tentative, we still
RNI (McDonald and Marsh, 1990) > 0.90 0.946* believe that we should take all reasonable
precautions with respect to the statistical
Note: * Surpass their recommended value
validity of our assertions. When presenting
[ 170 ]
W. David Salisbury,
Rodney A. Pearson,
Allison W. Pearson and
David W. Miller
Perceived security and World
Wide Web purchase intention
Industrial Management &
Data Systems
101/4 [2001] 165±176
Table VI
Discriminant validity assessment for the paired constructs
Construct pairing
Usefulness/security
Usefulness/ease of navigation
Usefulness/purchase intent
Ease of navigation/security
Ease of navigation/purchase intent
Security/purchase intent
Note: 2 critical for all analyses is 3.84
Table VIII
Model fit indices, confirmation data set
Statistic
2

2, baseline model
d.f.
d.f. baseline model
2 significance
2/d.f. (Wheaton et al., 1977)
RMR (C) (Hu and Bentler, 1995)
GFI (Joreskog and Sorbom, 1988)
AGFI (Joreskog and Sorbom, 1988)
-1 (Bentler and Bonnett, 1980)
-1 (Bollen, 1986)
-2 (Bollen, 1989)
-2 (Tucker and Lewis, 1973)
CFI (Bentler, 1990)
RNI (McDonald and Marsh, 1990)
Note: * Surpass their recommended value
structural equations modeling findings, it is the findings. A power analysis was
wise to present additional analyses to more performed to see how small a parameter
firmly establish that the findings are not the estimate could be identified by the present
result of some methodological artifact (Hoyle analysis. Bootstrap analyses were performed
and Panter, 1995). While we were fairly to generate confidence intervals for the
confident that our present findings represent parameter estimates.
a reasonable degree of validity, we believed
that we should investigate this more fully. Power analysis
Consequently, we performed additional One critical issue in any analysis of causal
analyses to assess the power of our tests to models is the power of these analyses.
identify small effect sizes and problems in Statistical power refers to the probability
model specification (e.g. cross-loaded items that an incorrectly specified model would be
or correlated errors). Power is in part a rejected (Chin and Newsted, 1993). In the
function of sample size, and although the present case, it was considered important to
sample in this study was fairly large, power be able to detect a given path between
is a concern. Consequently, two analyses constructs, if that path should indeed exist.
were performed to enhance the confidence in Power depends on several factors. These
include:
1 the alpha level used to indicate statistical
significance;
2 the effect size of the path for the correct
2 2 2 Constructs model;
free fixed difference distinct? 3 the number of indicators employed; and
29.315 413.879 384.564 yes 4 the alternative model used as a basis for
34.885 279.333 244.448 yes comparison rejected (Chin and Newsted,
31.315 280.216 248.901 yes 1993).
30.512 420.410 389.898 yes Our concern in this case is whether or not we
32.662 416.557 383.895 yes used tests with sufficient power to capture
20.912 264.288 243.376 yes potential problems with our scales or our
model specification. To determine whether
the power in the present analyses was indeed
sufficient to capture a reasonably sized effect,
Table VII the procedure outlined by Saris and
Descriptive statistics (confirmation sample) Stronkhorst (1984: 205; Chin et al., 1997) was
Variable Min Max Mean s.d. applied. This approach takes the original
model tested and changes it to make an
Age 18 51 20.30 3.53
alternative model in terms of additional
GPA 0.70 4.00 2.91 0.584
model parameters (e.g. additional causal
Previous gathering 1 7 4.83 1.53
links via a structural path between
Previous purchasing 1 7 1.96 1.49
constructs of a factor loading) with specific
Gender M = 155 F = 90 NR = 8
effect size values. The alternative model is
used to generate an implied population
covariance matrix, which is then run against
the original model. The implied matrix is
Suggested Obtained that which would exist if the alternative
model were correct. If our alternative model
149.502 were run against this implied covariance
3829.258 matrix (which was created using our
84 alternative model), a perfect fit would be
105 obtained (i.e., chi-square equal to zero).
p  0.05 0.000 However, when we use our original model,
< 5.0 1.780* which is the wrong model for the covariance
< 0.10 0.035* matrix we just derived, this will create an
> 0.90 0.928* imperfect fit. This value is a likelihood ratio
> 0.80 0.897* value (i.e. the chi-square statistic from
> 0.90 0.961* standard covariance analysis programs)
> 0.90 0.951* approximating a noncentral chi-square
> 0.90 0.983* distribution with degrees of freedom equal to
> 0.90 0.978* the number of additional parameters
> 0.90 0.982* included to create the alternative model
> 0.90 0.982* (delta). Given delta, the level of alpha, and the
degrees of freedom, the power is determined
using the noncentral chi-square tables.
[ 171 ]
W. David Salisbury, Figure 3
Rodney A. Pearson, Path loadings from causal testing with confirmation data set
Allison W. Pearson and
David W. Miller
Perceived security and World
Wide Web purchase intention
Industrial Management &
Data Systems
101/4 [2001] 165±176

Table IX shows the results of testing the intent in our model is likely correct, since an
power of our analysis with the confirmation
data set to detect three possible misspecified
models for two specific potential problem
areas. The first test consisted of creating an
alternative causal model where a
standardized path of 0.25 from ease of
navigation to purchase intent. The model was
then tested for its power in detecting an
incorrect model in which that path is
excluded for estimation. The second test
followed a similar procedure, but in this case
a standardized cross-loading of 0.30 from the
factor perceived usefulness to the indicator
secure 4 is specified. A model was then run
where that loading was not included for
estimation. The third test specified a
correlation of 0.30 between two error terms
(those for usefulness items 1 and 2), followed
by a test of the same model less that
specification (i.e. with the error terms
uncorrelated).
The three tests we performed were devised
to assess two different potential problem
areas. The first test demonstrates that the
zero path estimate for the structural path of
perceived ease of navigation to purchase
Table IX
Power analyses for the causal model with the confirmation data set
Model Effect size  Power
Ease of navigation ! purchase intent 0.25 12.127 0.936
Security ! use4 0.30 44.708 0.999
Correlated errors 0.30 18.281 0.989
[ 172 ]
effect size as small as  = 0.25 could have been
reliably detected. The second test
demonstrated the ability to detect a poor
measure that would tap into more than one
construct. This test demonstrated that a
measure which ``cross-loaded'' even as little
as 0.30 would have been detected in our data
set. Correlated errors between two indicators
can be interpreted as being influenced by an
additional latent variable beyond the ones
that were modeled, and our third test was
intended to see if our sample contained
sufficient power to capture error terms
correlated at r = 0.30. In all three tests, the
power of the present analyses to detect a
misspecified model was above the generally
accepted level of 0.80 (Cohen, 1988). This
indicates that we could be confident that the
analysis in this study would enable the
detection of model misspecifications of these
types at least 80 per cent of the time.
Bootstrap resampling of the data set
As a means of acquiring further information
about the significance of the parameter
estimates in the models analyzed, we
employed a technique known as
bootstrapping. Bootstrapping is a resampling
procedure designed to estimate standard
errors, confidence intervals, and other
statistical properties (Stine, 1989).
As a means of overcoming sample size
limitations, the general approach to the
bootstrap method is to let the empirical
distribution of the data sample represent the
W. David Salisbury, population. A bootstrap sample is obtained
Rodney A. Pearson, by drawing N cases (typically the same
Allison W. Pearson and number as the original sample size ± in this
David W. Miller
Perceived security and World case, 253) with replacement from the sample.
Wide Web purchase intention The bootstrap estimate is calculated on the
Industrial Management & bootstrap sample. This procedure is repeated
Data Systems a number of times in order to calculate the
101/4 [2001] 165±176
variance and confidence intervals of the
bootstrap estimate. In the present case, 2,000
samples were drawn from the data set.
The findings on parameter estimates
critical to the study findings from the
bootstrap analysis for our model are found in
Table X. In the models all structural paths
found to be significant in the initial model
were significant (p < 0.05). Consequently,
greater confidence may be placed in the
primary findings from this study.
As a final test, we performed a Bollen-Stine
bootstrap analysis Bollen and Stine (1992) to
test the null hypothesis that the model is
correct. The p-value for this test was 0.089,
suggesting that the model is indeed correct
for our data set.
Discussion and conclusions
The conclusions drawn from the present
exercise can be placed in two categories:
methodological and theoretical. On the
methodological front, we have demonstrated
the development of a reliable and valid
measure to capture a critical construct to
understand Web-based shopping behaviors.
Still more effort needs to be expended to
capture other critical constructs, perhaps
addressing not sensitive information, but
personal privacy while browsing. In
addition, more application-specific scales
need to be developed for further investigation
of these phenomena. The scales we adapted
from Davis (1989), while demonstrating
excellent psychometric properties may not be
the most appropriate in this context. Clearly
additional scale development is indicated.
On the theoretical front, our study makes
several contributions to the literature. First,
we have identified three relevant constructs
that may influence intent to purchase
products on the World Wide Web. Our initial
effort indicates that usefulness, ease of
navigation, and security are salient beliefs
Table X
Bootstrap path significance of critical parameter estimates, confirmation
data (2,000 resamples)
Path Lower bound Upper bound Significance
Security ! purchase intent 0.263 0.496 0.001*
Usefulness ! purchase intent ±0.017 0.297 0.082
Ease of navigation ! purchase intent ±0.144 0.189 0.662
Note: * Indicate significance at p = 0.05
about Web-based shopping. We found that
increased levels of perceived Web security
will lead to greater intent to purchase
products on the Web. These findings support
our hypotheses, at least as it pertains to Web
security and its influence on purchase intent.
The most telling finding would appear to be
that, when compared to perceptions about
Web security, perceptions about the ease and
utility of Web shopping would appear to be
diminished. While not anticipated, this is not
especially surprising, in light of the risk
behavior literature. When one faces
potentially risky outcomes associated with
adopting an innovation, the perceived risk
may be more important in determining
adoption behavior than the ease or utility of
the innovation in question. We believe that
the integration of the risk perception
perspective into the innovation adoption
literature may be a contribution in itself.
The finding that perceived Web security
enhances intent to purchase is important,
especially to practitioners who are interested
in engaging in Internet commerce. It is clear
in our sample that customers will shop on the
World Wide Web only if they feel that their
credit card numbers and other sensitive
information are safe, regardless of the
objective security of the Web site. Web page
designers must take this into account and
display informational messages about the
measures taken to safeguard against fraud
any time the customer is at a screen in which
they are being asked to provide sensitive
information. One example of this is how
Amazon.com requires customers to click on a
link to their secure server to finalize their
purchases. This is an excellent example of
providing customers with greater confidence
that the Internet channel is a safe means to
shop, and thereby possibly reducing risk
perceptions.
One clear avenue for future efforts is the
issue of privacy versus security (Jarvenpaa
and Todd, 1997). Our scale as currently
designed captures security (i.e. one's
personal information will be safe on the
Internet), but there is also the issue of
privacy. Recently, much was made about the
Pentium III chip's unique identifier that
could be used to track individuals'
navigation about Web pages. Another scale
that captures personal privacy while
browsing would appear useful.
Our study is not without limitations. First,
our student sample may not be
representative of the population of Web
shoppers. Secondly, the responses to the
items may have been constrained due to the
subjects' lack of previous experience with
Web shopping. These concerns about
drawing from a student sample may not be as
relevant as in other contexts, however,
[ 173 ]
W. David Salisbury,
Rodney A. Pearson,
Allison W. Pearson and
David W. Miller
Perceived security and World
Wide Web purchase intention
Industrial Management &
Data Systems
101/4 [2001] 165±176
[ 174 ]
because students do indeed purchase the This study provides many opportunities for
types of products that are often most easily future research. One issue that should be
delivered using the World Wide Web (e.g. addressed is the constructs that were chosen.
books and music CD's). Indeed, when one Jarvenpaa and Todd (1997), for example,
looks at books in Amazon.com's Purchase suggest a wide range of possible salient
Circles, over 100 universities are listed as beliefs about Web shopping. Future research
generating sales for Amazon.com, and the should address other relevant constructs. It
same is true for music CD's. To address the is likely that Web advertising will favorably
concern about lack of experience, leading to influence purchasing a company's products
compressed variance, first, we refer the through other avenues, not just over the
reader to our demographics, where the Web. In addition, we have not addressed the
answer to the question about previous issue of one's access to the Internet. Web-
gathering of information using the World based shopping is not especially relevant if
Wide Web was 4.83 (s.d. 1.53) on a seven point one cannot readily access the Internet.
scale, with seven indicating high experience. Finally, the measures created for this study
should undergo further refinement. It is clear
While the score for previous purchasing was
that more and different variables are needed
1.95 on a scale with seven indicating high
to fully understand Web-based shopping. It is
experience, the standard deviation was 1.49,
a relatively new phenomenon, and as such
which indicates that there is variance in the
may require additional rethinking of models
amount of experience with World Wide Web
used to explain its adoption.
shopping in our sample. As a final check to
Another avenue for research may be to
assess this concern about compressed address adoption of Web shopping within a
variance, we looked at the variances for each overall model about risk behavior (e.g. Sitkin
of the items. This analysis (Table XI) and Pablo, 1992). It is clear that for
indicates that we do have sufficient variance innovations that involve a greater degree of
in our data to identify effects. potential personal risk, other models besides
In the case of perceived usefulness and its the more traditional adoption diffusion
non-influence on intent to purchase, it is models may be appropriate.
clear that security is the driving influence in Another issue may be to assess different
purchasing products on the Web, and the demographic or geographic influences on
trade-off between this and the utility of Web Web shopping. Some studies have addressed
shopping is not perceived to be a good one. Web shopping perceptions in relatively
Still, it may be that the non-significant affluent and highly computer literate
relationship between perceived usefulness, samples (e.g. Jarvenpaa and Todd, 1997),
perceived ease of navigation and intent to while our sample was drawn from a
purchase could be because the relationship population that is predominantly rural.
between these and intent to purchase on the Would Web shopping be more or less likely to
Web is mediated by another construct, be adopted if it were necessary to drive a
perhaps an intent to gather information substantial distance to browse and purchase
on the Web. This may bear further products of interest? Further, are those more
investigation. familiar with computers, information
technology, and the Internet more or less
Table XI likely to be concerned about security? An
Item variances initial comparison of our findings and those
obtained by Jarvenpaa and Todd (1997) would
Std. indicate that this may be the case: Jarvenpaa
Item Min Max Mean dev. Variance and Todd found that the concerns about
eon1 1 7 5.70 1.44 2.08 personal risk were not as relevant to their
eon2 1 7 5.62 1.41 1.97 sample as the shopping experience. In our
eon3 1 7 5.65 1.48 2.18 sample we found the opposite, in that
eon4 1 7 5.76 1.48 2.19 shopping experience (operationalized as ease
use1 1 7 5.72 1.29 1.66 of navigation and usefulness) did not
use2 1 7 5.53 1.43 2.04 influence intent to purchase as much as did
use3 1 7 6.09 1.26 1.59 perceived security. While the difference
use4 1 7 5.98 1.34 1.80 between the research designs of the two
secure1 1 7 3.19 1.94 3.77 studies preclude drawing certain conclusions
secure2 1 7 3.06 1.84 3.39 about this, the need to investigate Web
secure3 1 7 2.92 1.87 3.51 shopping as it relates to a variety of
secure7 1 7 3.03 1.84 3.40 characteristics is clear.
While the causal model tested here is and
purch1 1 7 4.47 2.08 4.32
should be subject to further revision, the
purch2 1 7 4.34 1.99 3.96
primary goal of this paper has been met: we
purch3 1 7 4.37 1.97 3.87
have developed a scale that captures
W. David Salisbury,
Rodney A. Pearson,
Allison W. Pearson and
David W. Miller
Perceived security and World
Wide Web purchase intention
Industrial Management &
Data Systems
101/4 [2001] 165±176
perceived Web security. Our scale has been
carefully tested and validated, and it
provides a compact, 4-item instrument that
may be used for capturing this important
construct. For theory and research to
advance with respect to understanding Web
shopping, efforts such as these must be
undertaken.
Notes
1 Items were eliminated for the present study
based on applicability to the context. For
example, for a non-work-related innovation
such as Web shopping, an item such as ``Using
(the innovation) would improve my
performance``, was seen as not relevant, and
hence was not used.
2 Perceived usefulness was used in this test to
provide nough items to create an over
identified model.
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Appendix

Table AI
Covariance matrix for confirmation data set
eon1 2.074
eon2 1.753 1.967
eon3 1.797 1.784 2.173
eon4 1.881 1.826 1.955 2.183
purch1 0.341 0.471 0.497 0.41 4.304
purch2 0.263 0.366 0.337 0.295 3.666 3.948
purch3 0.474 0.485 0.53 0.485 3.359 3.332 3.854
secure1 0.238 0.321 0.407 0.243 1.365 1.279 1.487 3.751
secure2 0.277 0.317 0.336 0.203 1.223 1.266 1.355 3.001 3.38
secure3 0.245 0.314 0.379 0.206 1.231 1.201 1.346 2.904 2.827 3.496
secure7 0.167 0.348 0.383 0.261 1.293 1.27 1.344 2.571 2.429 2.631 3.39
use1 0.863 0.907 0.918 0.906 0.51 0.296 0.439 0.278 0.221 0.172 0.23 1.655
use2 0.761 0.662 0.647 0.664 0.468 0.319 0.469 0.351 0.41 0.295 0.209 1.236 2.036
use3 0.88 0.883 0.865 0.871 0.564 0.457 0.434 0.256 0.3 0.098 0.072 1.099 1.278 1.581
use4 0.815 0.853 0.853 0.809 0.462 0.293 0.412 0.4 0.361 0.279 0.246 1.191 1.376 1.393 1.794
eon1 eon2 eon3 eon4 purch1 purch2 purch3 secure1 secure2 secure3 secure7 use1 use2 use3 use4

[ 176 ]