Subtopic 6.

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Leaf structure
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6.2.1 () Contents
6.2.2 () 6.2.0 The big picture ()
6.2.1 Explaining leaf structure ()
6.2.3 ()
6.2.2 Summary and key terms ()
6.2.3 Checklist ()

Section 6.2.0

The big picture

The leaves in plants show fascinating diversity. They vary in size. For example, a banana leaf averages 1–2 m in length
and, in many cultures, is used to serve food. Leaves also vary in shape and in colour. However, amazingly, the structure
of leaves of  dicotyledonous plants is more or less similar in adaptation to their primary function.

Look at Figure 1. Inside the leaf are places where:

carbon dioxide moves in, out and around

water travels into and around the leaf
sunlight passes through the leaf
multiple layers of cells work together to make complex sugars for food
minerals and water move around the leaf through bundles of tubes.
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Figure 1. A leaf may be only 0.2 mm thick.

Credit: Creativ Studio Heinemann, Getty Images

Leaves seem ordinary but are, in fact, complicated chemical factories that manufacture food.

Before you move on to the next section, read through the learning outcomes below and answer the section questions to
check that you have the prior knowledge required to understand this subtopic.

 Learning intentions
By the end of this subtopic, you will be able to understand how the structure of the leaf is adapted for
photosynthesis and identify the structures in the leaf.
 To see the full list of learning objectives, go to the Checklist (/schoolstaff/app/cambridge-igcse-biology-
fe2023/book/plant-nutrition/leaf-structure/checklist/).
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6.2.2 () Section questions

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Question 1
Short text

True or false?

Chemical energy is converted to light energy during photosynthesis.

Correct answers

False
F
Answer explanation

Light energy is converted to chemical energy during photosynthesis.

Question 2
Short text

True or false?

Oxygen is essential for photosynthesis to occur.

 Correct answers

False
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F
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6.2.1 () This is false. Oxygen is a by-product of photosynthesis.

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Question 3
6.2.3 () Fill in the blanks

Complete the following sentence.

The  1 chloroplasts are the sites of photosynthesis in the plant cell.

Accepted answers and explanation

#1 chloroplasts

Chloroplasts contain chlorophyll and are the sites of photosynthesis.

Section 6.2.1

Explaining leaf structure

 Leaf adaptations
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Leaves are well adapted to their function of photosynthesis. Apart from chlorophyll, leaves require sunlight, carbon
6.2.0 () dioxide and water to make food. Leaves have adapted in the following ways:
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they have large surface areas, which exposes a larger area to sunlight and air, and helps in the easier absorption of
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these materials.
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they are thin, which ensures that the carbon dioxide from the air diffuses quickly to the photosynthetic cells (see
subtopic 3.1 (/schoolstaff/app/cambridge-igcse-biology-fe2023/book/movement-into-and-out-of-
cells/diffusion/the-big-picture/)). The thinness of the leaves also helps the light to penetrate easily.

Leaf structure
Figure 1 shows the structures found in the leaf of a dicotyledonous plant (a typical broad-leaved flowering plant). A
leaf may appear thin; however, it is composed of several layers of cells.
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Figure 1. A cross-section through a leaf of a dicotyledonous plant.

 Study skills
You should be able to identify all these structures in a diagram of a leaf.

The interactive model below shows the layers of a leaf in 3D. If you click on the numbers there is more detail about leaf
structure. This model includes some information that is beyond the requirements of this syllabus. The terms that are
included on this syllabus are: (1) palisade mesophyll, (2) guard cell, (3) xylem and phloem, (4) spongy mesophyll and
(5) cuticle and epidermal cells. The functions and adaptations of each of these terms are included in Table 1 below. 
 Leaf Cross Section for Biology Task
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 Practical skills
At times, structures look different under the microscope from their diagrams. The micrograph in Figure 2 shows a
cross-section of a leaf. Try to identify the different layers.
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Figure 2. Micrograph of a leaf.

Credit: Sebastian Condrea, Getty Images

Table 1 summarises the functions and adaptations of the structures seen in Figure 1. The table is organised in order of
the labels in Figure 1, starting with cuticle and going clockwise to spongy mesophyll.

Table 1. Functions and adaptations of different parts of a dicotyledonous leaf.

Structure Function Adaptation

cuticle stops water from evaporating waxy layer

from the leaf
 Structure Function Adaptation
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chloroplast the site of photosynthesis contains chlorophyll to absorb light, and enzymes and
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structures needed for photosynthesis
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upper epidermis protects the inner cells thin layer without chloroplasts, which lets light pass
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through for photosynthesis
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palisade mesophyll layer tissue in which photosynthesis box-shaped cells that pack closely together; each cell has
happens lots of chloroplasts pushed to the edges of the cell by a
large vacuole so they can absorb more light

xylem carries water and mineral ions made from dead cells, forming hollow, waterproof
from the roots to the leaf tubes, through which water passes

phloem carries sucrose away from the consists of sieve tubes (through which the sucrose is
leaf transported) and companion cells (that provide energy for
the transport)

vascular bundle contain the xylem and phloem

tissues

lower epidermis protects the inner cells thin layer that (apart from guard cells)  does not contain
chloroplasts, which lets light pass through for
photosynthesis
 Structure Function Adaptation
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guard cell work in pairs to control the size entry and loss of water from the guard cells (due to
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of the opening of a stoma osmosis) results in changes in their shape; this in turn leads
6.2.1 () to the opening and  closing of the stoma

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stomata (singular: controls the diffusion of water the size of the opening changes in response to the internal
6.2.3 () stoma) vapour and gases in and out of and external environments of the plant
the leaf

air spaces allow diffusion of gases

throughout the leaf

spongy mesophyll site of gas exchange cells are loosely spaced, creating air spaces to allow
diffusion of gases throughout the leaf

 Activity
How well can you identify the structures within the leaf? Drag and drop the words to label the structures.
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Spongy
Stomata Lower epidermis Upper epidermis
mesophyll

Cuticle Palisade Guard cell Chloroplast

mesophyll

 Check

 Reuse Embed
  Study skills
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One way to remember the layers of the leaf is to do a visualisation exercise. Carefully study the picture. Now, close
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your eyes and imagine that you are a molecule of air entering the leaf through the stomata. Move from the lower
6.2.1 () surface to the upper surface of the leaf. Visualise the layers you would encounter. Concentrate on the details that
you are likely to see.
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Section questions
- Hide 5 questions

Question 1
Multiple choice

Which of these cells do not have chloroplasts?

Choices

Correct choice #1

Epidermal cells

Answer explanation

The epidermal layers are composed of cells that do not have chloroplasts.

#2
Palisade mesophyll
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Guard cells
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#4
6.2.0 () Spongy mesophyll
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6.2.2 () Question 2
Multiple choice
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Large air spaces are found between the cells of the…

Choices

Correct choice #1

spongy mesophyll

Answer explanation

The cells of the spongy mesophyll are loosely packed with large spaces between them that permit the diffusion of
gases.

#2
palisade mesophyll

#3
epidermis

#4
guard cells

Question 3
 Multiple choice

Identify the layer of the leaf labelled X in the figure.

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Choices

Correct choice #1

Palisade mesophyll layer

Answer explanation

‘Meso’ means middle and ‘phyll’ means leaf, indicating that the mesophyll layer is a central layer of the leaf. The
spongy mesophyll layer is lower down in the leaf. It is ‘spongy’ because it contains lots of air cavities. The upper
epidermis is the top layer of cells.
 #2
Spongy mesophyll layer
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Upper epidermis
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Waxy cuticle
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Question 4
Multiple choice

Which feature is responsible for the transport of some of the products of photosynthesis from the leaves to the roots?

Choices

Correct choice #1

Phloem

Answer explanation

Phloem carries sucrose and other products from the leaf to other parts of the plant.

#2
Xylem

#3
Chloroplasts

#4
Stomata
 Question 5
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State the name of the layer that prevents water loss from the leaves of a plant by evaporation.
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6.2.1 () Correct answers

6.2.2 () cuticle
wax cuticle
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waxy cuticle
waxy cuticle layer
Answer explanation

The waxy cuticle is responsible for preventing water loss.

Section 6.2.2

Summary and key terms

Leaves are well adapted to their function. Leaves have large surface areas to absorb sunlight.
 Leaves are thin. This helps the carbon dioxide to diffuse quickly and the sunlight to penetrate easily.
The waxy cuticle of the leaf prevents evaporation of the water.
The upper and lower epidermis protect the inner layers of the leaf.
The mesophyll layers form the middle layers and include the palisade mesophyll and the spongy mesophyll.
 The cells of the palisade mesophyll are packed closely together while the cells of the spongy mesophyll are loosely
arranged with air spaces.
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Stomata are minute openings present on the leaf. Guard cells lie on each side of the stoma. The opening and
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closing of the stomata are controlled by the guard cells.
6.2.1 () Stomata control the diffusion of gases in and out of the leaf. They also control the movement of water vapour out
6.2.2 () of the leaf.
The vascular bundles run through the mesophyll and carry water and food to and from the leaf.
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 Key terms
 Review these key terms. Do you know them all? Fill in

6.2 () as many gaps as you can using the terms in this list.

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1. The leaf is composed of many layers, with the outermost
6.2.1 () layer being the waxy .

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2. Minute openings in the leaf or
permit the of gases in and out of
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the leaf.

3. The are bean-shaped cells that

lie on either side of the stomata and regulate the opening
and closing of the stomata.

4. The refer to the conducting

tissues of the plants through which water and food are
transported to and from the leaves. These include the
that transports water and mineral
ions from the root to the leaves and the
that transports food from the
leaves to the other parts of the plant.

5. The are the middle layers and

have chloroplasts.

6. The air spaces present in the

help in the exchange of .

stomata xylem cuticle phloem

vascular bundles guard cells

spongy mesophyll diffusion gases

mesophyll layers
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Section 6.2.3

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Checklist

 What you should know

After studying this subtopic, you should be able to:

Core

State that most leaves have a large surface area and are thin, and explain how these features are adaptations
for photosynthesis.

Identify in diagrams and images the following structures in the leaf of a dicotyledonous plant: chloroplasts,
cuticle, guard cells and stomata, upper and lower epidermis, palisade mesophyll, spongy mesophyll, air spaces,
vascular bundles, xylem and phloem.

Explain how these structures adapt leaves for photosynthesis.

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