RIZAL TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

Cities of Mandaluyong and Pasig

Topic Presentation

The Cell
Cells are the functional units of life, in which all of the chemical reactions
necessary for the maintenance and reproduction of life take place. They are the
smallest independent units of life. There are two basic types of cells: prokaryotic and
eukaryotic. The prokaryotes lack nuclei and other membrane-bound organelles.
These simpler (prokaryotic or prokaryotes; “before nucleus”) cells are classified into
two domains: Archaea and Eubacteria. The Archaea have unique characteristics
and also share features with Eubacteria and the third domain, Eukarya. Eukaryotic
cells are larger and more complex than prokaryotic cells.

All eukaryotes (“true nucleus”) have cells with a membrane-bound nucleus

containing DNA. In addition, eukaryotic cells contain many other structures called
organelles (“little organs”) that perform specific functions. Eukaryotic cells also have
a network of specialized structures called microfilaments and microtubules
organized into the cytoskeleton, which gives shape to the cell and allows
intracellular movement.

All eukaryotic cells have three basic parts:

1. The plasma membrane (cell membrane) is the outer boundary of the cell. It
separates the internal metabolic events from the environment and allows
them to proceed in organized, controlled ways. The plasma membrane also
has specific receptors for external molecules that alter the cell’s function. The
plasma membrane surrounds the cell. Other membranes inside the cell
enclose some organelles and have properties similar to those of the plasma
membrane.
2. Cytoplasm (Gr. kytos, hollow vessel 1 plasm, fluid) is the portion of the cell
outside the nucleus. The semifluid portion of the cytoplasm is called the
cytosol. Suspended within the cytosol are the organelles.

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3. The nucleus (pl., nuclei) is the cell control center. It contains the
chromosomes and is separated from the cytoplasm by its own nuclear
envelope. The nucleoplasm is the semifluid material in the nucleus.

FIGURE 2.1
Structural Hierarchy in a Multicellular Animal. At each level, function depends on the
structural organization of that level and those below it.

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Structure of Cell Membranes

In 1972, S. Jonathan Singer and Garth Nicolson developed the fluid-mosaic model
of membrane structure. According to this model, a membrane is a double layer
(bilayer) of proteins and phospholipids and is fluid rather than solid. The
phospholipid bilayer forms a fluid “sea” in which specific proteins float like icebergs
(figure 2.4). Being fluid, the membrane is in a constant state of flux—shifting and
changing, while retaining its uniform structure. The word mosaic refers to the many
different kinds of proteins dispersed in the phospholipid bilayer.

FIGURE 2.4

Fluid-Mosaic Model of
Membrane Structure. Intrinsic
globular proteins may
protrude above or below the
lipid bilayer and may move
about in the membrane.
Peripheral proteins attach to
either the inner surface or the
outer surface.

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The following are important points of the fluid-mosaic model:

1. The phospholipids have one polar end and one nonpolar end. The polar ends are
oriented on one side toward the outside of the cell and into the fluid cytoplasm on
the other side, and the nonpolar ends face each other in the middle of the bilayer.
The “tails” of both layers of phospholipid molecules attract each other and are
repelled by water (they are hydrophobic, “water dreading”). As a result, the polar
spherical “heads” (the phosphate portion) are located over the cell surfaces (outer
and inner) and are “water attracting” (they are hydrophilic).

2. Cholesterol is present in the plasma membrane and organelle membranes of

eukaryotic cells. The cholesterol molecules are embedded in the interior of the
membrane and help make the membrane less permeable to water-soluble
substances. In addition, the relatively rigid structure of the cholesterol molecules
helps stabilize the membrane (figure 2.5).

3. The membrane proteins are individual molecules attached to the inner or outer
membrane surface (peripheral proteins) or embedded in it (intrinsic proteins) (see
figure 2.4 ). Some intrinsic proteins are links to sugar-protein markers on the cell
surface. Other intrinsic proteins help move ions or molecules across the membrane,
and still others attach the membrane to the cell’s inner scaffolding (the cytoskeleton)
or to various molecules outside the cell.

4. When carbohydrates unite with proteins, they form glycoproteins, and when they
unite with lipids, they form glycolipids on the surface of the plasma membrane.
Surface carbohydrates and portions of the proteins and lipids make up the
glycocalyx (“cell coat”) (figure 2.6). This arrangement of distinctively shaped groups
of sugar molecules of the glycocalyx acts as a molecular “fingerprint” for each cell
type. The glycocalyx is necessary for cell-to-cell recognition and the behavior of
certain cells, and it is a key component in coordinating cell behavior in animals.

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FIGURE 2.5

The Arrangement of Cholesterol

between Lipid Molecules of a
Lipid Bilayer. Cholesterol stiffens
the outer lipid bilayer and causes
the inner region of the bilayer to
become slightly more fluid. Only
half the lipid bilayer is shown; the
other half is a mirror image.

FIGURE 2.6
The Glycocalyx, Showing the Glycoproteins
and Glycolipids. Note that all of the
attached carbohydrates are on the outside
of the plasma membrane.

Functions of Cell Membranes

Cell membranes (1) regulate material moving into and out of the cell, and from one
part of the cell to another; (2) separate the inside of the cell from the outside; (3)
separate various organelles within the cell; (4) provide a large surface area on which
specific chemical reactions can occur; (5) separate cells from one another; and (6)
are a site for receptors containing specific cell identification markers that

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differentiate one cell type from another. The ability of the plasma membrane to let
some substances in and keep others out is called selective permeability (L.
permeare or per, through 1 meare, pass) and is essential for maintaining a “steady
state” within the cell. However, before you can fully understand how substances
pass into and out of cells and organelles, you must know how the molecules of those
substances move from one place to another.

SECTION REVIEW

The major components of the plasma membrane are as follows: a phospholipid

bilayer, cholesterol, membrane proteins, and the glycocalyx. This structure
creates the outer boundary of the cell, it separates the internal metabolic events
from the environment, and it allows the events to proceed in an organized, controlled
way. The plasma membrane also has specific structures for movement of materials
into and out of the cell and receptors for external molecules that alter the cell’s
function.

MOVEMENT ACROSS MEMBRANES

➢ Simple Diffusion
Molecules move randomly at all temperatures above absolute zero (due to
spontaneous molecular motion) from areas where they are highly
concentrated to areas where they are less concentrated, until they are evenly
distributed in a state of dynamic equilibrium. This process is simple diffusion
(L. diffundere, to spread). Simple diffusion accounts for most of the short-
distance transport of substances moving into and out of cells. Figure 2.7
shows the diffusion of sugar particles away from a sugar cube placed in
water. Facilitated Diffusion Polar molecules (not soluble in lipids) may diffuse
through protein channels (pores) in the lipid bilayer (figure 2.8). The protein
channels offer a continuous pathway for specific molecules to move across
the plasma membrane so that they never come into contact with the
hydrophobic layer or the membrane’s polar surface. Large molecules and
some (e.g., glucose and amino acids) of those not soluble in lipids require

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assistance in passing across the plasma membrane. These molecules use

facilitated diffusion, which, like simple diffusion, requires no energy input. To
pass across the membrane, a molecule temporarily binds with a carrier
(transport) protein in the plasma membrane and is transported from an area
of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration (figure 2.9).

FIGURE 2.7
Simple Diffusion. When a sugar cube is placed in water (a), it slowly dissolves (b) and disappears.
As this happens, the sugar molecules diffuse from a region where they are more concentrated to a
region (c) where they are less concentrated. Even distribution of the sugar molecules throughout the
water is diffusion equilibrium (d).

FIGURE 2.8

Transport Proteins. Molecules can

move into and out of cells through
integrated protein channels (pores) in
the plasma membrane without using
energy.

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FIGURE 2.9

Facilitated Diffusion and Carrier (Transport)

Proteins. Some molecules move across the
plasma membrane with the assistance of
carrier proteins that transport the molecules
down their concentration gradient, from a
region of higher concentration to a region of
lower concentration. A carrier protein
alternates between two configurations,
moving a molecule across a membrane as
the shape of the protein changes. The rate of
facilitated diffusion depends on how many
carrier proteins are available in the
membrane and how fast they can move their
specific molecules.

➢ Osmosis
The diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane from an
area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration is osmosis (Gr.
osmos, pushing). Osmosis is just a special type of diffusion, not a different
method (figure 2.10). Recent studies show that water, despite its polarity, can
cross cell membranes, but this flow is limited. Water flow in living cells is
facilitated by specialized water channels called aquaporins. Aquaporins fall
into two general classes: those that are specific only for water, and others
that allow small hydrophilicmolecules (e.g., urea, glycerol) to cross the
membrane. The term tonicity (Gr. tonus, tension) refers to the relative
concentration of solutes in the water inside and outside the cell. For example,
in an isotonic (Gr. isos, equal 1 tonus, tension) solution, the solute
concentration is the same inside and outside a red blood cell (figure 2.11a).
The concentration of water molecules is also the same inside and outside the
cell. Thus, water molecules move across the plasma membrane at the same
rate in both directions, and there is no net movement of water in either
direction. In a hypertonic (Gr. hyper, above) solution, the solute concentration
is higher outside the red blood cell than it is inside. Because the concentration

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of water molecules inside the cell is higher than it is outside, water moves out
of the cell, which shrinks (figure 2.11b). This condition is called crenation in
red blood cells. In a hypotonic (Gr. hypo, under) solution, the solute
concentration is lower outside the red blood cell than it is inside. Conversely,
the concentration of water molecules is higher outside the cell than it is inside.
As a result, water moves into the cell, which swells and may burst (figure
2.11c).

FIGURE 2.10
Osmosis. (a) A selectively
permeable membrane separates
the beaker into two compartments.
Initially, compartment 1 contains
sugar and water molecules, and
compartment 2 contains only water
molecules. Due to molecular
motion, water moves down the
concentration gradient (from
compartment 2 to compartment 1)
by osmosis. The sugar molecules
remain in compartment 1 because
they are too large to pass across
the membrane. (b) At osmotic
equilibrium, the number of sugar
molecules in compartment 1 does
not increase, but the number of
water molecules does.

FIGURE 2.11

Effect of Salt Concentration on Red

Blood Cell Volumes.

(a) An isotonic solution with the same

salt concentration inside and outside
the cell has no effect on the size of the
red blood cell.

(b) A hypertonic (high-salt) solution

causes water to leave the red blood
cell, which shrinks.

(c) A hypotonic (low-salt) solution

results in an inflow of water, causing
the red blood cell to swell. Arrows
indicate direction of water movement.

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➢ Filtration

Filtration is a process that forces small molecules across selectively

permeable membranes with the aid of hydrostatic (water) pressure (or some other
externally applied force, such as blood pressure). For example, in the body of an
animal such as a frog, filtration is evident when blood pressure forces water and
dissolved molecules through the permeable walls of small blood vessels called
capillaries (figure 2.12). In filtration, large molecules, such as proteins, do not pass
through the smaller membrane pores. Filtration also takes place in the kidneys when
blood pressure forces water and dissolved wastes out of the blood vessels and into
the kidney tubules in the first step in urine formation.

FIGURE 2.12

Filtration. The high blood pressure in the

capillary forces small molecules through
the capillary membrane. Larger
molecules cannot pass through the small
openings in the capillary membrane and
remain in the capillary. Arrows indicate
the direction of small molecule
movement.

➢ Active Transport: Energy Required

Active-transport processes move molecules across a selectively permeable
membrane against a concentration gradient— that is, from an area of lower
concentration to an area of higher concentration. This movement against the
concentration gradient requires ATP energy. The active-transport process is
similar to facilitated diffusion, except that the carrier protein in the plasma
membrane must use energy to move the molecules against their
concentration gradient (figure 2.13). One active-transport mechanism, the
sodium-potassium pump, helps maintain the high concentrations of
potassium that are necessary for the transmission of electrical impulses.
Another active-transport mechanism, the calcium pump, keeps the calcium

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concentration hundreds of times lower inside the cell than outside ions and
low concentrations of sodium ions inside nerve cells

FIGURE 2.13
Active Transport. During active transport, a
molecule combines with a carrier protein whose
shape is altered as a result of the combination. This
change in configuration, along with ATP energy,
helps move the molecule across the plasma
membrane against a concentration gradient.

FIGURE 2.14
Endocytosis and Exocytosis. Endocytosis and
exocytosis are responsible for the bulk transport
of molecules into and out of a cell.

➢ Bulk Transport
Large molecules cannot be transported through the plasma membrane by
the processes described in the previous sections. Endocytosis and
exocytosis together provide bulk transport into and out of the cell,
respectively. (The term “bulk” is used because many molecules are moved
at the same time.) In endocytosis (Gr. endon, within), the plasma membrane
envelops large particles and molecules (figure 2.14) and moves them in bulk
across the membrane. The three forms of endocytosis are pinocytosis,
phagocytosis, and receptor-mediated endocytosis. Pinocytosis (Gr. pinein, to

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drink 1 cyto, cell) is the nonspecific uptake of small droplets of extracellular

fluid. Phagocytosis (Gr. phagein, to eat 1 cyto, cell) is similar to pinocytosis
except that the cell takes in solid material rather than liquid. Receptor-
mediated endocytosis involves a specific receptor protein on the plasma
membrane that “recognizes” an extracellular molecule and binds with it. The
reaction stimulates the membrane to indent and create a vesicle containing
the selected molecule. In the process of exocytosis (Gr. exo, outside), the
secretory vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane and release their contents
into the extracellular environment (figure 2.14). This process adds new
membrane material, which replaces the plasma membrane lost during
exocytosis.

CYTOPLASM, ORGANELLES, AND CELLULAR COMPONENTS

CYTOPLASM
The cytoplasm of a cell has two distinct parts: (1) The cytomembrane (or
endomembrane) system consists of well-defined structures, such as the
endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, vacuoles, and vesicles. (2) The fluid
cytosol suspends the structures of the cytomembrane system and contains
various dissolved molecules.

RIBOSOMES: PROTEIN WORKBENCHES

Ribosomes are non-membrane-bound structures that are the sites for protein
synthesis. They contain almost equal amounts of protein and a special kind of
ribonucleic acid called ribosomal RNA (rRNA). Some ribosomes attach to the
endoplasmic reticulum (see next section), and some float freely in the cytoplasm.
Whether ribosomes are free or attached, they usually cluster in groups connected
by a strand of another kind of ribonucleic acid called messenger RNA (mRNA).
These clusters are called polyribosomes or polysomes.

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