Introduction to Chemistry

PD Dr. Marko Bertmer

bertmer@physik.uni-leipzig.de
Felix-Bloch-Institute for solid state physics
(room 504b, phone (97)32617)

https://bloch.physgeo.uni-leipzig.de/de/amr/members/bertmer-marko/
1 Introduction: Overview
a) Organization
b) Literatur
c) Hazard symbols
d) What is Chemistry? Everyday examples
e) Classification of matter
f) ‚chemical‘ units
1 Introduction: a) Organization

• pdf’s of chapters on AlmaWeb

(in lecture could be less due to time limitations)
• seminar: exercises as pdf on AlmaWeb
answers collected prior to next lecture
(alternatively as pdf (!) via e-mail)
• written exam at the end: at least 50% of all points from exercises
necessary
1 Introduction: a) Organization
• Overview: 13 Chapters
1) introduction
2) atoms, molecules, ions
3) stoichiometry
4) energy of chemical reactions
5) electronic structure
6) chemical bonding
7) trends in the periodic table, main group elements
8) intermolecular interactions
9) reaction kinetics & chemical equilibrium
10) acids and bases
11) coordination compounds, transition elements
12) electrochemistry
13) organic chemistry & macromolecules
1 Introduction b) Literature
• Chemistry – the central science; T. L. Brown, H. E. LeMay, B. E.
Bursten; Pearson Studium
• Fundamentals of Chemistry – J. E. Brady, J. R. Holum, John Wiley &
Sons
• Das Basiswissen der Chemie – C. E. Mortimer, U. Müller, Thieme
• other general chemistry books
• internet???
1 Introduction c) Hazard Symbols
• Chemistry = Danger !?
• Hazard symbols, R- & S-sentences or H- & P-sentences (GHS)
1 Introduction c) Hazard Symbols
 1 Introduction c) Hazard Symbols
R-Sentences: risk
 1 Introduction c) Hazard Symbols
R-Sentences: Risk

combined
 1 Introduction c) Hazard Symbols
S-Sentences: Safety

precautions before using a

substance
1 Introduction c) Hazard Symbols
new system of hazard symbols & sentences to consider: GHS
(Globally Harmonized System of Classification, Labelling and Packaging of Chemicals )
 1 Introduction c) Hazard Symbols
Hazard Statements: Physical

similar to R-sentences, more

general and separated for
categories of danger
 1 Introduction c) Hazard Symbols
Hazard Statements: Health

similar to R-sentences, more

general and separated for
categories of danger
 1 Introduction c) Hazard Symbols
Hazard Statements: Environmental

similar to R-sentences, more

general and separated for
categories of danger
 1 Introduction c) Hazard Symbols
Precautionary Statements:

similar to s-sentences, more

general and separated for
categories of danger

General P101: If medical advice is needed, have product

container or label at hand.
P102: Keep out of reach of children.
P103: Read label before use.

Disposal P501: Dispose of contents/container to …

 1 Introduction c) Hazard Symbols
Precautionary Statements: Prevention

similar to s-sentences, more general and

separated for categories of danger
 1 Introduction c) Hazard Symbols
Precautionary Statements: Response

similar to s-sentences, more general and

separated for categories of danger
 1 Introduction c) Hazard Symbols
Precautionary Statements: Storage
P401: Store …
P402: Store in a dry place.
P403: Store in a well ventilated place.
similar to s-sentences, more general and
P404: Store in a closed container.
separated for categories of danger
P405: Store locked up.
P406: Store in a corrosive resistant/… container with a resistant inner
liner.
P407: Maintain air gap between stacks/pallets.
P410: Protect from sunlight.
P411: Store at temperatures not exceeding … °C/… °F.
P412: Do not expose to temperatures exceeding 50 °C/122 °F.
P413: Store bulk masses greater than … kg/… lbs at temperatures not
exceeding … °C/… °F.
P420: Store away from other materials.
1 Introduction c) Hazard Symbols
How to deal with unknown substances?
Þ treat as if it has highest hazard level

„white powder“
1 Introduction d) What is Chemistry?
• Everyday examples:
• baking bread (cooking in general)
• washing
• eating
• electric energy from a battery?
• combustion of fossile fuels for transport
• analog photography
• LEDs
• ozone layer
• …
• “Study of matter and its changes“
• no clear definition; separation of different branches difficult
=> overlap with physics, biology, medicine, food chemistry, engineering, pharmacy, geology,
agriculture, …
1 Introduction d) What is Chemistry?
• major difference to physics: physics does not treat changes to matter
into another (chemical) structure
• branches of chemistry: inorganic – organic – physical chemistry
additonally: theoretical, macromolecular, technical, biochemistry
• chemistry investigates
• matter
• properties
• connection of properties and composition
1 Introduction e) Classification of Matter
• Matter consists of atoms in different arrangement, set together to
molecules → chapter 2
• classification:

aluminum rock salt sea water garnet, wood

1 Introduction e) Classification of Matter
• Element: about 100 existing (periodic table, Ch. 2); arrangement of
atoms important for properties
natural abundance:
1. earth‘s crust: 49,5% O; 25,7% Si; 7,5% Al, 4,7% Fe, 3,4% Cu
2. human: 65% O; 18% C; 10% H
• compound: distinct composition, individual properties
e. g. H₂ + O₂ → H₂O water; H₂O₂ hydrogen peroxide
• mixtures (homogenous & heterogenous): individual chemical
structure of properties of components remain
1 Introduction e) Classification of Matter
• properties:
• physical: color, (odour), density, melting/boiling points, hardness
• chemical: flammability, solubility, resistance to acids and bases
→ chemical includes changes (chemical reaction), physical not
• separation of mixtures:
• use different physical properties (e. g. distillation)
• use different chemical properties (e. g. solubility, filtration)
• often used: chromatography uses different adsorption on solid phase, physical
process
1 Introduction f) „chemical“ Units
• general: SI-units (Système International)
• for chemistry important: volume V [l]
mass [kg]
temperature T [K] (Kelvin-scale!)
number of moles n [mol]
concentration c [mol/l]
• dealing with measurement uncertainties: see lectures of physics
2 Atoms, Molecules, Ions
a) Atomic structure
b) Element symbol, isotopes
c) Periodic table of the elements
d) Molecules
e) Ions
f) Nomenclature
2 Atoms, Molecules, Ions: a) Atomic structure
• gr: atomos – undividable
• chemistry – atoms are not
generated or destroyed
• nucleus contains almost all the
mass and all the positive
charge
→ Rutherford experiment
• electrons move around the
nucleus (Ch. 5)
2 Atoms, Molecules, Ions: a) Atomic structure
• charge: Millikan oil drop
experiment
• all found charges are multiples of
the elemental charge,
e = 1,602*10-19 C
2 Atoms, Molecules, Ions: a) Atomic structure
• Physical numbers:
electron charge
proton charge:
neutron charge:
atomic mass:
proton:
neutron:
electron:
atomic size:
size nucleus:
2 Atoms, Molecules, Ions b) Element symbol,
isotopes
• symbol: mass number
proton number El
• proton number/atomic number: number of protons in nucleus
• mass number: number of protons & neutrons
• isotope: same number of protons, different number of neutrons
→ same chemical properties; physical properties can differ (e. g. NMR)
• consider natural abundance („radio carbon method“)
2 Atoms, Molecules, Ions b) Element symbol,
isotopes
• Determination of isotope
proportions (masses in
general):
mass spectrometer
2 Atoms, Molecules, Ions c) periodic table
• arrangement of elements according to increasing atomic number
• grouping because of similar properties
• horizontal: periods
• vertical: groups
1A – 8A main group elements
1B – 8B transition metals
other labeling: alltogether groups 1 – 18
• additionally lanthanides & actinides
2 Atoms, Molecules, Ions c) periodic table
2 Atoms, Molecules, Ions c) periodic table
• Use of periodic table:
• mass of elements
• elements in same group have similar chemical behavior
• preferred charges: oxidation number

• periodic table & in general:

pattern recognition/similarities, correlation
2 Atoms, Molecules, Ions d) Molecules
• lat: molecula – small mass
• preliminary: arrangement of atoms, that are fixed together with
individual properties compared to elements
• preferably among nonmetals
• empirical/sum formula: number of each element in a compound
(fixed proportions)
• molecular/structural formula: arrangement/sequence of atoms,
bonding geometry, 3D-structure
2 Atoms, Molecules, Ions d) Molecules
• representation of structure:

• dotted lines: behind

• triangle: in front of plane of
projection
2 Atoms, Molecules, Ions d) Molecules
• example:

empirical
sum formula
2 Atoms, Molecules, Ions e) Ions
• gr: ion – moving
• change in number of electrons of an atom: charged particles = ions
• net positive charge: cation, z. B. Na+, Ca2+
• net negative charge: anion, z. B. Cl-, O2-
• metals make predominantly cations, non-metals anions
• polyatomic ions: ions containing several atoms, often remain together
in chemical reactions, e. g. NH4+, SO42-
2 Atoms, Molecules, Ions e) Ions
• which charge? (more details later), but:
• noble gases are very stable due to electron configuration
• atoms try to reach „noble gas configuration“ by adding/removing electrons
2 Atoms, Molecules, Ions e) Ions
• size of ions: generally cations smaller, anions larger than
corresponding atom
• ionic bonding: combination of anions and cations for charge
balancing, e. g., salts

Na+ + Cl- → NaCl rock salt, table salt

Ca2+ + O2- → CaO calcium oxide, quick lime
2 Atoms, Molecules, Ions f) Nomenclature
• IUPAC: International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
basic/general rules for naming of chemical substances, only most
important shown
• cations: element name + ‚ion‘, e. g. Ca2+ calcium ion
if different oxidation numbers exist, add charge in roman
numerals in brackets, e. g. Fe2+ iron(II)-ion
• polyatomic cations: NH4+ ammonium ion
H3O+ hydronium ion
2 Atoms, Molecules, Ions f) Nomenclature
anions: element name + ‚ide‘ + ‚ion‘, e. g. Cl- chloride ion
additionally: H- hydride ion, O2- oxide ion, OH- hydroxide ion,
CN- cyanide ion
oxyanions: ending important
OCl- ClO2- ClO3- ClO4-
hypochlorite chlorite chlorate perchlorate

non-trivial: CO32- carbonate, SO42- sulfate, NO3- nitrate

SO32- sulfite, NO2- nitrite
2 Atoms, Molecules, Ions f) Nomenclature
• anions containing H+: prefix ‚hydrogen‘,
e. g. HCO3- hydrogen carbonate
• ionic compound: cation name + anion name
acids: compounds that release H+ in water
anion ending with „-ide“: „hydro …-ic acid“
HCl hydrochloric acid, HF hydrofluoric acid
anion ending with „-ate“: element name + „-ic acid“
H2SO4 sulfuric acid
anion ending with „-ite“: … „-ous acid “
HClO₂ chlorous acid
anios ending with „hypo“ and „per“ keep prefix in the name of the acid
HClO4 perchloric acid
2 Atoms, Molecules, Ions f) Nomenclature
• molecules: greek prefix for number of each element
mono, di, tri, tetra, penta, hexa, hepta, octa, nona, deca, ….

order elements according to periodic table (but: O is last, except if F is

present),
last element gets ending „ide“

NF3 nitrogen trifluoride, P4S10 tetra phosphorous deka sulfide

HCl hydrogen chloride (gas)

2 Atoms, Molecules, Ions f) Nomenclature
• organics: in general compounds containing C & H, name is derived
from longest carbon chain in molecule, prefix according to number of
carbon atoms in this chain
meth, eth, prop, but, pent, hex, hept, oct, non, dec, ….
number of H-atoms is not given

cyclic compounds get the prefix „cyclo“

ending describes functionality:

2 Atoms, Molecules, Ions f) Nomenclature
functional groups:
- alkanes: CH4 methane, CH3-CH3 ethane, CH3-CH2-CH3 propane, …
- alkenes: CH2=CH2 ethene (ethylene), CH3-CH=CH2 propene (propylene)
- alkynes: CH≡CH ethyne (acetylene)
- alcohols: CH3-OH methanol, CH3-CH2-OH ethanol
- aldehydes: CH3-CHO ethanal

- ketones: CH3-CO-CH3 propanone

- carboxyl(o)ic acids: CH3-COOH ethanoic acid

2 Atoms, Molecules, Ions f) Nomenclature
• functional groups:
- aromatic compounds: 1,3,5-cyclohexatriene
2 Atoms, Molecules, Ions f) Nomenclature
• more complex structures:
• look for longest chain
• numbering according to highest
order (in general proton number
of element)