Religion and Non Religion

Identify the following expressions of the religious dimension in human history

Animism
Based upon the ideal that all natural objects, including inanimate ad living, have a soul or spirit
that exists independently of its physical being
- Every object is of equal value implies that everything must be treated with respect
- Importantly believed that the spirit continues to exist beyond physical death/ peril
Examples
- Shinto believes in spirits that reside in nature, known as kami
- They are a Life-force such as spirits that reside in plants and the goddess of the
sun
- Aboriginal Spirituality
- Dreaming, Totems, Ceremonies

Polytheism
The belief in and worships of multiple deities
- Characteristically, polytheistic deities are not seen as omnipotent/ omniscient, they have, individual
personalities, particular skills and a position in the hierarchy of gods
- Theorised to have emerged as having developed from animism implies that animistic spirits
evolving into personalities and organised into groups or families of spirits
- Hard polytheists = multiple gods in distinctive forms
- E.g greek and egyptian mythology
- Soft polytheists = all gods are a facet to a singular god
- E.g some branches of hinduism

Monotheism
The belief that there is only one god who is omnipresent and omnipotent and exerts a divine will
within history and day to day life
- This god is seen to give moral code to provide an ethical pathway for individual adherents
- Deism affirms notion that there is only one god, but rejects idea that god actively intervenes in
human history
- Pantheism equates god with universe - believes that every part of creation = intrinsically result of
god’s activities on earth
Examples
- Catholic God is a trinity of the father, son and holy spirit, all existing as a single entity known as
god
- Faith was developed from Judaism, which holds a similar monotheisitic view
- Islam holds the beilef of ‘Tawhid’ which encapsulates the “oneness” and supremacy of a single
god - Allah
- Developed from Muhammad’s revelation of life as a submission to god
Evaluate the place of the religious dimension in human history to provide
Meaning and purpose for the individual
- Australian National Church life survey (1998) uncovered that religion was used for a sense of
meaning and purpose in contemporary life
- Humans have always sought to answer life’s main questions
- Answers to this quest for meaning have frequently been found through exploration of the religious
dimension
- The religious dimension offers a framework of meaning and coherence that gives direction, thus
aiding the individual in their search for understanding on the mechanics of humanity and one’s
ontological purpose
- It further gives the adherent an identity, as well as ethical expectations and duties
- It offers assurance and an understanding of what happens after death

Social Cohesion
- Social Cohesion is how a society remains together
- Religion brings communities together, provides continuity in a confusing world
- French Sociologist Emile Durkheim argued that religion was invented by the human beings to
promote and ensure social cohesion through shared values and mutual obligations
- In Spartan society in ancient Rome, religion was defined as ‘ligature’ meaning ‘something that
unites or bonds’
- This is because religion is able to connect individuals to a common past, teach what is acceptable
in society, and provide traditions and customs for a society, and therefore strengthen the identity
of that society.

Social Transformation
- Social Transformation means how a society changes and develops
- The religious dimension presents a paradoxical role as it is both upholding and transformative,
but can also be systematically conservative and stubborn
- Religious experience is a way to transform ourselves into a state closer to that which we view as
perfect
- It utilises education to facilitate change
- Religion is critical of society and politics as it works towards social justice
- Religious dimension has striven to bring about common understandings and acceptance of
differences e.g. civil rights movement in america, women's rights, and indigious rights
- Max weber (19th century) stated that religion played an integral role in changing western europe
from an agrarian society in Middle Ages to a capitalist system
- Highlighting religions progressive/transformational capabilities
- Laudato Si (FIRE)
- The pope critiques consumerism + irresponsible development, laments environmental
degradation and global warming and calls all people of the world to take “swift and unified
global action”
Global distribution of the five major religions traditions
Universalizing religion: Global religion, appeal to all regardless of culture/location (i.e
Christianity)
Ethnic religion: appeals to a specific group of people; carried from generation to generation; has
a strong links to culture and geographical location (i.e. Hinduism)

Christianity (32%)
- Origins in the middle east and was first a sect of judaism and stayed in roman province of
palestine
- Fifth century CE was adopted as state religion in roman empire by constantine
- Great schism 105ffi of eastern and western churches
- Its 16th Century reformation of catholic and protestant denominations brought an increase in
adherents to the religious tradition as well as an increase in relevance for adherent’s daily lives.
- Largest tradition = 2.2 billion adherents
- 26% of Christians now live in Europe
- US is most Christians in the world
- Dominant region = America, sub-Saharan Africa and Europe

Islam (23%)
- Muhammad in the 6th centurry CE, Middle east
- Crusades were vehicle for spread of Islam into europe
- It is the world’s fastest growing religion
- India, Bangladesh, Pakistan have the largest number of Muslims
- Heavily concentrated in asia-pacific (62% of world muslims)
- 2nd largest tradition = 1.6 billion adherents
Hinduism (15%)
- Began in Punjab of north west india over 5000 years ago
- The growth and expansion of Hinduism is tied to indian culture
- 97% of all hindus live in three countries (Nepal, India, Mauritius)
- 99% of hindus are in asia pacific
- 3rd Largest tradition = 1 billion adherents

Buddhism (9%)
- Offshoot of Hinduism
- Founded by siddhartha Guatama in ganges plain approximately 2500 years ago
- Popular in east asia , buddhism attracts converts (70% of Sri lanka is Buddhist)
- Rapid growth in Australia (0.8% in 1991 to 2.5% in 2011)
- Buddhism is split into two groups
- Mahayana Buddhism (Japan, Korea, Mongolia, Vietnam, etc)
- Theravada Buddhism (Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, etc)
th
- 4 Largest tradition = 500 million adherents

Judaism (0.2%)
- Originated with abraham in the middle east (Canaan)
- 6th Century jewish diaspora
- Jewish communities were in Poland, Russia, Romania and Germany
- WWII resulted in the persecution and death of 6 million Jews out of a global 8 million
- Further, large conversions to Christianity and the growth of Islam had also diminished the
numbers of adherents in Judaism.
- Large migration from post WWII immigration to the US (2nd most Jews)-Dominant religion in
Israel
- 5th largest tradition = 14 million adherents

New Religious Expression

- A new religious expression is one that takes from an eclectic mix of spirituality to create meaning
and purpose in life.
- Loss of credibility of mainstream traditions
- Response to scientific/technological developments; dependence on rationalism
- Shift of traditional values/institutions
- Awareness of/dissatisfaction with exclusivity
- Desire for meaningful ritual/community
- For example, Christianity was initially attacked for being a brainwashing and coercive cult, with
strange rituals such as incest (brothers and sisters) and cannibalism (body and blood of Christ)
- The age of Aquarius during the 60’s/70’s saw the birth of a new understanding of spirituality and
universal love. Many of these religions became what is now known as the new age movement.
 - Since WWII, thousands of new religious expressions have been formed worldwide due to the
increased need, in a modernist zeitgeist, to achieve personal fulfilment, ethical guidance and
clarity in their relationship with society
Example:
Wicca: modern version of ancient, nature-based religions promoting worship of female deity called
‘goddess’-embrace nature + femininity
- source of personal fulfilment epitomised -reject traditional patriarchal authority
- linked with violence, domination + oppression
- gained further growth through concept of environmentalism= Earth is revered, respected (karma
principle

Reasons for the rise of new age religious expressions and spiritualities
Personal fulfilment
- New age religions and expressions are popular as a means of achieving personal fulfilment as it
delivers a vast array of practices and beliefs, flexibility of beliefs and freedom for the individual.
- Science and traditional religious has ultimately failed to satisfy humankind’s innate hunger for
answers to spiritual questions
- Thus they turn to new age religions as it provides its adherents with a multitude of
answers to the spiritual questions that science and reason can not answer
- It provides adherents with a sense of fulfilment without fear or judgement from, or personal
accountability to, an organised religious hierarchy
- The western world is experiencing an era of social flux and change

Seek ethical guidance

- Many individuals require ethical guidance beyond that of financial and legal principles of secular
society + seek newfound system of ethics in new religious expressions
- This fluidity and flexibility is appealing to many individuals
- Karma: the idea that our good and bad deeds during this lifetime accumulate to our status in the
next
- Thus ethical choices need to be made with this principle in mind
- Wiccans promote tolerance of others and reject traditional religion’s ‘religious imperialism’
- Spiritually embrace nature and it is an expectation of followers that that the earth be revered and
respected.
- Humanists believe in the universal good of humanity + focus on using inspirational human acts of
goodness for ethical guidance

Seek to clarify their relationship with society

- Traditionally, religions provided social order and hierarchy. However, new age groups offer the
individual a heightened sense of solidarity, security and personal affirmation
- New religions are individualised so people can break off from these ‘traditional’ roles
- The individual has a role to play bringing about this social transformation
 - The belief that social transformation will occur when sufficient numbers of people have
been transformed
- Gordon Melton says, “New age is ultimately a social vision of a world transformed”
- They offer closer, more individualistic relationships with religion
- They can account and acknowledge science and modernity

Explain how the following have influenced the growth of new age religious
expressions
Rise of Materialism
- Materialism is the focus on the physical world as opposed to the metaphysical
- The rise of this perspective has resulted in the growth of some new age religions who
cater for this belief (physical > metaphysical)
- Alternatively, many adherents of traditional religions have turned away from their religion and
followed new age religions due to their distaste towards the rise in materialism
- For example, pentecostal christianity operates by selling of books, audiotapes, &
self-help guides to make consumers better Christians, + endorses ‘prosperity doctrine’,
therefore people turn away
- New age religion appeal to more spiritual values, and can allow one to fine meaning and purpose
that materials can’t offer

Scientific Progress
- Rapid growth of scientific knowledge raised serious questions for some religious perspectives
and beliefs
- Professor Peter Sharp argues that the more science explains how the world and the universe
work, the less people need religious explanations for it
- As people of knowledge, science does not address the spiritual side of human person
- Some abandon traditional religious beliefs- belief that scientific discoveries have discredited such
beliefs (scientific progress has effect of undermining authority of traditional religions)
- In the idea that although science may provide answers, but it doesn’t provide meaning, some
people have taken a stance against the sciences, thus turning to New Age religions to offer a
return to a simple life.

Growth of ecological awareness

- New age religions notably display a connection between to earth in the medium of energy, or
fulfilment through closeness to nature
- The investigation of the state of environment has caused many people to support movements for
reducing harmful substances from entering oceans and atmosphere
- Traditional religions may be seen to done too little to bring about the change needed to protect
the environment
- Therefore, leading to more individuals turning to new age religions as they offer an active
and genuine stewardship of the planet and are more closely connected with nature
 - Issues such as climate change has accentuated the impact of the environment on the
mainstream subconscious which leads to more individuals devoted into the defending the earth
(e.g. Greenpeace, Greens political party in Aus)
- NAR’s such as Wicca focused around environmentalism and natural goddess Gaiea have
grown as a result of this increased awareness and concern for the planet’s

Disenchantment with ‘traditional’ Religious practices and guidance

- Many feel traditional religious practices do not provide a relevant and meaningful support system
in challenges they face in modern world
- Hierarchical structures of power do not allow adherents sufficient say in the nature and direction
of religion
- For instance, they may object to the male dominance and apparent female oppression in
traditional religions
- Rituals may be perceived as archaic and from a bygone era, no longer addressing the
needs of modern life in a meaningful way
- Therefore, an increasing disillusionment with traditional religions hypocrisy, abuse of power and
irrelevance has resulted in a lost moral authority and diminished respect from many adherents
- NAR’s are made popular because they’re still longing for spiritual dimension to life
- In recent years, many australians choosing to leave traditional chrisitan churches

Outline the essential features of Atheism and Agnosticism

Atheism
Atheism is the doctrine, which posits the notion that no god or divine being exists, and hence
nothing divine exists outside of humanity
- The earth and its life evolved by a natural scientific process without intervention
- Since there is no god or ultimate reality, humanity has no ultimate goal and further
aspirations or imperatives because without the existence of god there is no afterlife
- Sceptical view due to a lack of evidence of transcendental reality

Agnosticism
Agnosticism is the belief that the evidence which is supposed to prove the existence of god is
insufficient at the present time.
- There is not sufficient evidence to warrant the existence of a divine being
- Such matters could conceivably change in the future because if at a later date there is
sufficient evidence to prove the existence of god then their views will change
- In essence, rather than concluding the impossibility of God, they believe we need more
understanding before we choose to believe, or discredit.
“It is difficult to separate culture, politics, and religion. The sociologist Emile Durkheim
suggested that religion is a tool for social cohesion that shows itself in the totems, laws, and
customs that keep a society functioning”

Outline the positions of:

Humanism is the living philosophy which rejects the notion of the transcendental and as a result
asserts that solutions to the world’s problems reside in the human rather than divine intervention
- Humans should try to live life full, happy lives and make it easier for others to do the
same
- Humanism is founded on the belief that human endeavour, experience, intelligence and
compassion are the foundation for all moral values
- “Life’s fulfilment emergers from individual participation in the service of human ideals” -
humanist manifesto
- “No deity will save us we must save ourselves” - humanist manifesto 2

Rational Humanism
- Rational humanism is a philosophy which focus on the values of human beings,
believing that the correct focus for the discovery of truth resides in the human person,
thus elevating human reason as the highest form of authority
- Philosophy which proclaims that the use compassion, equality, morality, ethics and most
importantly reason can be used to build a better world for human kind
- Rational humanism is the product of an 18th century intellectual movement, known as
the age of enlightenment

Scientific Humanism
- Scientific Humanism on the other hand asserts that science and technology is the
ultimate reason of authority, emphasising the use of science as opposed to reason to
discover who the human is and our purpose
 - Philosophy which places a significant emphasis upon science and technology to address
global problems such as poverty, environment degradation, and social inequalities
- Modern form of humanism is generally accepted by secular society
- Intellectual movement directed towards justice, equality and world peace
- E.g. UNESCO = peace amongst humanity, ideological framework
- Began in the 20th century with an emphasis on achieving equality and peace on a global
scale

Both have strong ethical and moral values regarding social responsibility, equality and
ecological sustainability, however Scientific Humanism asserts that these global issues would be
able to be addressed through scientific and technological emphasis rather than purely intellect

Discuss how Agnosticism, Atheism and Humanism determine the aspirations and
behaviour of individuals
Atheism
Aspirations
- Despite widespread belief, they aspire for happiness and enjoyment of life as they are free to
make there own choices
- Exercise their own autonomy and life choices, they don't aspire for an ultimate goal
Behaviour
- Morality and ethical behaviour (the natural state of humanity is moral; no god is required to
radiate such characteristics)
- Making individual and rational choices
- Adopting moral relativism
- Argue that faith-based morality of religions is responsible for immoral acts
- Aim to improve the world

Agnosticism
Aspirations
- To enjoy life without the burden of guilt
- See human emotions or anger, pride, and lust as natural and not harmful
- Find meaning in life through secular pursuit e.g. science
- Strive for a peaceful, just and environmentally sustainable world
- Condemn materialism
- Willing to concede to the existence of god/s, they aspire to be adaptable to change
Behaviour
- Moral relativism
- Learn right and wrong through the human experience
- Aim to improve the world

Humanism
Aspirations
- Wellbeing of humanity
- A better world in which compassion and social justice is exercised to all of humanity
Behaviour
 - To act collectively minded and ethically minded
- Rational humanism - proclaims compassion, equality, morality
- Scientific humanism - significant emphasis on science, technology to address issues that impact
humanity e.g. poverty, environmental degradation, social inequality
- Approach ethical issues, reject unethical religious stances

Compare the response of ONE religious and ONE non-religious belief system to:
The concept of the transcendent

Christianity
Christians believe in the concept of a
transcendental This is seen in the notion that God
gave way to life, and created an objective purpose
in the world for humans to pursue. God exists
outside of the physical world and Christians
accept that the human soul exists beyond the
physical world too.
Humanism
Humanists, to the contrary, disagree with
transcendence. They have concluded that the
evidence towards such a concept is
non-conclusive and hence deny the religious
belief that life extends beyond the physical world

The human person

Christianity
In Christianity, the human person is viewed with
the utmost dignity. The religion states man was
created in the image of God, which emphasises
the importance of humanity. The role of humans in
Christianity is to live a humble life of prayer so that
God’s will can be realised on Earth and adherents
love and praise Him. The Love of money is
unacceptable if it is an alternative to the love of
God. Money carries the responsibility to support
the poor
Humanism
Humanists similarly place focus on the human
subject and its value. They believe humans are
the highest form of life in existence and should
work to improve conditions for all humans on
Earth. This is based on the idea that humans have
thrived through evolution by the virtue of the races
intuitiveness and hence are the most important
beings on Earth

Social responsibility

Christianity
Both belief systems have a social responsibility to
make the world a better place for people to live in.
In Christianity, this is established in doctrines that
outline teachings from the Bible. For example,
there is a Christian responsibility to support
society because all are created by God (i.e.
schools, hospitals, support for ageing). Humanists
Humanism
A major difference in these doctrines is found in
the concept of the afterlife. Humanists, accepting
there is no afterlife, posit that we must make a
maximum contribution in this lifetime and often
criticise Christians for neglecting the current life by
placing a greater focus on the afterlife. In this life,
both views condemn excessive materialism and
also hold doctrines that contain similar ideas,
however they are not as clearly defined as
Christian tradition.
agree that we have a social responsibility to place
the needs of others above the wants of ourselves.
This is the essence of both worldviews: that a just
world may exist for all humans. Examples of this
can be seen in the Christian St Vincent de Paul
Society and the Council of Australian Humanist
Societies.