Topic 2.

1 Molecules To Metabolism

Molecular Biology
- It is an living process within the chemical substance
- A stable compounds can life to survive for a billion years

There are four different element then they can solve in simple moleuces
1. Carbon (4)
2. Nitrogen (3)
3. Oxygen (2)
4. Hydrogen (1)

In this four different element then they would having different number of bonds, carbon with 4
bonds, Nitrogen with 3 bonds, oxygen with 2 bonds and Hydrogen with 1 bonds.

There are four living process

- Carbohydrates
- Lipids
- Proteins
- Nucleic acids

Carbohydrates
- It is the energy sources for living organisms
- The things we need to eat and plant would do photosynthesis

Lipids
- It is fats
- It can store energy to let body warm

Proteins
- It is important in our life

Nucleic acids
- Genetic material in living organisms
- DNA and RNA

Introduction Metabolism
- Two different types which Anabolism and Catabolism
- The process to building up molecules in body cell
- It is an chemical reaction for cytoplasm and organisms cell, so it is used for provide
energy
- It is an enzymes in living organisms
Anabolism
- It is a types of Metabolism
- It is used to adding things , then it can increase the size of molecules to making larger
- The process of adding is condensation, during condensation can make a larger
molecules it called Macromolecules

Catabolism
- It is types of Metabolism
- It is used to cutting things which breaking things up
- The process of breaking down is hydroplysis, during hydroplysis can make an largest
molecules Macromolecules break down into Monomer which single molecules

Anabolism and Catabolism are opposite

Condensation reaction
- Molecules building up together to create a new things, as condensation reaction is a kind
of process
- E.g. When two amino acids combinated together then they can create water molecules → bonds
combinated together between two amino acids is called peptide bond and two molecules join
together is called dispeptide
- E.g. Two monosaccharides join together to form Disaccharides
- Single + Single = Double
-

Topic 3.1 Genes

Genes:
- It is a part of DNA within code of protein
- Influence trait (characteristics)
- DNA to mRNA then make protein ( amino acids)

Alleles
- In one genes would have multiple alleles
- Different kind of alles from our body ( such as colour of eyes)
- Different version ( types) of genes
- Such as one eye colour of genes then they would having different types of alleles → Brown,
Blue, Emerald ( Green) and Grey
Mutations
- Changes sequences of DNA
- Produce some new alleles
- They would having some good alleles and bad alleles, if it is bad alleles it would cause
different disease ( such as Stickle cell Anemia )
- TTC → TTT ( Code C change into Code T)

Stickle Cell Anemia

- The function of red blood cell called Haemoglobin which used to transport the red blood
cell

Cause of Stickle Cell Anemia

- It is a disease that cause by gene mutation
- For mutation it would cause the red blood cell to change shape, from red blood cell into
stickle cell
- When the code of mutation change then the polypeptide chain which amino acids would also be
change ( Glutamic acid, Glu → Valine, Val )

Consequences of Stickle Cell Anemia

- After changing codon cause an stickle cell anamia then they would having different
consequences
- When it change into Stickle cell, it would block capitary, then it would also block oxygen,
no any oxygen for our body cell to transfer into the body
- When it felt tired, which mean stickle cell cannot carry any oxygen, then would get any
energy to supply our body.

- The shape with an semi- circle then it is an stickle cell

- It block the red blood cell, then it can show out there
are less red blood cell, so that we can’t get enought
oxygen.

Genome
- It is a kind of genes for the whole living organisms
- There are coding and non- coding, coding with an DNA have protein and Non- coding
with an DNA that doesn’t include protein
- Coding would having two step
1. DNA get into mRNA
2. mRNA would contain protein
- Human genome is an chromosome, Bases and genes, human having 46 chromosomes,
around 3 billion of baes and 21,000 of genes.
Topic 3.2 Chromosomes

- There are two types of chromosomes, the prokaryotes chromosomes and Eukaryotes
chromosomes

Prokaryotes chromosomes
- Only have 1 chromosomes with circular DNA molecules
- It is naked DNA with no protein attacked
- Two DNA cell which bacterial DNA and Plasmid DNA

Eukaryotes Chromsomes
- A pair of chromosomes with no plasmid
- The structure of chromosomes is linear
- The Eukaryotes would present protein → Histone protein
- There are three step the process of chromosomes
1. Contain 8 Nucleosome which 8 histone protein
1. Tied up nucleosome into chromatin
2. Chromatin change into chromosomes

Step 1:
Histon
e Step 2:
Protein
It change
Nucleos into an
ome chromosom
es
Chro
mati
n
Homologous Chromosomes
- It is a pair of chromosomes from mum and dad
- Maternal chromosomes is Mum ( M → Mum)
- Paternal chromosomes is Dad ( P → Papa)
- They are having the same size, shape and gene, but they have different alleles

Chromosomes Strucuture
- It is made by two copies of DNA→ DNA replication
- Homogrous chromosomes would change into sister chromatids after DNA replication
process
- Centromere is at the central of chromosomes
- Chromosomes would get two sister chromatids after DNA replication, then between two
sister chromatids by centromere
- They would do an cell division to separate for more genes

1. One chromosomes
2. a pair of chromosomes that sister chromatids
3. cell division on sister chromatids separates for more genes

Diploid Cells
- Diploids is sound like two cells
- It is a pair of homologous chromosomes
- Somatic cells which for body cells
- It created by Mitosis

Haploid Cells
- Haploid is sound like half cell
- It is only one homologous chromosomes
- It is for sex cells which sperm and egg, the male and female reproduction → gamates
- It created by Meiosis

Diploid and Haploid

- Fertilization which Haploid + Diploid
- 46 chromosomes of human, each sperm and egg cell have 23 chromosomes, which they
having same species

Process to created a baby

- Female and male with each 23 chromosomes
- Egg from female 23 chromosomes, sperm from male 23 chromosomes
- Fertilisation that combinated Egg and sperm it totaly 46 chromosomes, then created a
zygotes
- Embryo it after adding more cell on zygotes
 1. Sperm 23 chromosomes + Egg 23 chromosomes
2. Sperm + Egg = Fertilisation
3. Fertilization created an zygotes
4. Add cell in zygotes created for Embryo

Sex Chromsomes
- Sex is for male and female, which can decide the chromsomes is for male or female
- Female and Male chromosomes would having different size, then using size can decide
out those chromosomes is for female or male
- Female chromosomes the length would be the same, it is X X
- Male chromosomes the length would be one long and one short, it is X Y

Sam
e
One Long leng
and one short th is
length is male fem
ale

Karyogram
- It is an diagram that shows human chromosomes of males and females
- Karyotypes which a types and number of chromosomes, such as 46 chromosomes and
sex chromosomes
- Length of the chromosomes which long length and short length
- 1-22 chromosomes is autosomes, which without sex
- X Y and X X which male and female chromosomes
 Male
chromoso
mes is
X and Y which long and
show out the short
male length
chromosome

Down’s Syndrome
- This is a disease from human so they look different from normal human
- Three chromsomes in 21 but for the normal human it having a pair of chromosomes in
21
- It is an non- disjunction that the homologoous chromosomes doesn’t separate

There are three

chromosomes in
21

Autoradiography
- John Cairns which measure the length of DNA
- This technology is a photo of DNA
 Circular
DNA
molecul
es
which is
prokary
otic
After Before
molecul
radiations radiatio
es
ns

Topic 3.4 Inheritance

- There are two types of inheritance which are Genotypes and Phenotypes.

Genotypes
- It is multiple of alleles of organisms
- Homozygous and Heterzygous
- Alleles would having capital letters and small letters → BB,Bb,bb
- Example hair, which is some genes inside the hair
Phenotypes
- It is some characteristics in living organisms that cause by Genotypes
- Such as Hair colour and eye colour
- Example hair, which is different types of hair colour

Dominant alleles
- It is the capital letters of alleles
- E.g. BB AA

Recessive alleles
- It is the small letters of alleles
- E.g. bb aa

Zygotes
- There are two types of alleles which called homozygous and heterozgous
- Homozygous → AA, aa
- Heterzygous → Aa
Punnett grids
- It separate out homozygous or heterozygous alleles
- A square that used to separate out mother and father genotypes
- E.g. Father→ Aa Mother→ AA
 A a (Father)

A AA Aa

A AA Aa

(Mothe
r)

Offspring would be 50% in AA and 50% in Aa

1. Letters from mum and dad which they are homozygous and heterzygous
2. Put an alleles of mum and dad into square
3. Cross it out to find out the participant
4. Find the percentage of offspring

Co- Dominant
- Both allele are dominant, which all of them are capital letters
- The offspring have fix with different Phenotypes
- Such as Father is Black, Mother is white, then there children would be Grey
- Black + White = Grey

ABO Blood group

- Blood A is ( I A)
- Blood B is ( I B )
- Blood O is ( i )
- Blood A and Blood B are both Homozygous Dominant

Alleles A and B
- Co-dominant which both A and B blood types would be homozygous dominant
- They can be both Homozygous domiant and heterzygous
- Dominant Alleles( I A I A )
- Heterzygous Alleles ( I Ai)
Alleles O
- Someone who are having an O blood types
- There alleles would be recessive
- Recessive (i i)

Blood types A ( Phenotypes)

- Homozygous dominant and Heterzygous, this are the Genotypes
- I A I A→ Homozygous dominant
A
- I i → Heterzygous

Blood types B ( phenotypes)

- This is the same as blood types A
- They are Homozygous dominant and heterzygous
A A
- I I → Homozygous dominant
A
- I i → Heterzygous

Blood types AB ( Phenotypes)

- This is Homozygus dominant with two capital letters which A and B
- I A I B → Homozygous dominant

Blood types O ( Phenotypes )

- This is homozygous recessive with two small letters
- i i → Homozygous recessive

Autosomal Genetic disease ( Homozygous recessive)

- The person who got the diesease mostly are Homozygous recessive
- Autosomes which the person with no sex chromosomes, then the disease would be
more on other chromosomes, not sex chromosomes
- Carrier whether with 50% and 50% disease in their body
- When their parent are carrier, then they would pass disease to their generation

Autosomal Genetic disease ( Homozygous Dominant)

- Someo of the offspring might cause disease, but some of the offspring wouldn’t cause
disease
- When one parent get disease, then 50% of their offspring would cause diseae

Sex- linked genes

- It is located in sex chromosomes
- X chromosomes would be more longer than Y chromosomes
- X- linked having more genes, then they would more using on X chromosomes, Y- Linked
genes would more using on Y chromosomes
- Sex- Linked would mostly finding on X- Linked because there are more genes in X-
Linked
 X- chromosomes

Having more genes

than Y- chromosomes

Y- Chromosomes

Sex- Linked genes ( Female chromosomes)

- Two kind of zygotes, they are homozygous and heterzygous
- Female with heterzygous then they would passed the disases to offspring if they are
carrier, but whether normal then they won’t passed disease to offspring.
- Less affected then they would haven’t less disease

Sex- Linked genes ( Male chromosomes)

- Male only have one alleles which Y
- Male is homozygous then don’t passed disease to offspring
- High affected because only one alleles

Pedigree Charts
- Female and male affected on recessive or dominant
- If the shape is dark then they would get an disease
- Autosomal dominant trait it base on AA, then parent and offspring affected
- Autosomal recessive trait it base on aa, then parent and offspring unaffected
Autosomal Dominant trait ( Pedigree Charts)
- When parent affected then their offspring would also affected
- When their parent unaffected then their offspring would also be unaffected

Both parent
get affected

If one of
the
offspring
When one or get
both parent get affected
affected, then then
their offspring another
would be offspring
affected can be
unaffected

Autosomal Recessive trait ( Pedigree Charts)

- When both of their parent are unaffected, but their offspring are affected, which they are
carrier so they pass over the disease to their generation

Paren
t are
unaff
ected

Offspring is
affected
then their
parent is
carrier
-

X linked dominant ( Pedigree Charts)

- If male get affected
- Daughter offspring would be get affected
X linked recessive ( Pedigree Charts)
- If mother get affected then their son offspring wld also get affected
- Whether if mother unaffected but their son would also get affected, because carrier
passed over disease to their generation

Topic 3.5 Generic Modification and Bio technology