UNIT 6

The atmosphere is a dynamic system (with inputs, outputs, flows & storages)
which has undergone changes through geological time

Describe the structure & composition of the atmosphere

The atmosphere is a layer of gases that surrounds the Earth, extending from the
surface to about 10,000 km (6,200 miles) high. It is composed of several layers,
each with distinct characteristics, including the troposphere, stratosphere, meso-
sphere, thermosphere, and exosphere

Composition of the atmosphere:

- 78% nitrogen
- With smaller amounts of argon, co2, methane, hydrogen, neon etc
- 21% oxygen
Structure of the atmosphere:
1. Troposphere: layers closest to the earths surface
• Where the earth surface absorb heat from the sun
• Earth then heats the atmosphere se through conduction (most of our weather
occurs here
• Factors necessary for the chemical formation of ozone in the troposphere:
Sunlight, NOx/oxygen, Hydrocarbons

2. Stratosphere: absorbs UV radiation from the sun

• Temperature is constant in lower part of stratosphere as its shield by some
layer but then increases with altitude
• The air is dry
• Wind increases with height
• Statophase is the end of the stratosphere, temp is constant with altitude here

3. Mesosphere: coldest part of the atmosphere

• Strong winds

4. Thermosphere
• Located above the mesosphere,
• UV + x-radiation from the sun is absorbed which breaks apart molecules into
atoms
• Temperature increases with height

5. Exosphere

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• the outermost layer of the atmosphere, extending from about 600 km to 10,000
km (370 to 6,200 miles) high.
• It contains very few molecules and atoms and gradually merges with space

What are the main GHGs and their sources

2. Water vapor:
- is the most abundant GHG
- rise in temperature results in more water vapor leading to further warming,
which allows more water to evaporate and this positive feedback cycle contin-
ues

2. Carbon dioxide:
-  concentrations are increased by burning of fossil fuels, respiration, volcanic
activity and deforestation
- plants and trees act as carbon sinks removing carbon dioxide from the atmos-
phere and effectively storing it in the form of biomass
- hence deforestation also reduces available carbon sinks, thereby further exac-
erbating the situation

3. Methane:
- arises from emissions from livestock, anaerobic decomposition of waste, rice
cultivation and fossil fuels.

4. Nitrous oxide:
- sources include fertilizers, combustion and industrial processes
- chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and hydrochloroflurocarbons (HCFC) have been
used as liquid coolants (in refrigerators and air conditioning systems), in the
production of plastic foam and as industrial solvents.

OZONE
List sources of ozone-depleting substances (ODS).
1. Air-conditioning
2. Aerosol
3. Pesticides
4. Fire extinguishers
5. Refrigerates

Describe the formation of ozone

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- Ozone is formed by sunlight energy breaking the bonds within diatomic oxy-
gen molecules to form atomic oxygen which in turn reacts with oxygen mole-
cules to form ozone
- At the same time, ozone molecules react with oxygen atoms to reform oxygen
molecules.
- Without the influence of pollutants, the rate of ozone formation is usually the
same as the rate of ozone destruction, leading to a constant level of ozone.

Distinguish between the causes of ozone depletion

- OD gases are halogen containing gases (CFCs/NOx)
- Human activities responsible: OD more limited, refrigeration, spraying, clean-
ing electronics
- OD involves chemical breakdown of ozone molecules
- OD involves more UV passing through atmosphere
- OD is concentrated around the poles
- OD is caused largely by MEDC activities
Explain the impact of ozone depletion on coastal ecosystems.
- May be more important in southern oceans or northern oceans around coast-
lines as ozone hole is greater near the poles
- Increases mutation rates in phytoplankton changing ecosystem dynamics
- Ozone depletion differential reduces productivity of phytoplankton (some
more than others)
- Reduced primary productivity has knock-on effects for entire ecosystems and
may reduce population sizes of consumers and secondary productivity of
ecosystem
- Increased UV may cause health effects of marine animals e.g. young fish liv-
ing in coastal waters;

State environmental impacts of the accumulation of ozone

1. Damages plants
2. Reduces photosynthesis
3. Increase susceptibility to diseases

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4. Habitat deterioration
5. Change in water and nutrient cycles
6. Loss of biodiversity
7. Impacts human health eg eye irritation/respiratory illness
8. Damages fabrics and rubber materials
9. Contributes to global warming

Identify methods to reduce ozone-depleting substances.

- Find substitutes for Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS)
- Ban ODSs
- International agreements, eg Montreal Protocol
- Develop new technology, eg pump action aerosols
Identify reasons for the increase in ozone hole
1. Increasing use of refrigerants containing CFCs
2. Increasing use of CFCs in aerosols
3. Increasing release of NOx from fossil fuel combustion
4. Increasing use of methyl bromides as pesticides

Explain how depletion of the ozone layer is an example of positive feed-

back.
- Positive feedback is feedback that increases change away from an equilibrium
- Ozone depletion is an example of positive feedback because the ozone-deplet-
ing substances break apart ozone molecules to provide more oxygen atoms for
chlorine bonding
- And also bond with available oxygen, depleting the available oxygen atoms
for O2 to bond with to form new ozone
- Chlorine/halons catalyze the destruction of ozone

Stratospheric Ozone
- the stratospheric ozone blocks incoming UV radiation form the sun and pro-
tects life form damaging UV radiation
- The ozone layer is an dynamic equilibrium as ozone is continuously both
made from oxygen atoms and back to oxygen

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 ( in both the formation & de-
struction of ozone, UV radia-
tion is ab- sorbed)

Describe the role of strato-

spheric ozone.
- Absorbs in- coming UV radia-
tion
- UV radiation energy breaks
bonds in O2 and O3 in the ozone layer and heats the atmosphere
- Less UV radiation reaches the Earth’s surface and protects life from damag-
ing effects of UV

What are the consequences of the depletion of stratospheric ozone

1. Increased skin cancer
2. Increased eye cataracts
3. Weakening of immune systems
4. Disrupts plant growth
5. Damage to phytoplankton in oceans
6. Reducing base of food web; causes death of zooplankton reducing diversity
and food for higher trophic levels

Management of stratospheric Ozone

International agreements
- The UN was instrumental in establishing binding legislation to encourage
countries to reduce damage to the ozone layer
- Vienna convention (1985) first UN treaty to be ratified by all 197 nations
- Acts as a framework to protect the ozone layer

- The Montreal Protocol set out a timetable in 1987 to reduce production of

CFC by 50% and freeze production of halons
- Implementation of the Montreal Protocol and its amendments has resulted in
significant changes in the production of ODS occurring.

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• Production of CFCs and related chlorinated hydrocarbons have stopped and are re-
sulting in atmospheric levels stabilising or declining.
• Production of halons has stopped, but atmospheric levels continue to rise, possibly
due to emissions from old fire extinguishers.

Describe the challenges with dealing with ODS/Why might ODS not be stooped?
7. Long life span of ODS: means that they will continue to have an effect for a long
time after production and use has stopped.
8. ODS present in discarded equipment: old or discarded refrigerates and air con-
ditioners containing CFCs may leak CFCs into the environment. Although effort is
being made to recover and destroy the CFCs, some still remain in old or disused
materials.
9. Lack of alternatives: Cheaper and effective alternatives to ODS may still not be
available.
10. Illegal trade of ODS: due to higher cost of alternatives, cost of altering existing
air conditioning systems and refrigerators to use alternative chemicals, less effec-
tive replacements.

Evaluate Montreal Protocol as world’s most successful environmental treaty

- Protocol prompted production of alternatives to replace CFCs allowing smooth
phase-out
- Financial assistance was offered to assist in phase out of CFCs
- Demonstrated it was possible for governments to work multilaterally
- Led to changes in the behavior of individuals and societies
- Very large number of signatories
- The Protocol provided an incentive for countries to find alternatives
- There was a widespread understanding of the effect of CFCs (amongst scientists/
public/politicians)
- Ozone hole is shrinking
However

- Compliance is not yet 100%

- Not all nations are involved with the Protocol
- Illegal trade still exists

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- It is harder for LEDCs to implement changes
- Some ODS are exempt from protocol as alternatives are not yet available
- Some replacements for ODS are also ozone depleting (eg HCFCs) so unsatisfactory
- Old ODS as they will leak into atmosphere if no action taken

Pollution Management of ODS

Altering Human Activity Controlling release of pollutant Clean up & reosrtation

Campaigns to educate public to • Ban on production and use of the Removal and destruction of exist-
stop buying ODS. Pressure on in- main ODS (International proto- ing ODS e.g. CFCs in refrigerators
dustry to find and use suitable re- col is usually embedded into na- and air conditioning systems.
placements to ODS e.g.: tional legislation and incorpo-
  rated into policies).
• Hydrocarbons can replace CFCs • Policing and enforcement to en-
in refrigerators. sure compliance and stop illegal
• Propane and butane have re- use of ODS.
placed CFCs as a propellant. • Recover nad recycle CFCs
• Non-propellant alternatives in-
clude use of manual pump sprays
and other dispensing systems.
• Methyl bromide can be replaced
with other pesticides such as
dimethyl disulphide or methyl
iodide. Alternatively non-chemi-
cal methods could be employed,
such as integrated pest manage-
ment.
• Cyclopentane can replace ODS
as a blowing agent in the produc-
tion of foam insulation material.

How can stratospheric and tropospheric ozone in the atmosphere affect global
biodiversity.
- Stratospheric ozone has decreased and tropospheric ozone has increased
- Change in stratospheric ozone allows more UV radiation to reach earth which
causes damage to DNA, resulting in death of organisms or reduction in biodiversity

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- Also reduces plant growth especially phytoplankton, affecting populations all along
food chain and reducing diversity of food web

- Change in tropospheric ozone in urban areas gives rise to photochemical smog that
is toxic to humans and other species
- Damages plant leaves reducing NPP of ecosystems
- Ttropospheric ozone is a greenhouse gas contributing to global warming, resulting
in population decline)

Urban air pollution

• The combustion of fossil fuels can lead to emissions containing carbon dioxide, wa-
ter vapour, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and particulates such as smoke and soot.
• If combustion is incomplete there may also be emissions of carbon monoxide and
hydrocarbons.
• These air pollutants which are directly emitted from their source are referred to as
primary pollutants.

• Whereas, pollutants formed when primary pollutants react in the atmosphere are re-
ferred to as secondary pollutants. These include:
11. Acid rain, formed when nitrogen oxide and sulphur dioxide react with water.
12. Ozone, formed when nitrogen dioxide and hydrocarbons react in the presence of
sunlight energy.

Nitrogen dioxide can be either a primary pollutant or secondary pollutant:

• If formed during combustion of fossil fuel and emitted into the atmosphere, it is a
primary pollutant.
• If formed from nitrogen oxide in the air reacting with oxygen, it is a secondary pol-
lutant.

Describe the Impacts of primary pollutants

The impacts of the main primary pollutants emitted into the atmosphere from the com-
bustion of fossil fuels:
1. Carbon dioxide and water vapour
• Both carbon dioxide and water vapour are greenhouse gases resulting in an increase
in the average global temperature and contributing to climate change. 

2. Sulphur dioxide

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• Coal and oil contain sulphur, hence when these fossil fuels are combusted they pro-
duce sulphur dioxide gas. Sulphur dioxide is toxic and can act as:
13. A potent respiratory irritant which causes inflammation of the lungs. It can trigger
asthma attacks, chronic bronchitis and also increase the risk of lung infection.
14. An eye irritant.
15. A principal component of acid rain.

Sulphur dioxide is also linked to an increase risk of cardiac disease and death.

3. Nitrogen oxides (NOx)

• Nitrogen oxides comprises of nitrogen oxide and nitrogen dioxide.
• They are formed during combustion of fossil fuels.
• Levels tend to be high where there is a large concentration of motor vehicles being
used. 

Nitrogen dioxide is a yellow brown gas that can reduce visibility and appears as a
haze over urban areas. Nitrogen oxides are:
16. Respiratory irritants causing lung inflammation and triggering asthma.
17. A principal component of acid rain.
18. A precursor of photochemical smog and the formation of ozone.

Photochemical Smog
Describe the formation of photochemical smog 
• Photochemical smog occurs when sunlight activates reactions between nitrogen ox-
ides (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) resulting in the formation of
ozone and peroxyacyl nitrates (PAN).
• VOCs are carbon based compounds with a low boiling point such as propane, butane
and formaldehydes.

State the main sources of:

NOx: emissions from industry, power stations, vehicles
VOCs: industry, vehicle and solvents (used in paints)

Primary air pollutants from fossil fuels which contribute to the formation of pho-
tochemical smog.
19. Hydrocarbons
20. Volatile organic compounds AND nitrogen monoxide

Outline the conditions and processes that lead to the formation of photochemical
smog.
Conditions for photochemical smog:
- Lack of wind reducing dispersal of pollutants
- Temperature inversion
- High population density, fossil fuel use & traffic density

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- High intensity of solar radiation

Processes forming photochemical smog:

- Reactions increased by sunlight
- Use of fossil fuels releases hydrocarbons through evaporation
- NO reacts with oxygen to form NO2
- Sunlight promotes the formation of O atoms from NO2 that combine with O2 to
form ozone

Explain why the formation of photochemical smog may have harmful effects on
the environment
- Reduced growth and productivity of plants by damaging them
- Leads to the reduction of the air quality within the urban area
- Chemicals within the smog enter the lungs and irritate respiratory system and cause
respiratory disease
- Chemicals within the smog may cause irritation of eyes
- The chemicals within the smog react with plastic causing it to perish
- Smog pollutants reduce immune system of humans and animals (become more sus-
ceptible to diseases)

Describe the factors influencing production of photochemical smog

21. High emissions of pollutants from combustion of fossil fuels e.g. through indus-
trial activity and vehicle use. This is often influenced by:
• The amount of industry.
• Population size.
• Mode of transport adopted in an area. Use of private cars will produce more air pol-
lution than the use of public transport, which in turn produces more pollution than
cycling or walking.

22. High levels of sunlight, hence the highest levels of ozone occur during the sunniest
part of the day.

23. Calm or light winds which reduces dispersion and allows pollutants to accumulate
at ground level.

24. Dry weather conditions in which rain does not wash the pollutants out of the air.

25. Where the topography allows pollutants to accumulated such as a valley sur-
rounded by hills. The hills reduce the flow of air and allow the pollutants to con-

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 centrate within the valley. Tall buildings can also reduce air flow and allows pollu-
tion levels to increase.

26. High rise buildings and high population density

27. Cities closer to equator get more intense sunlight

28. When a thermal inversion occurs:

• Normally air at ground level warms and rises which also dissipates the air pollutants.
This air expands and cools resulting in a temperature gradient.

• Under a thermal inversion, cold air is trapped below a warm layer of air.
• This can occur during cold winter nights when the earth surface cools and chills the
layer of air next to it.
• This temperature inversion is broken when the sun comes out in the morning and
warms up the air.
• Therefore, often temperature inversions last only a few hours unless meteorological
factors (high pressure) result in clear, windless conditions that allow pollutants to ac-
cumulate at ground level.

Lots of large cities around the world experience photochemical smog. However, it

tends to be more common where the city is located in a valley, the weather is sunny,
dry with little wind movement and where there are high emissions from cars or indus-
try such as in Los Angeles, Rio de Janeiro and Mexico City.

Human factor that contributes to photochemical smog

29. Intensive combustion of fossil fuels through high density traffic
30. Urbanisation
31. Industrialisation
32. Forest burning
33. Release of VOCs from aerosols

Natural factor that contributes to photochemical smog.

34. Local topography
35. High insolation
36. Thermal inversion

Factors that affect the frequency and severity of photochemical smog in an area.
37. Societies with intensive fossil fuel use: produce more of the primary pollutants
38. High population density is characterized by car traffic: which increases the con-
centration of the primary pollutant
39. Local climate can have thermal inversions: that traps the smog
40. Local climate with intense sunlight: increases photochemical reactions
41. Topographic factors such as hills and mountains: can result in trapping the pollu-
tants

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Describe the formation of tropospheric ozone
Oxides (eg NOx) from fossil fuel combustion react in sunlight with oxygen from air

State the impacts of tropospheric ozone

Ozone formed at ground level:
• Is a highly reactive gas.
• Causes inflammation of the lungs causing coughing, wheezing and contributing to
asthma.
• Reduces lung function, contributing to lung disease and premature death.
• Irritates the eyes and nose.
• Damages cells in the leaves disrupting photosynthesis and reducing plant growth
which affects crops and forest. In crops such as wheat, soya beans, tomatoes and cot-
ton, smog has also been found to increase risk of infection.
• Damages fabrics such as rubber and plastics.
• The impacts of ozone on health, reduced crop production and material degradation
also contribute to a significant economic loss.

Air pollution can be blown downwind from its source. This can result in movement of
pollution from urban to rural areas. With this in mind, air pollution can impact wide
areas.

CASE STUDY: Brown haze above Los Angeles due to presence of nitrogen dioxide
associated with smog.
• A yellow-brown haze associated with smog is frequently prevalent over Los Ange-
les, USA.
• Photochemical smog was first identified in Los Angeles, during the 1940s.
• Meteorological conditions allows for the development of a thermal inversion within
the valley.
• The large residential population contribute to high pollution emissions from industry
and vehicles. 
• Sunlight allows the primary pollutants to react to form ozone.
• Low winds prevent the pollution from being dispersed. 

Evaluate management strategy for urban air pollution

Public transport, have pedestrian only areas:
- Increasing public transport reduces the number of vehicles on the road, so less emis-
sions
- Some cost to local government/investment in infrastructure

- Long term gain from reduced fossil fuel emission is preferable to short-term costs

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Evaluate urban air pollution management strategies at the three levels of inter-
vention.
42. Level 1: altering human activity
- Reducing transport eg promoting public transport
- Using renewable energy sources and promoting availability of electric vehicles
- Development of more energy efficient appliances
- Be supported by economic instruments.
- Involve the use of alternative technologies.

- Large investment required to facilitate public transport use

- If electricity for transport comes from fossil fuels than simply moving the problem
somewhere else
- Requires education to overcome human intransigence to changing behaviors

43. Level 2: controlling release of pollutant

- Use of catalytic converters on transport
- Use of scrubbers on industries
- Introduce legislation for emissions levels

- Technological fixes can be very effective and easy to enforce

- Wealthy companies may simply budget for fines and continue to pollute
- Does not require change in human activities

3. Level 3: clean-up and restoration of damaged systems

- Re-greening areas through tree planting
- Liming of acidified urban water bodies
- Restoration of eroded architecture
- Medical treatments for consequent health conditions

- Helps to maintain biodiversity

- Only of short-term value
- Does not prevent ongoing damage to systems
- Can be very expensive processes

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Acid deposition
Refers to the deposition of acid substances, such as sulfuric acid and nitric acid, in the
atmosphere, which can then fall to the ground as acid rain or snow.

Can occur as
44. Wet deposition: when pollutants are incorporated into the clouds and comes down
as acidified rain or snow
45. Dry deposition: when atmospheric pollutants are removed by gravity or direct
contact under dry conditions e.g. when emissions of ash or dry particles from
power stations are absorbed directly onto plants and buildings.

List gases that contribute to acid deposition.

Sulfur dioxide
Nitrogen oxide
Carbon dioxide

Describe the dispersion and distribution of acid deposition

• When sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are emitted into the air, they can be trans-
ported long distances by prevailing winds.
• In the presence of strong winds the pollutants can be dispersed over a larger area
compared to light winds that allow pollutants to accumulate near the source and can
result in more acute pollution.
• Tall smoke stacks have often been used to reduce local pollution by increasing dis-
persion of the pollutants.
• Wind speeds are lower at ground level due to friction from the ground, vegetation
and buildings.
• Higher up there is less friction and wind speeds are greater. 
• Prevailing winds can carry pollutants long distances to areas otherwise unpolluted.
• For example, the majority of acid deposition in that occurs in Norway originates in
other countries such as Germany, UK and Poland

• The topography downwind of the source of pollution can also effect the distribution
of acidic deposition.
• In mountainous areas, moist air masses are forced to rise, which causes cooling and
condensation resulting in precipitation potentially increasing acidification in the
area.

Impacts of acid deposition

Describe the impacts of acid deposition on aquatic systems
Acid deposition can enter aquatic ecosystems either directly (e.g. precipitation as
rain) or indirectly as run-off.
• It can lower the pH of the aquatic environment beyond the ability of some organisms
to survive.
• Species of phytoplankton, invertebrate (e.g. crayfish) and fish (e.g. trout and
salmon) can be sensitive to changes in pH.

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• Loss of some species can cause a knock on effect through the food chain, adversely
affecting other organisms (e.g. due to lack of prey).
• Some species may suffer from reproductive failure and many fish eggs do not hatch
at pH below five.

• The decrease in soil pH also releases aluminium ions which are then leached into the
aquatic system.
• Fish exposed to aluminium ions secrete excess mucus around the gills, preventing
oxygen uptake and leading to death by asphyxiation.

Describe the impacts of acid deposition on terrestrial ecosystems

Acid deposition on land can increase soil acidity. This lowering of soil pH can result
in:
• Leaching of plant nutrients such as calcium, magnesium and potassium. This re-
duces the nutrients available for plant uptake.
• Mobilisation of aluminum ions that can damage plant root systems and can also be
leached into nearby watercourses adversely affecting fish, as discussed above.
• Mobilisation of other toxic metals from the soil such as cadmium, lead and mercury
which can then be leached into aquatic ecosystems adversely affecting aquatic or-
ganisms and potentially contaminating drinking water supplies

Exposure of plants to acid deposition also results in:

• Damage to the cuticle wax found on leaves which reduces plant photosynthesis.
• Lower tolerance to pests, disease and low temperatures.

Overall these effects result in:

• Reduction in crop yield in agricultural areas.
• Loss of biodiversity and reduction in forest areas.

Impacts on materials
• Acid deposition increases the rate of stone erosion and metal corrosion.

Impacts on stone erosion

• Buildings and statues made of limestone and marble are particularly vulnerable.
• Acid deposition reacts with calcium carbonate within the limestone and marble
forming gypsum (as shown in the chemical equation below), which can easily
flake off.

calcium carbonate + sulphuric acid ⇌ gypsum + carbon dioxide

Impact on metal corrosion

• Acid deposition increases corrosion of metals such as iron and steel which could
weaken the structure of buildings.

The impact of acid deposition on the Taj Mahal in India includes:

• Damage to the external marble stone of the building.

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• Corrosion of the iron lugs and dowels that join the marble slab together.

Managing acid deposition

International and regional cooperation

• Acid deposition is a transboundary issue, where the impacts may occur hundreds
of miles downwind of the source of pollution.

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• Acid deposition frequently occurs in neighbouring or nearby countries.

• Acid rain occurs close to the source

• Acid rain has more regional effects than ozone depletion
• Acid rain is influenced by regional climatic and geographical conditions, so involves
adjacent states/countries
• Therefore, acid deposition can be considered as a regional rather than global prob-
lem.

UN Geneva Convention
• The United Nations Conference on Human Environment in Stockholm recom-
mended that international effort was required to reduce acid deposition.
• This was followed by the Geneva Convention of Long Range Transboundary Air
Pollution in 1979, focused on reducing air pollution which included nitrogen oxide
and sulphur dioxide.
• The Geneva Convention has been extended over the years through protocols and as-
sociated amendments.
• The latest amendment was in 2012 in which the 1999 Gothenburg Protocol to abate
acidification, eutrophication and ground level ozone was reviewed and more strin-
gent emission standards set. 
• The Geneva Convention provides a platform for parties to share knowledge and in-
formation and the latest scientific information is used to set and update emission tar-
gets.

Cap and trade system

• The United States use cap-and-trade to encourage energy utilities to reduce emission
levels.
• Cap-and-trade involves allocating the utilities with permits which allow them to
produce a set amount of emissions (e.g. one tonne of emissions during the period of
compliance).
• The utilities are then free to buy and sell emission permits to each other.
• Those that do not use their emission permits can gain economically by selling their
surplus to others.

In-situ clean up and restoration

• Clean up methods have primarily focused around neutralising the acidic water by
adding limestone (calcium carbonate) a process also referred to as liming.
• In Sweden, where thousands of lakes were affected by acid deposition, liming has
been used to restore the natural pH of about 7,500 lakes.
• This has allowed some lakes to be restocked successfully with fish.

• Raising the pH of water by liming causes aluminium ions to precipitate out of the
water column.
• However, if acid deposition continues the pH will fall again.
• At a low pH the aluminium ions are released back into the water column which can
have a detrimental effect on fish stocks. 

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• In Sweden, limestone is added to some lakes every year to maintain a suitable pH
for fish stocks.
• However, liming should be considered as only a temporary solution while the source
of pollution is being reduced
• The majority of the acid depo-
sition that affects the lakes in
Sweden originates in other coun-
tries such as Ger- many, Poland
and the UK, there- fore coopera-
tion between na- tions is neces-
sary to reduce acid deposition
at source.

Evaluate strategies to manage regional acid deposition using the pollution man-
agement model.
46. Altering human activity:
• Changing transportation use to reduce private transportation:
- This can be expensive due to infrastructure improvements required
- Requires public change in behavior
- Successful if a reduction in use of fossil fuels for transportation needs
- Successful if good network of charging stations to encourage change
- Addresses root cause of pollution

47. Education of public regarding value of renewable energies:

• This can influence more environmentally friendly choices
- Influences attitudes & values in future generations

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- But maybe the local governments that need influencing more than general public

48. Controlling release of pollutant:

• Reduce sulphur content of fossil fuels using trading system or pollution budgets
- Has proved very successful in USA where government put legislation in place to
support this
- Increases costs as low sulphur fuels are more expensive
49. Use catalytic converters on car exhausts: conversion of nitrogen oxides/carbon
monoxide/hydrocarbons from cars
- Very effective at reducing nitrous oxides
- But expensive
- Use heavy metals which need to be mined
- Catalysts need replacing frequently
- Effective but requires investment in the technology and expensive
50. Switch to renewable energy sources
- Very effective as no direct emissions of NOx or SOx
- Requires diversification of energy supply, which requires political will
- Requires investment to support the change in energy policy
- Successful when implemented with supportive legislation

51. Taxation systems and trading mechanisms

- Very effective when implemented with political support
- Requires improvement in public transportation infrastructure
- Could be argued that not ethical as encourages trading of pollutants;

52. International legislation to control emissions (eg Sulphur Emissions Reduc-

tion Protocol)
- Have been successful in reducing sulphur dioxide emissions
- But led to increase in nitrous oxide production
- Can be difficult to implement and monitor

53. Clean-up and restoration of damaged systems:

- Adding limestone powder to acidified lakes
- Effective and cheap solution
- But does not remove the cause of the problem
- Environmental impact of mining the limestone

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54. Restocking lakes after remediation
- Needs careful management and unlikely to return the lake to the prior system
55. Reafforestation
- Expensive
- Takes long time for restoration
- New growth acts as effect carbon sink

Explain the differences between primary and secondary pollution.

Primary pollution:
- active upon emission of pollutant
- eg CO2 is released from burning fossil fuels and actively contributes to global
warming
- CFCs are released from aerosols and actively contribute to ozone depletion

Secondary pollution:
- occurs when primary pollutants undergo some kind of physical or chemical change
- e.g nitrogen combining with water to form nitric acid

Outline how both an advance in technology and a change in human activity have
reduced transport emissions of SOx and NOx.
1. Technology:
- Catalytic converters fitted to more vehicles
- Use of low sulfur diesel
- More efficient designs of vehicles
- Development of electric cars

2. Humans
- Higher fuel prices
- More use of public transport
- Changes in vehicle taxes deterring vehicle use
- Government policy encouraging public transport
- Increased public awareness
- More cycling

Describe the possible effect of volcanic eruption on global temperatures.

- Ash would reflect sunlight back to space

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- Reduction in energy input leads to fall in global temperatures
- Greenhouse gases released could contribute to global warming
- Ash from volcano reduces the albedo of snow leading to increase in temperatures

State, giving a reason, whether tropospheric ozone is an example of point source

pollution or non-point source pollution.
Non-point source
- It is the result of cumulative actions (vehicle/power station emissions, etc.) that can-
not be pinpointed on a single location

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