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Energy and Equilibria 1.3

In an ecosystem, energy and matter are constantly flowing.

1. Energy: chemical movement in the form of heat

2. Matter: physical substance

Types of energy in biological systems:

1. Mechanical: movement of objects or its position of gravity

2. Chemical: potential energy stored in bonds between atoms & compounds

3. Thermal/Heat: motions of atoms or molecules in a substance

Energy can also be grouped into Potential or Kinetic energy

1. Potential-energy associated with an object/molecule because of what it can do.

- Chemical energy is the most common source of energy in biological systems. Glucose be-
ing its primary source.

2. Kinetic energy-energy it uses to do motion

- Thermal/Heat or Mechanical energy are the most common form of kinetic energy in bio-
logical systems. The conversation of glucose to ATP to do work (mechanical) is often re-
leased as Heat.

The Laws of Thermodynamics

1. 1st Law: Principle of Energy Conservation: energy is neither created nor destroyed. In an
isolated system, energy can only be transformed but can’t be destroyed.

For example: solar radiation > sugars > chemical energy > chemical energy again

2. 2nd Law: Entropy increases over time: entropy is the increase of disorder in a system.
As energy is transformed, entropy increases as it is harder to track and therefore reduces
its ability to do work.

When energy is transformed, there is a loss of energy through the release of heat.

- living systems are only maintained through constant input of new energy from the Sun
- entropy is simply a quantitive measure of what the second law describes: the energy in a
process in our material world
The principle of conservation of energy states that energy cannot be created or destroyed.
For example, in an isolated system, the total energy before transformation is equal to the total
energy transformation.

Energy can only be changed from one to another. Energy for the function of an ecosystem
comes from the Sun. Solar energy is absorbed by plants where in it is converted to stored
chemical energy.

The main source in an ecosystem: Sun

- light energy is transformed to chemical energy (carbon compounds) through photosyn-

thesis
- chemical energy is then transferred through a food chain by feeding
Implications of the laws of thermodynamics to ecological systems

Two thermodynamic laws govern the flow of energy within ecological systems. The first
law states that energy can be transformed from one form to another (e.g., conversion of
solar energy to chemical energy by photosynthesis), but cannot be created or destroyed.
The second law establishes that energy transformation processes are not 100% efficient.
These laws dictate that a large proportion of the chemical energy, approximately 90%, trans-
ferred between feeding (trophic) levels within a system is converted to heat energy which is
of limited value to the biotic portion of the system. The energy "loss" between feeding levels
results from an inefficient transfer of organic matter (e.g., gaseous, urinary and fecal losses)
and the energy required for internal maintenance of organisms (i.e., maintenance energy).

For example, only a portion of the solar energy converted into chemical energy by photosyn-
thesis is realized as growth because a portion is utilized in respiration. Similarly, animals uti-
lize a large portion of the total energy ingested for basal metabolism thereby diminishing the
amount of energy available for growth or transfer to subsequent feeding levels within the sys-
tem 

How efficient is the energy transfer process?

The second law of thermodynamics explains the inefficiency and decrease in available
energy along a food chain and energy generation systems

When one animals feeds off another, there is a loss of heat (energy) in the process. Additional
loss of energy occurs during respiration & movement. Hence, more and more energy is lost
as one moves up through trophic levels.
- the more energy burned while eating or gathered reduces the transfer

How might energy be lost?

- not all of the organism is consumed

- some die before they are eaten
- some parts of organisms are indigestible (unable to be converted into energy)
- most are lost via cellular respiration converted to heat

Where does heat go?

Most of it is lost into the atmosphere.

Ecological Pyramids

What are ecological pyramids?

Ecological pyramids are quantitive representations of energy transfer and losses, it shows
what feeds on what and what organisms exist at different trophic levels and also demonstrates
the ecosystem balance.

The Three Types of Pyramids

1. Numbers of individuals

2. Biomass
3. Productivity (energy)
Type of Pyramid Purpose Advantages Disadvantages

Numbers of Individuals Shows number of or- 1. Simple and easy over- 1. All organisms are in-
ganisms at each trophic view of changes in pop- cluded regardless of size
level in a single chain ulation numbers 2. Does not allow for im-
mature forms
3. Numbers are too
great to represent accu-
rately

Biomass Mass of each individual Overcomes some prob- Only uses samples from
x # of individuals at lems with numbers populations; it is impos-
each trophic level sible to measure
biomass exactly;
Organisms killed to
measure dry mass;
Time of year influences
biomass
 Type of Pyramid Purpose Advantages Disadvantages
Productivity Rate of flow of energy 1. Most accurate system 1. Very difficult & com-
or biomass through 2, Shows actual energy plex to collect energy
each trophic level transfer data as he rate of
3. Allows comparison of biomass production
ecosystems based on rel- over time required.
ative energy flow. 2. Still the problem of
4. Pyramids are not in- assigning species to a
verted specific particular
5. Energy from solar ra- trophic level
diation can be added

Food chains, Nutrients, and Containments

While energy is lost as it moved up the food chain, nutrients are recycled.

Nutrient: anything needed to survive (carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, Ogden)

Energy is LOST in an ecosystem. Nutrients are RECYCLED in an ecosystem (by

detritivores & saprotrophs)

Toxins ACCUMULATE in an ecosystem, what are toxins?

Toxins are heavy metals and some toxic chemicals-anything our bodies cant digest/make us
sick

Feedback Loops
Feedback: modification or control of a process or system by its results or effects.

Systems are continually affected by things both inside & outside of them.

In order for a system to maintain a steady state or average condition, the system must possess
the capacity for self-regulation. Self regulation in many systems is controlled by negative
feedback & positive feedback mechanisms.

4. Positive Feedback Loops (change a system into a new state, destabilizing as they in-
crease change):

- change the system to a new state

- destabilize the system as change is increased
- results in a further increase or decrease in the output that enhances the change
5. Negative Feedback loops (return to its original state, stabilizing as they reduce
change):

- return the system to its original state

- stabilize the system as they reduce change
Examples of Feedback

Positive feedback:

- Decreased body temperature (hypothermia) > slow down of body functions > making it
impossible to get warm without outside help
- Poverty > illness & poor education quality > increases poverty
Negative feedback:

- Increased body temperature

- Predator and prey interactions
Equilibrium

What is an Equilibrium?

An Equilibrium is the tendency of a system to return to an original state following distur-

bance.

1. Stable Equilibrium: system tends to turn to the same state after disturbances

2. Unstable Equilibrium: system returns to a new equilibrium after disturbance. When

disrupted, the system will establish a new equilibrium as a result of the disturbance
3. Static Equilibrium: there is no change overtime; when the state of equilibrium is
disturbed, the system adapts a new equilibrium; can’t occur in living systems

Steady State Equilibrium

What is a Steady State Equilibrium?

A Steady State Equilibrium is open systems that contain continuous inputs & outputs of
energy & matter, but the system as a whole remains relatively constant.

As an open system, an ecosystems will normally exist in a stable equilibrium, either in a sta-
ble equilibrium or in one developing over time.

Feedback loops directly affect equilibrium:

- loops can be hard to identify in complex systems

- negative feedback stabilizes steady-state equilibria (helps to neutralize the effects of any
deviation from the norm)
- positive feedback destabilizes the equilibrium forcing the system into an unsteady state
and ultimately a new equilibrium

The resilience of an ecosystem

Ecosystems are remarkable resilient (stable) despite all the ways we can destroy it

Resilience: the ability of a system to return to its initial state after a disturbance.

High resilience: is return to equilibrium

Low resilience: enter a new state/equilibrium

It is a measure of how a system responds to a disturbance, such as food, fire, pollution, new
climate, disease, extinction etc

What affects how stable an ecosystem can be?

1. Higher levels of biodiversity

2. Faster reproduction rate

3. Human interaction of removing or migrating the threat in the system; results in faster re-
covery. Humans can reduce size of storages by harvesting wood, fish & other natural re-
sources. Humans can also reduce diversity by species extinction which leads to less re-
silience
4. Greater genetic diversity
5. An organisms ability to adapt to changing climate

Resilience in a variety of systems

Resilience is usually defined as: the capacity of an ecosystem to absorb disturbance without
shifting to an alternative state and losing function and services. Disturbances can include
fires, flooding, windstorms, insect population explosions, and human activities such as
deforestation, fracking of the ground for oil extraction, pesticide sprayed in soil, and the
introduction of exotic plant or animal species. 

Some disturbances can significantly affect an ecosystem and can cause an ecosystem to reach
a threshold beyond which some species can’t recover. Human activities that adversely affect
ecosystem resilience such as reduction of biodiversity, exploitation of natural resources,
pollution, land-use, and anthropogenic climate change are increasingly causing changes
in ecosystems, often to less desirable conditions.

Diversity and the size of storage's within systems can contribute to their resilience and affect
their speed of response to change (time lag)
Tipping Points

What are Tipping Points?

Tipping point is reached when an ecosystem experiences a shift to a new state in which sig-
nificant changes in biodiversity and services it provides change.

What are the characteristics of Tipping Point?

- involve positive feedback-causing the change to be self-perpetuating

- for example, deforestation = less rainfall = more forest fires = less trees
- go beyond the threshold of the changes the ecosystem can endure (a threshold pint can not
be precisely predicted)
- changes caused are long lasting
- changes are hard to reverse
- lag time between pressures driving change & appearance of impacts
Examples of tipping points?

- lake eutrophication
- extinction of a keynote species

Possible consequences of tipping points

The resilience of a system, ecological or social, refers to its tendency to avoid such tipping
points and maintains stability. A tipping point is the minimum amount of change within
a system that will destabilize it, causing it to reach a new equilibrium or stable state. 

An environmental tipping point is a part of the human-environment system that can lever
far-reaching change in the system. A change at the tipping point sets in motion mutually re-
inforcing feedback loops that propel the system on a completely new course.

The delays involved in feedback loops make it difficult to predict tipping points and add to
the complexity of modeling systems

Engineering Resistance vs Ecological Resilience

What is the difference?

Natural systems generally have a much higher tolerance range of resilience.

Engineered systems are often very narrow. Disturbances cause greater amounts of disrup-
tion.