100 points, 120 questions, 90 MC, TF, multiple answer, 20 Fill in blanks, 10 questions from 2

dihybrid crosses

Suggested study words/ topics:

biodiversity
- Number of species present in the biosphere. (number of species and their relative
abundance to each other).
- Types of biodiversity
o Genetic diversity
 the total number of genetic characteristics in the genetic makeup of a
species
o chemical diversity
 Different species produces a variety of chemicals in their cell. (variety of
metabolic compounds in an ecosystem)
o Ecosystem diversity
 The number of different ecosystems in the planet or a given geographic
area.

Endemic species: They are found in only one location.

How the biosphere cycles work with humans

Organelle-> cell -> tissues -> organs & organ system -> Organism, population,
communities -> ecosystem -> biosphere

fish vs human hearts

fish:
o Single circuit for blood flow,
o 2 chambers (atrium: collects blood returned, ventricle(pumps blood to the
gills)
o Gill circulation: Where gas exchange occurs, and blood is re-oxygenated.
(occurs in the gills).
Human:
o Two circuits (double circulation), one through the lungs and one back to the
heart.
o 4 chambers (2 atria, 2 ventricles)
o Oxygenated blood is separated from deoxygenated blood.
Ecological relationships
Ecology: Is the study of interactions of living organisms with their environment.

Biological community: consists of the different species within an area, typically a three-
dimensional space, and the interactions within and among these species

Symbiosis: close interactions between individuals of different species over an extended

period of time which impact the abundance and distribution of the associating
population. Types:
o Mutualism: where the two species benefit from their interaction
o Commensalism: commensal relationship occurs when one species benefits from
the close, prolonged interaction, while the other neither benefits nor is harmed
(ex. Bids nesting on trees)
o Parasitism: is an organism that lives in or on another living organism and derives
nutrients from it. In this relationship, the parasite benefits, but the host is harmed.

Ecosystems
An ecosystem is a community of living organisms and their interactions with their abiotic
(nonliving) environment

Equilibrium: is the steady state of an ecosystem where all organisms are in balance with
their environment and with each other.

Resistance is the ability of an ecosystem to remain at equilibrium in spite of disturbances.

Resilience is the speed at which an ecosystem recovers equilibrium after being disturbed.

Food chains:
o Primary producer: at the bottom of the food chain. Photosynthetic organisms.
o Primary consumer: consumes the primary producer.
o Secondary consumer: carnivores. Eat primary consumers
o Apex consumer: highest level consumer in the ecosystem.

A food web: is a graphic representation of a holistic, nonlinear web of primary producers,

primary consumers, and higher-level consumers used to describe ecosystem structure and
dynamics

Holistic ecosystem model: quantify the composition, interaction, and dynamics of entire
ecosystems; it is the most representative of the ecosystem in its natural state.
Models include: 1- A conceptual model, 2- An analytical model, 3- simulation model
o Mesocosm: an experimental tool that is used as a model of a larger ecosystem
o Microcosm: artificial, simplified ecosystems that are used to simulate and predict
the behaviour of natural ecosystems under controlled conditions.
 Energy acquisition
o Photoautotrophs: ex. Plants, algae serve as the energy source for a majority of the
world’s ecosystem.
o Chemoautotrophs: synthesize complex organic molecules ex. Glucose. For their
own energy without sunlight, rather use other sources of energy.
o Heterotrophs: acquire energy from digesting living or previously living
organisms.

Community dynamics
Are the changes in community structure and composition over time. (Introduced by
environmental disturbance ex. Volcanoes…).
Communities with stable structures are at equilibrium. (after the disturbance,
communities may or may not return to equilibrium)

Successions
Succession describes how the structure of biological community change over time.
o Primary succession: newly exposed or newly formed land is colonized by living
things. (when new land is formed or rock is exposed ex. Eruption of volcanoes, as
lava flows into the ocean, newly land is being formed)
o Secondary succession: part of an ecosystem is disturbed, and remnants of the
previous community remain. (wildfires good and bad)

Phylogenetic (there is no tree on the exam, but you should pay attention to how the basic tree of
life is constructed)
summarizes the evolution of various life forms on Earth.
Shows evolutionary relationships between species. (based on similarities and differences
in genetic or physical traits)

Rooted (common ancestor) and unrooted (show only relationships)

Parts of phylogenetic tree:

o Taxon (groups into species, family, domain)
o Clade (lines in cladogram)
o Branch point (splitting represents single lineage evolving into two clades)

Atmosphere
It is the envelope of gasses surrounding the earth.
o The water cycle
o Carbon cycle
o Nitrogen cycle
o The phosphorous cycle
o The sulfur cycle
How organisms make energy
- All light is energy
- Energy acquisition
- Energy is the ability to do work
o energy is needed to carry out life processes (required to break down and build up
molecules, and transport many molecules across plasma membrane)
o the energy that organisms need comes from food, food consists of organic
molecules that store energy in their chemical bond.
o Two types of organisms to obtain food for energy: autotrophs and heterotrophs.
Energy molecules: glucose and ATP
o The two types of molecules of chemical energy.
o Key players in the process of photosynthesis.
 Glucose: is a simple carbohydrate (C6H12O)
 It stores chemicals energy in a concentrated stable form.
 Carried in the blood.
 End product of photosynthesis
 ATP: the energy-carrying molecule that cells use to power cellular process
 Made in the first half of photosynthesis, then used for energy for
the second half
 It releases energy when it gives up one of its three phosphate
groups.
 The breakdown of the ATP is a catabolic reaction (break down
large organic molecules into smaller molecules) that releases
energy (exothermic)
 The makeup of ATP is ADP+Pi, an anabolic reaction (synthesize
larger molecules from smaller constituent parts) that takes energy
(endothermic).
 Why organisms need both glucose and ATP?
 The energy flow through living things
 Photosynthesis  glucose
 In a process called cellular respiration (metabolic reaction, convert
biochemical energy from nutrients into ATP), organisms break
down glucose and make the ATP they need.

Entropy
Entropy is a measure of randomness or disorder in a system
The second law of thermodynamics states that every energy transfer or transformation
increases the universe's entropy.
o Systems can be thought of as having a certain amount of order.
o It takes energy to make a system more ordered.
o The more ordered a system is, the lower its entropy.
o High disorder, higher entropy (energy lost)
Linnaeus did something…. What?
- Taxonomy – science of classifying organisms into taxa
- His work in taxonomy: the science of identifying, naming and classifying organisms.
- Linnaean system
- Top: domain  kingdom  phylum  class  order  family  genus  species

Negative and positive feedback

Homeostasis: to maintain dynamic equilibrium in the body (maintain stable conditions
necessary for survival). Constantly adjusting to the changes that body encounters.
goal of homeostasis is the maintenance of equilibrium around a point or value
called a set point

o Negative feedback loop:

 a type of self-regulating system.
 is a mechanism that reverses a deviation from the set point. Therefore,
negative feedback maintains body parameters within their normal range
 ex. insulin and glucagon help to keep blood glucose levels within a narrow
concentration range. Temperature change. pH
 most biological systems on negative control
 three basic components to the system:
 sensor
 the control center
 effector
o Positive feedback loop
 intensifies a change in the body’s physiological condition rather than
reversing it.
 A deviation from the normal range results in more change, and the system
moves farther away from the normal range
 Entails a response that is in the same direction of the perturbation.
 A positive feedback loop results in a change in the body’s status, rather
than a return to homeostasis.
 Ex. Stretching uterine walls when giving birth
 three basic components to the system:
 sensor
 the control center
 effector
Types speciation and descriptions
- the formation of two species from one original species.
- Allopatric speciation
o Involves geographic separation of populations from a parent species and
subsequent evolution
 Has a homogenous population.
 Gene flow is free.
 Geographic disturbance ex. New river forming, organisms travelling to a
new location without being able to return, seeds floating over oceans to an
island,
 The two groups of allopatric:
 Dispersal: when few members of the species move to a new
geographical area
 Vicariance: when nature situations arise to physically divide
organisms.
 Adaptive radiation: From one original species of bird, multiple others
evolved, each with its own distinctive characteristics. Ex. honeycreeper
birds
- Sympatric speciation
o involves speciation occurring within a parent species remaining in one location.
 Speciation within the same space
 A form of sympatric speciation can be a serious chromosomal error during
cell division.
 Aneuploidy: Two few chromosomes
 Autopolyploid: Two or more complete sets of chromosomes after
division. Results from error in meiosis.
 Allopolyploid: Gametes from two different species combine.
 Reproductive isolation: when two populations come together and breed.
The offspring is infertile. Two groups
 Prezygotic barrier: blocks reproduction from taking place.
(preventing fertilization when organisms attempt reproduction)
 Postzygotic barrier: occurs after zygote formation. (organisms that
don’t survive the embryonic stage)

(look at the other types.)

Genes, pools, alleles, etc..
Population genetics is the study of what changes allele frequencies in populations through
time
Genes
o Genetic code: refers to the DNA alphabet (A, T, C, G), the RNA alphabet (A, U,
C, G), and the polypeptide alphabet (20 amino acids)
o Central dogma: Describes the flow of genetic information in the cell from
Gene flow: genes  mRNA  proteins
1) instructions on DNA is transcribed onto mRNA
2) Ribosomes read genetic info on mRNA
3) They use it to string an amino acid to make a protein

o Genes are used to make mRNA by the process of transcription mRNA is used
to synthesize protein by a process called translation.
 Transcription process:
 Initiation: a promoter that indicated where RNA polymerase
should bind to start
 Elongation: RNA polymerase tracks along the DNA template to
split DNA and make mRNA. From 5’ to 3’
 Termination: liberates the mRNA that happened on elongation
(Rho protein). A ribosome will grab onto the growing mRNA to
start translation.
Difference between eukaryotes and prokaryotes is that since there is no nuclear
membrane in prokaryotes, there is no separation of the transcription and translation
process.


Translation process:
 Initiation: AUG start codon then tRNA attaches. Then larger
subunit comes in.
 Elongation: tRNA is moving in with the right amino acids. Amino
acid chain growing.
 Termination: stop codon is reached.
In eukaryotes, the amino acid is moved into E (endoplasmic
reticulum) to further process.
o mRNA processing:
 mRNA contains introns that must be spliced out. A 5' cap and 3' poly-A
tail are also added
 These structures (5’ and poly-A tail) protect the mature mRNA from
degradation and help export it from the nucleus
 Pre-mRNAs also undergo splicing, in which introns are removed and
exons are reconnected with single-nucleotide accuracy.
 Only finished mRNAs that have undergone 5' capping, 3' polyadenylation,
and intron splicing are exported from the nucleus to the cytoplasm.
 o Gene families: a set of several similar genes, formed by the duplication of a single
original gene.

pools
o Gene pool: all the alleles that the individual in the population carries.

Alleles
o It is one or more versions of a gene. Individuals inherit two alleles.
 Dominant: alleles that mask others – often designated with capital letters.
Example: P for purple flower
 Recessive: alleles that are masked by others – often designated with lower
case letters Example p for white flower

Genomic concepts (evolution, mutation, etc…)

- A silent mutation is a mutation in which: one nucleotide in a codon is changed, but the
codon specifies the same amino acid
- A point mutation is a mutation in which: one nucleotide has changed
- Advantageous: increases the fitness of the organism.
- Deleterious: A genetic alteration that increases an individual's susceptibility or
predisposition to a certain disease or disorder

Genotype vs phenotype
Genotype: is an individual’s collection of genes
Phenotype: the observable trait expressed by an organism.

Simple dihybrid crosses

(will do on a sheet)

Types of genetic dominance

Dominance: is the phenomenon of one variant (allele) of a gene on a chromosome
- Incomplete dominance
 denoting the expression of two contrasting alleles such that the individual
displays an intermediate phenotype
- Co-dominance
 Both alleles for the same characteristics are simultaneously being
expressed in the heterozygous. the phenotype of the heterozygote is
different from the phenotypes of the homozygotes

- Complete dominance
 the dominant allele completely masks the effect of the recessive allele in
heterozygous conditions
Photosynthesis overview (it would behoove you to know the difference between PSII and PSI)
- CO2 + H2O  C6H12O6 + O2
- photosynthesis takes place inside the chloroplast
- two parts of photosynthesis:
o light dependant reaction
 in the thylakoid membrane
 use light energy to make ATP and NADPH
 a photosystem consists of a light-harvesting complex and a
reaction center.
o Photosystem II
 Pigments in the L-HC pass light energy to two special
chlorophyll a molecule in the reaction center.
 Light excites the chlorophyll a pair and passes it to the
primary electron acceptor, PEA, it looks like pea.
 The excited electron must be replaced. The electron
comes from the splitting of water, which releases
oxygen as a waste product.

o Photosystem I
 Receives electron from ETC
 Uses light energy to transfer then across the
membrane

In the etc as electrons flow from PS II to PS I they lose energy

o the Calvin cycle

 in the stroma
 uses energy derived from the components to make G3P (sugar )
is a 3-carbon sugar that is the starting point for the synthesis of other carbohydrates

from CO2
 it has three stages
 the enzyme RuBisCO incorporates carbon dioxide into an organic
molecule, 3-PGA
 The organic molecule is reduced using electrons supplied by
NADPH
 RuBP is the molecule that starts the cycle. It is regenerated so that
the cycle can continue (bc it’s a cycle)
 Only one carbon dioxide molecule is incorporated at a time, so the cycle
must be completed three times to produce a single three-carbon G3P
molecule. And six times to produce a six-carbon glucose molecule.
Gibb’s
Thermodynamic laws
- energy cannot be created nor destroyed. it only can be stored and moved
- energy cannot be transferred (not entirely efficient. when energy is lost it will result with
increased entropy)
if a solution has a pH of 8, it has less free hydrogens.
Enzymes
Enzymes are protein* catalysts that speed up reactions by lowering the required
activation energy.
- Describe the evolutionary relationship between heat and enzymes?
The more enzymes work the more heat they produce. The hotter the system becomes. If
they work too much they get destroyed. If they work too little, they don’t work efficiently
enough.
- Why is it important for an organism to have a homeostatic pH and temperature?
So their enzymes work. Otherwise life can’t happen.
Types of enzymes:
o Catabolic – breakdown substrates
o Anabolic – build more complex molecules
o Catalytic – affect the rate of reaction
How Enzymes lower activation energy:
o position two substrates so they align perfectly for the reaction
o provide an optimal environment, i.e. acidic or polar, within the active site for
the reaction
o contort/stress the substrate so it is less stable and more likely to react
o temporarily react with the substrate (chemically change it) making the
substrate less stable and more likely to react.
Enzyme regulation
o Regulation of enzyme activity helps cells control their environment to meet their
specific needs. Ex. digestive cells in your stomach work harder after a meal than
when you sleep.
 Enzymes can be regulated by
 Modifications to temperature and/or pH
 Production of molecules that inhibit or promote enzyme function
 Availability of coenzymes or cofactors

Allosteric inhibitors: modify the active site of the enzyme so that

substrate binding is reduced or prevented.to change. Prevents it from
working
Allosteric activators: modify the active site of the enzyme so that the
affinity for the substrate increases.
Isotopes, valence, and octet rule
Isotopes are different forms of different element

Biogeography
- is the study of the geographic distribution of living things and the abiotic factors that
affect their distribution
- Abiotic factors such as temperature and rainfall vary based mainly on latitude and
elevation.
- As these abiotic factors change, the composition of plant and animal communities also
changes.
Demography
- The statistical study of population dynamics, demography, uses a series of mathematical
tools to investigate how populations respond to changes in their biotic and abiotic
environments.
Endemic
- Things or organisms found in only one location.
- Endemics with highly restricted distributions are particularly vulnerable to extinction.
DARWIN (remember, I think)
Premises of Darwinism is THE STRONG SURVIVE.
Best genetics, more adaptive survive.

How genes cross over and why do some genes cross together
- In meiosis
- paired chromosomes from each parent align so that similar DNA sequences from the
paired chromosomes cross over one another.
- Variation in alleles
-

Independent assortment
- During meiosis, the pairs of homologous chromosome are divided in half to form haploid
cells, and this separation, or assortment, of homologous chromosomes is random.
- genes do not influence each other with regard to the sorting of alleles into gametes, and
every possible combination of alleles for every gene is equally likely to occur
- can be illustrated by the dihybrid cross
Monohybrid crosses
Know it already

Mitosis vs meiosis
- Mitosis
o Phases
 Interphase: time for normal growth and preparation for cell division
 G1 (first gap): cell is activated
 S: identical copies of DNA are joined at the centromere. Cell
synthesizes a complete copy of DNA in its nucleus.
  G2 (second gap): energy is replenished, organelles reproduce, and
cytoskeleton breaks down.
 Prophase: nuclear envelope breaks, microtubules form
 Prometaphase
 Metaphase
 Anaphase
 Telophase
 Cytokinesis
 Animal cell: a cleavage furrow separates the two daughter cells
 Plant cell: cell plate
o Products of mitosis
 two identical diploid (2n, has paired chromosomes) daughter cells

- Meiosis
o Meiosis I
 begins with one diploid parent cell and ends with two haploid daughter
cells
 Prophase I:
 Prometaphase I:
 Metaphase I:
 Anaphase I:
 Telophase I and cytokinesis:
o Meiosis II
 starts with two haploid parent cells and ends with four haploid daughter
cells
 Prophase I:
 Prometaphase I:
 Metaphase I:
 Anaphase I:
 Telophase I and cytokinesis:
o Products of meiosis
 Four haploid cells in which each chromosome has just one chromatid. In
humans, the products of meiosis are sperm or egg cells.

What features of meiosis allow for an independent assortment of chromosomes? Crossing over?
 the pairs of homologous chromosomes are divided in half to form haploid cells, and this
separation, or assortment, of homologous chromosomes is random.

o Checkpoints
 G1: determines if all conditions are favorable for the division
 G2: make sure that all chromosomes have been replicated and not
damaged.
 M: determines whether all sisters chromatids are correctly attached to the
spindle microtubules.

o Cell cycle
 Interphase
 G1
 S
 G2
 M (mitotic phase)

o Difference between mit & meio

 Mitosis:
 creates body cells
 no recombination or crossing over
 produce 2 diploid daughter cells
 daughter cells are identical

Eukaryote vs Prokaryote gene construction

- eukaryote
o linear
o Gene expression is regulated at many
levels (epigenetic, transcriptional, nuclear
shuttling, post-transcriptional, translational,
and post-translational)
- procaryote
o circular
o Gene expression is regulated primarily
at the transcriptional level

Stages and types of epigenetics

- Epigenetic regulation – “around genetics” temporary changes to nuclear proteins and
DNA that do not alter nucleotide sequence but do alter gene expression.
 - Epigenetic mechanisms control access to the chromosomal region to allow genes to be
turned on or off
- Two types:
o Chromatin remodelling: controls how DNA is packed into the nucleus. By
regulating how tight DNA is wounded around histones
o DNA methylation: DNA itself may be methylated to selectively silence genes.
o Histone modification: the addition or removal of modification to the histones or
the DNA, signals the cell to open or close a chromosomal region.

RNA poly 2
- RNA polymerase I: transcribes RNA
- RNA polymerase II: transcribes protein-coding genes
o Located in the nucleus
o Synthesizes all protein-coding nuclear mRNAs
o Undergoes extensive processing after transcription but before translation
o RNA polymerase II is responsible for transcribing the overwhelming majority of
eukaryotic genes
- RNA polymerase III: transcribes rRNA, tRNA (helps code mRNA to become a protein),
and small nuclear RNA genes
Intron splicing: removal of the non-coding introns.

Primary producers, consumers, etc…

- Primary producer: at the bottom of the food chain. Photosynthetic organisms.
- Primary consumer: consumes the primary producer.
- Secondary consumer: carnivores. Eat primary consumers
- Apex consumer: highest level consumer in the ecosystem.

Cellular respiration
- 4 steps:
o Glycolysis
o Intermediate- rearrangement (pyruvate oxidation)
 Upon entering mitochondria
 A multienzyme converts pyruvate into acetyl CoA.
 Carbon dioxide is released
 One molecule of NADH is formed
o Kerbs- citric acid cycle
 the acetyl group from acetyl CoA is transferred to oxaloacetate to form
citrate.
 Through a series of reactions
 citrate is oxidized (3 NADH & 1 FADH2 made)
 2 CO2 released
 1 GTP or ATP produced
 The final product of the citric acid cycle is oxaloacetate.
 The cycle runs continuously in the presence of sufficient reactants
Products of CAC:
 - 2 carbon dioxides
- ATP
- Reduced forms of NADH and FADH2
o Electron transport chain (Oxidative Phosphorylation)
 The electron transport chain is a series of electron transporters embedded
in the inner mitochondrial membrane that shuttles electrons from NADH
and FADH2 to molecular oxygen. In the process, protons are pumped
from the mitochondrial matrix to the intermembrane space, and oxygen is
reduced to form water.

Where does glycolysis take place?

Glycolysis is a cytoplasmic pathway which breaks down glucose into two three-carbon
compounds.
It occurs in the cytoplasm.

- First half of glycolysis: (energy-requiring step)

The first part of the glycolysis pathway traps the glucose molecule in the cell and uses
energy to modify it so that the six-carbon sugar molecule can be split evenly into the
two three-carbon molecules.
o Uses 2 ATP molecules in the phosphorylation of glucose
o Which is then split into two three-carbon molecule

- Second half of glycolysis: (energy releasing step)

The second part of glycolysis extracts energy from the molecules and stores it in the
form of ATP and NADH
o Phosphorylation without ATP
o Produces two NADH and four ATP molecules per glucose
Final products:
- Pyruvate
- Two NADH
- Four ATP

Aerobic: requires oxygen

Anaerobic: doesn’t require oxygen

Passive and active diffusion (know the types)

- Passive diffusion is when molecules move from high concentration to low concentration
- Types:
o Simple diffusion
o Facilitated diffusion: moves substances down their concentration gradients
through transmembrane, integral membrane proteins. (ions and small polar
molecules diffuse this way)
 Channel proteins
 Carrier proteins
 - Active transport transport is used anytime an ion or molecule (like glucose) is transported
through a membrane protein:
o Against concentration gradient. From low concentration to high concentration
o Energy is required
o Types:
 Primary where ATP provides the energy
 Secondary: where an electrochemical gradient provides the energy
- Things that will affect diffusion:
o Concentration gradients - Greater difference, faster diffusion
o Mass of the molecules - Smaller molecules diffuse more quickly
o Temperature - Molecules move faster when temperatures are higher
o Solvent density - Dehydration increases density of cytoplasm – reduces diffusion
rates
o Solubility – more nonpolar (lipid-soluble) materials diffuse faster
o Surface area – increased surface area speeds up diffusion rates
o Distance travelled – the greater the distance, the slower the rates; important factor
affecting upper limit of cell size
o Pressure – in some cells (i.e. kidney cells), blood pressure forces solutions
through membranes, speeding up diffusion rates

Hypotonic, isotonic, hypertonic

I spoke A LOT about the plasma membrane

- functions:
o managing what enters and exits the cell
o receiving external signals and initiating cellular responses
o adhering to neighbouring cells
o controls what enters and what exits the cells
Phospholipids are major constituents of the plasma membrane
- components
o phospholipids
 2 fatty acid chains (nonpolar ) (hydrophobic tails) face inwards
 A glycerol molecule (hydrophilic heads)
 A phosphate group (polar) (hydrophilic heads)
o Cholesterol
o proteins
 Functions as transporters, receptors, enzymes, or in binding and adhesion
 Integral proteins – integrated completely into the bilayer
Channels or pores and signal transduction

 Peripheral proteins – occur only on the surfaces


o Carbohydrates
  Located on the exterior surface of the plasma membrane
 Bound to either protein or lipids
 Function in cell-cell recognition & attachment
 Function: energy source, signal telling, structural
polar heads face outward
hydrophobic tails face inwards
fluidity is affected by: 1- phosphor lipid type, 2- temperature 3- cholesterol

DNA vs RNA
Both DNA and RNA can store information, yet DNA is the major information storage
molecule in most cells. What are the advantages of using DNA for information storage
instead of RNA? DNA is more stable
DNA- stable RNA reactive
Double strand single strand
Remains in the nucleus leaves the nucleus
C, T, A, G C, U, A, G
Carries genetic information involved in protein synthesis
They both consist of monomers called nucleotides

I really enjoyed protein formation

Briefly identify the 4 levels of protein structure? What 4 properties of amino acids cause
the proteins to form these structures?
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, nitrogen.
Macromolecules (functions relating to cells)
- Macromolecules consist of individual subunits called monomers
- Monomers are linked together via covalent bonds into polymers
- Hydrolysis – process of breaking polymers down into individual monomers – also known
as a dehydration reaction
- Chemical reactions involving macromolecules are catalyzed by enzymes
-
o Carbohydrates: provide energy to the body in the form of glucose
 Monosaccharides
 Disaccharides
 polysacchrides
o Lipids: long-term energy stores, provide insulation from the environment to plant
and animals, serves as building blocks for some hormones.
 non-polar hydrocarbons (hydrophobic)
 Types: fats, oils, phospholipids

o Proteins
 Types and functions
 Digestive enzymes: digestion of food by catabolizing nutrients into
monomeric units
  Transport: carry substances in the blood or lymph throughout the
body
 Structural: constructs different structures
 Hormones: coordinate the activity of different body systems
 Defense: protect body from foreign pathogens
 Contractile: muscle contraction
 Storage: provide nourishment in early development of embryo.
 Amino acids are the monomers that make up the protein
o Fundamental structure
o Central carbon atom (α-carbon)
o Amino group (-NH2)
o Carboxyl group (-COOH)
o Hydrogen
o Side chain (R-group)
 Different natures of amino acids:
o Nonpolar
o Polar
o Positively charged
o Negatively charged
o Nonpolar aromatic
 The sequence and number of amino acids determine protein shape,
size and function
 Protein structure/shape can change with altering primary structure
due to:
o Changes in pH
o Changes in temperature

 Protein is multiple polypeptide (polypeptide is a chain of amino
acids joined by a peptide linkages)
 Protein shapes
 Primary structure: the unique sequence of amino acids in a
polypeptide
 Secondary structure: local folding of the polypeptide
 Tertiary structure: the unique three-dimensional structure of a
polypeptide
 Quaternary structure: interactions between several polypeptides
that make up a protein
o Weak interactions between subunits help stabilize the
structure

o Nucleic Acids
 constitute the genetic material of living organisms
 two types
  DNA
o Roles
 codes for the genome of cell - entire genetic content
 Genes contain instructions for producing proteins or
various forms of RNA
 DNA controls all cellular activities by turning genes
on or off
 RNA
o Roles
 is primarily involved in protein synthesis
 types include mRNA, tRNA, rRNA

 Location of nucleic acids

 Nucleus of eukaryotic cells
 Mitochondria
 Chloroplasts
 Prokaryotic cells (not membrane enclosed)

How carbs are made.

are formed by green plants from carbon dioxide and water during the process of
photosynthesis.

Bonds, bonds, bonds.

- 4 types of bonds
o Ionic bonds
o Covalent bonds
o Hydrogen bonds
o Van der waals interactions

Chromosome theory of inheritance

K and R
K selected and r selected species
r-selected babies grow rapidly, and tend to be found in less competitive, low quality
environments. ... K-selected species produce offspring that each have a higher probability
of survival to maturity.

When considering how organisms produce energy, what are the products, reactants that we
expect to find?
Epistasis
- genes are not independent,
but rather interact to produce phenotypes
Frame shifts
Concepts associated with the amino acid table (don’t memorize each amino acid – but you
should know the concepts that I spoke about with the table)
We can make unlimited amino acids because:
o Redundant code (1 acid=4 unique codons)
o Length & sequence varies
And a few other things.

(ps. I believe in aliens)

a “theory” to be a body of thoroughly tested and verified

explanations for a set of observations of the natural world.

Cell theory: which states that one or more cells comprise all living things, the cell is the basic
unit of life, and new cells arise from
existing cells.