Theme №3:

Metabolism – energy and chemical flows in living systems

 S. Titov, General Biology; Unit “Metabolism – energy and chemical flows in living systems”

Main topics of the lecture:

• Second Law of Thermodynamics and

Life From The Physical Point of View.
• Varieties of metabolism
• Food interactions in ecosystems
 S. Titov, General Biology; Unit “Metabolism – energy and chemical flows in living systems”

Second Law of Thermodynamics:

Second Law of thermodynamics postulates,

that all isolated systems tend to:
• the state of maximal entropy;
• equalization of heterogeneous state;
• minimum of free energy.

Entropy = chaos, disorder Free energy – is such energy

Entropy is the opposite of order which can be used/converted
by a system to perform work.
Free energy is opposed to
Non-living systems, even when open dispersed energy of heat,
(non-isolated), being left alone always microscopic movement of
follow the 2nd law of thermodynamics. particles (molecules) of gas,
They can only simplify, degrade, not suitable for performing
deteriorate. work.
 S. Titov, General Biology; Unit “Metabolism – energy and chemical flows in living systems”

Metabolism – physico-chemical basis of life

«Schrödinger’s Paradox» - seeming violation of the 2nd Law

of Thermodynamics by living creatures (and other living
systems): not only they support their integrity in the world of
chaos, but also grow and develop, increasing complexity of
their structure, including such on the historic scale.
(«What is life?», 1944)

In fact, living systems do not truly violate the

2nd Law of Thermodynamics, as they are open
systems.
Increase in the level of order in
living systems is accompanied by
increase of the level of entropy in Erwin Schrödinger
environment. (1887-1961)
 S. Titov, General Biology; Unit “Metabolism – energy and chemical flows in living systems”

Thermodynamic processes in living matter:

Living matter
(highly organized,
heterogeneous)

Biosynthesis Decomposition

Diffuse
non-living matter
(homogenous, disorderly)

Dissipation of energy – dispersion of energy by a system,

irreversible transformation of organized energy into energy of non-
organized processes. Dissipation can be explained as expending of
energy by a system on its needs.
 S. Titov, General Biology; Unit “Metabolism – energy and chemical flows in living systems”

Metabolism – physico-chemical basis of life

“Schrödinger’s Paradox” is resolved due to the open nature of living
systems. Thus, the increase of order in living systems is compensated by
the increase of entropy in an environment.
Interaction of flows of chemicals and energy during the biosynthesis of
living matter and reverse processes of decomposition are the main features
of life and are the main form of life’s movement.

The totality of all chemical and energy reactions

in a living system = metabolism.

Life from the physical point of view: unique form of movement of

matter (metabolism) accompanied by maintaining heterogeneous highly-
organized state at the expense of consuming, transforming and dissipating
external energy.
Life – maintaining high state of order (low entropy) in an environment
with high entropy.
Life is a process which resists the increase of entropy.
 S. Titov, General Biology; Unit “Metabolism – energy and chemical flows in living systems”

Autotrophic and heterotrophic organisms

General concept: synthesis of complex compounds requires energy,
and inversely – decomposition of complex compounds releases energy
Types of metabolisms in living organisms:

Types of metabolism by the source of energy:

Heterotrophs
Autotrophs
can obtain energy only from
are able to synthesize
complex energy-rich
complex energy-rich
compounds taken
compounds themselves
from external sources

Phototrophs Chemotrophs
obtain energy from the obtain energy by oxi-redux
sunlight reactions of simple substances
 S. Titov, General Biology; Unit “Metabolism – energy and chemical flows in living systems”

Phototrophic Organisms

Phototrophs – organisms capable of synthesizing energy-rich organic

substances from simple substrates, using the energy of sunlight.
Phototrophic organisms: green plants, brown and red algae,
cyanobacteria.
All these creatures acquire energy from the sunlight by the
photosynthesis reaction:
ADP + P
(sunlight energy)
E Energy in the form
6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2 + E of ATP

Carbon Water Glucose Oxygen ATP

dioxide gas (carbohydrate)
This reaction is performed in the sunlight using the green pigment
chlorophyll, or pigments of other colours.
Glucose is an energy-rich carbohydrate. Except for synthesizing
glucose, incoming energy is used for resynthesizing ATP from ADP and P
(phosphate).
Phototrophs are the main producers of energy-rich compounds on a
planetary scale.
 S. Titov, General Biology; Unit “Metabolism – energy and chemical flows in living systems”
Phototrophic Organisms
Chloroplasts containing
chlorophyll in cells of a moss
Bryum capillare
Photosynthesis reaction takes place on
the sunlight using the green pigment
chlorophyll, or other specific pigments of
different colours.
Autotrophs fix carbon by taking it from
the CO2 and incorporating it in organic
substances like glucose.
Glucose is a carbohydrate with energy-
rich chemical bonds. So, part of the sunlight
energy is stored in glucose, and partially is
used to resynthesize ATP from ADP and P
(phosphate).
Phototrophs are the most important
producers of the organic substances and
energy accumulators on the planetary scale,
and are the main converters of atmospheric
carbon (CO2) to organic substances.
RuBisCO
(Ribulose-1,5-biphosphate carboxylase/oxigenase) – enzyme
involved in the dark stage of photosynthesis, necessary for
fixation of CO2 and converting atmospheric carbon to
glucose. It is the most abundant enzyme on Earth.
 S. Titov, General Biology; Unit “Metabolism – energy and chemical flows in living systems”

Adenosine tri-phosphate molecule (ATP)

Adenine
Energy-rich chemical bonds.
nitrogenous base
When they are broken, energy is released

less energy more energy

c
ribose
3 phosphate groups

c
Adenosine mono-phosphate (AMP). Basically, it’s the A ribo nucleotide.

c
Adenosine di-phosphate (ADP), 2 phosphates

c
Adenosine tri-phosphate (ATP), 3 phosphates
 S. Titov, General Biology; Unit “Metabolism – energy and chemical flows in living systems”

The ATP cycle

Energy rich state 42–50 kJ of energy per

mole of ATP in a cell

ATP
3 phosphates
Energy used
Energy from
photosynthesis, Biosynthesis Decomposition for all cellular
processes,
or
primarily by
chemical energy
proteins
from glucose
decomposition

ADP + P
2 phosphates

Energy poor state

 S. Titov, General Biology; Unit “Metabolism – energy and chemical flows in living systems”

Chemotrophs
Chemotrophs get energy by oxidizing relatively simple compounds
(chemosynthesis) from their environment.
As an example:
12H2S + 6CO2 → C6H12O6 + 6H2O + 12S
also:
Fe + S → FeS + E
4Fe + 3O2 → 2Fe2O3 + E

Chemosynthesis is performed by Chemical hand warmers can be

used as an example of such an
various groups of bacteria and archaea, exothermic reaction, which is
as well as other creatures using them as accompanied by energy release –
these small paper bags contain
symbionts. iron powder, and, when unsealed,
Chemosynthesis was the first type of start to warm up because of iron
metabolism adopted by living creatures oxidation. They can stay warm up
to 24 hours.
during the course of evolution.

Ancient chemotrophs were responsible for the formation of ores

of metals (which were oxidized and concentrated by prehistoric
archaea and bacteria).
 S. Titov, General Biology; Unit “Metabolism – energy and chemical flows in living systems”

Chemotrophs
Chemotrophs live in various habitats, but the most impressive are deep-
sea ecosystems existing completely without the sunlight.
They form around hydrothermal vents, nicknamed “black smokers”,
which erupt 400°C hot water (which don’t boil because of an immense
pressure on the sea bottom), enriched by various metals, sulfur, hydrogen
sulfide and other. Such vents occur on the sea bottom near oceanic rifts,
undersea volcanoes, faults and trenches.
Rich ecosystems form around hydrothermal vents, existing on the behalf
of chemosynthetic bacteria.
Thus, it is fundamentally possible for life to exist without the sunlight.

This fact is especially important for astrobiology, because it proves that life can
theoretically exist on some moons of planets in the Solar System (Jupiter’s moons Europa,
Callisto, Ganymede; Saturn’s moons Enceladus, Titan). These moons are covered with
water ice and can have a liquid ocean underneath it. If life exists there, it is most probably
chemotrophic.
 S. Titov, General Biology; Unit “Metabolism – energy and chemical flows in living systems”

Chemotrophs

Riftia pachyptila, or
giant tube worm

Some representatives of creatures, inhabiting «Black Smokers»

(hydrothermal vents) of Galapagos islands
 S. Titov, General Biology; Unit “Metabolism – energy and chemical flows in living systems”

Heterotrophs
Heterotrophs – organisms, capable of acquiring energy only by
decomposing complex organic substances produced by other organisms.
I.e., they extract energy from chemical bonds of organic substrates.
Heterotrophs: animals, fungi, many bacteria. By the type of their
feeding strategies, they cen be herbivores, carnivores, saprotrophs.
The most abundant chemical reaction used by heterotrophs to acquire
energy is cellular respiration, which takes part in cytoplasm and
mitochondria:
ADP + P
Energy in the form
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + E of ATP

Glucose Oxygen Carbon Water ATP

(carbohydrate) dioxide gas

Plants are also capable of cellular respiration (since they have

mitochondria as well) and decompose glucose when necessary.
 S. Titov, General Biology; Unit “Metabolism – energy and chemical flows in living systems”
Generalized simplified scheme of metabolism in a cell
(plant cell as an example)
N, P, Fe, Mg, Ca,
S, K, Cl, Na и
and other Proteins, lipids,
elements carbohydrates,
nucleic acids

ATP
ADP+P

Water Glucose Oxygen

H2 O C6H12O6 O2 Water
H2 O
Carbon dioxide
CO2 Carbon dioxide
Oxygen CO2
O2

Photosynthesis Cellular respiration

 Metabolism:

Role of food:
• source of energy
• building material (amino acids, e.g., are used to build the native
proteins of an organism).

All afore-mentioned processes of metabolism are chains

and cycles of certain chemical and energy reactions.
These reactions are well studied experimentally,
explained, and calculated.
This is why life has material nature – the way of
functioning of living organisms may be represented
entirely as a combination of physical and chemical
reactions.
 S. Titov, General Biology; Unit “Metabolism – energy and chemical flows in living systems”

Transformation of energy in food nets & chains

Autotrophs consume energy of the sun (e.g.) and transform it into the
energy of chemical bonds of organic substances. Heterotrophs get energy
by feeding on these substances, produced by autotrophs.
In an ecosystem: organisms with different types of metabolism belong
to the following groups:
❖ Producers – organisms, capable of producing complex energy-rich
compounds by themselves. From the biochemical point of view, they are
all autotrophs. For example, plants are producers in an ecosystem.
❖ Consumers – organisms, which require to decompose complex
organic substances to get energy. Basically, all consumers are
heterotrophs. Mostly they are animals (herbivores, carnivores, carrion
eaters).
❖ Reducers – organisms, decomposing dead organic matter to non-
organic substances. By the type of metabolism they are heterotrophs.
They are represented by bacteria, fungi, animals. They are various
detritivores.
Lack of reduces → accumulation of non-recycled organics → coal, oil, gas
Highly effective reducers → poor soils in tropical rainforests
 S. Titov, General Biology; Unit “Metabolism – energy and chemical flows in living systems”

Food pyramid in an ecosystem:

Reducers

substances
Nutritious
Consumers

Energy (<10%)

substances
Producers Nutritious

Mineral
Substances Mineral deposits,
sedimentary rocks
 S. Titov, General Biology; Unit “Metabolism – energy and chemical flows in living systems”

Transformation of energy in food nets & chains

10 Percent Law:
90% of energy consumed by organisms is spent on their own needs, and
only less than 10% can be stored for future (=can be converted to biomass).
Thus, not more than 10% of total energy consumed can go to a next
level in a food chain and increase its biomass.
One more consequence: if plants’ biomass in an ecosystem is =100%,
then biomass of all herbivores ≤10%,
and biomass of all carnivores ≤1%.
 S. Titov, General Biology; Unit “Metabolism – energy and chemical flows in living systems”

Transformation of energy in food nets & chains

Conclusions:
• All organism in ecosystems are bound by energy
and substance flows, and are involved in global
transformations of matter on Earth
• The sun is the main donor of energy on Earth. The
atmosphere must be transparent to sunlight.
• Plants are the main component of Earth
ecosystems.