Difference Between Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration

Background Information: Plants make sugar by using energy from sunlight to transform carbon
dioxide (CO2), a gas absorbed from the air, and water (H20) taken from the ground by roots into
glucose (C6H12O6) and oxygen (O2). This process is called photosynthesis and occurs in the
chloroplast of the plant cell. Plants take in carbon dioxide through tiny openings or pores in their
leaves called stomata. Special cells in the leaves of plants called guard cells open and close the
stomata. Cellular respiration is a process that occurs in the mitochondria of all organisms. In this
process, both plants and animals break down simple sugars into carbon dioxide and water and
release energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). The ATP is used for all the processes
that occur within a cell that need energy. Chemical reaction is a process in which one or more
substances, the reactants, are converted to one or more different substances, the products. •
Reactants are substances that start a chemical reaction. (ingredients) • Products are substances
that are produced in the reaction. (finished results)
Plants release oxygen which is a by-product of photosynthesis, and we breathe in oxygen
so that our cells can carry out cellular respiration and generate ATP.
Respiration and photosynthesis are biological reactions in the environment that
complement each other. Both are similar reactions that occur in a specific manner. In the
process of respiration, oxygen and glucose yield water and carbon dioxide, while carbon
dioxide and water yield glucose and oxygen during the process of photosynthesis.
Both cellular respiration and photosynthesis are parts of a mutually beneficial
relationship.  Photosynthesis cannot occur without cellular respiration and cellular
respiration certainly cannot occur without photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis and cellular respiration are in many respects the “reverse” of one another.
Photosynthesis is an anabolic process, whereas cellular respiration is a catabolic process.
Let us explore more differences between cellular respiration and photosynthesis

Differences between Cellular Respiration and Photosynthesis

 Cellular Respiration Photosynthesis

Occurs in all living organisms. Occurs only in phototrophs (all green plants,
algae and some bacteria).

The entire process occurs in Mitochondria. The entire process occurs in Chloroplasts.

Glucose and oxygen are the reactants of this process. Carbon dioxide, water and light energy are the
 reactants of this process.

Carbon dioxide, water, and energy (ATP) are the by- Glucose, oxygen and water are the by-products.
products.

Undergoes Catabolic Process. Undergoes Anabolic Process.

Oxygen is taken in and carbon dioxide is liberated Producing food and capturing energy.
out.

In this process, food particles are broken down to In this process, food is synthesized by capturing
release energy. energy.

It is an exergonic reaction as energy is released. It is an endothermic reaction as it requires

energy.

This process does not require sunlight since cellular This process requires sunlight since
respiration occurs all the time. photosynthesis occurs only in the presence of
sunlight.

The chemical reaction of cellular Respiration is The chemical reaction of photosynthesis is                 
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O 6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6+ 6O2

Photosynthesis occurs in

Options:
A

Chloroplast

Endoplasmic reticulum

Nucleus

D
 None of the above

Energy gained during aerobic respiration is roughly _______ times more than
anaerobic respiration

Options:
A

19

32

23
Protons accumulate on the __________ in mitochondria.

Options:
A

Intermembrane space

Outer membrane

C
 Inner membrane

None of the above

Reduction of NADP occurs in

Options:
A

Non-cyclic photophosphorylation

Oxidative photophosphorylation

Cyclic photophosphorylation

None of the above

Kranz anatomy is found in the leaves of:

Options:
A

Potato

Sugarcane
C

Mustard

None of the above

Q1 : Answer is A
Correct Answer is Chloroplast

Q2 : Answer is A
Correct Answer is 19

Q3 : Answer is A
Correct Answer is Intermembrane space

Q4 : Answer is A
Correct Answer is Non-cyclic photophosphorylation

Q5 : Answer is B
Correct Answer is Sugarcane

What is photosynthesis?
Photosynthesis is the process in which light energy is converted to
chemical energy in the form of sugars. In a process driven by light
energy, glucose molecules (or other sugars) are constructed from water
and carbon dioxide, and oxygen is released as a byproduct. The glucose
molecules provide organisms with two crucial resources: energy and
fixed—organic—carbon.
 Energy. The glucose molecules serve as fuel for cells: their chemical
energy can be harvested through processes like cellular
respiration and fermentation, which generate adenosine triphosphate
—\text{ATP}ATPstart text, A, T, P, end text, a small, energy-carrying
molecule—for the cell’s immediate energy needs.
 Fixed carbon. Carbon from carbon dioxide—inorganic carbon—can be
incorporated into organic molecules; this process is called carbon
fixation, and the carbon in organic molecules is also known as fixed
carbon. The carbon that's fixed and incorporated into sugars during
photosynthesis can be used to build other types of organic molecules
needed by cells.

In photosynthesis, solar energy is harvested and converted to chemical

energy in the form of glucose using water and carbon dioxide. Oxygen is
released as a byproduct.

The ecological importance of photosynthesis

Photosynthetic organisms, including plants, algae, and some bacteria,
play a key ecological role. They introduce chemical energy and fixed
carbon into ecosystems by using light to synthesize sugars. Since these
organisms produce their own food—that is, fix their own carbon—using
light energy, they are called photoautotrophs (literally, self-feeders that
use light).

Humans, and other organisms that can’t convert carbon dioxide to

organic compounds themselves, are called heterotrophs, meaning
different-feeders. Heterotrophs must get fixed carbon by eating other
organisms or their by-products. Animals, fungi, and many prokaryotes
and protists are heterotrophs.
[Read more about autotrophs and heterotrophs.]

Besides introducing fixed carbon and energy into ecosystems,

photosynthesis also affects the makeup of Earth’s atmosphere. Most
photosynthetic organisms generate oxygen gas as a byproduct, and the
advent of photosynthesis—over 333 billion years ago, in bacteria
resembling modern cyanobacteria—forever changed life on
Earth^11start superscript, 1, end superscript. These bacteria gradually
released oxygen into Earth’s oxygen-poor atmosphere, and the increase
in oxygen concentration is thought to have influenced the evolution of
aerobic life forms—organisms that use oxygen for cellular respiration. If
it hadn’t been for those ancient photosynthesizers, we, like many other
species, wouldn't be here today!

Photosynthetic organisms also remove large quantities of carbon dioxide

from the atmosphere and use the carbon atoms to build organic
molecules. Without Earth’s abundance of plants and algae to continually
suck up carbon dioxide, the gas would build up in the atmosphere.
Although photosynthetic organisms remove some of the carbon dioxide
produced by human activities, rising atmospheric levels are trapping
heat and causing the climate to change. Many scientists believe that
preserving forests and other expanses of vegetation is increasingly
important to combat this rise in carbon dioxide levels.

Leaves are sites of photosynthesis

Plants are the most common autotrophs in terrestrial—land—
ecosystems. All green plant tissues can photosynthesize, but in most
plants, but the majority of photosynthesis usually takes place in the
leaves. The cells in a middle layer of leaf tissue called the mesophyll are
the primary site of photosynthesis.

Small pores called stomata—singular, stoma—are found on the surface

of leaves in most plants, and they let carbon dioxide diffuse into the
mesophyll layer and oxygen diffuse out.
A diagram showing a leaf at increasing magnifications. Magnification 1:
The entire leaf Magnification 2: Mesophyll tissue within the leaf
Magnification 3: A single mesophyll cell Magnification 4: A chloroplast
within the mesophyll cell Magnification 5: Stacks of thylakoids—grana—
and the stroma within a chloroplast
Image credit: modified from "Overview of photosynthesis: Figure 6" by OpenStax College, Concepts of
Biology, CC BY 3.0

Each mesophyll cell contains organelles called chloroplasts, which are

specialized to carry out the reactions of photosynthesis. Within each
 chloroplast, disc-like structures called thylakoids are arranged in piles
like stacks of pancakes that are known as grana—singular, granum. The
membrane of each thylakoid contains green-colored pigments
called chlorophylls that absorb light. The fluid-filled space around the
grana is called the stroma, and the space inside the thylakoid discs is
known as the thylakoid space. Different chemical reactions occur in the
different parts of the chloroplast.

The light-dependent reactions and the Calvin

cycle
Photosynthesis in the leaves of plants involves many steps, but it can be
divided into two stages: the light-dependent reactions and the Calvin
cycle.

 The light-dependent reactions take place in the thylakoid membrane

and require a continuous supply of light energy. Chlorophylls absorb this
light energy, which is converted into chemical energy through the
formation of two compounds, \text{ATP}ATPstart text, A, T, P, end text—
an energy storage molecule—and \text{NADPH}NADPHstart text, N, A,
D, P, H, end text—a reduced (electron-bearing) electron carrier. In this
process, water molecules are also converted to oxygen gas—the oxygen
we breathe!
 The Calvin cycle, also called the light-independent reactions, takes
place in the stroma and does not directly require light. Instead, the Calvin
cycle uses \text{ATP}ATPstart text, A, T, P, end text and \
text{NADPH}NADPHstart text, N, A, D, P, H, end text from the light-
dependent reactions to fix carbon dioxide and produce three-carbon
sugars—glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate, or G3P, molecules—which join up
to form glucose.

Schematic of the light-dependent reactions and Calvin cycle and how

they're connected.

The light-dependent reactions take place in the thylakoid membrane.

They require light, and their net effect is to convert water molecules into
oxygen, while producing ATP molecules—from ADP and Pi—and NADPH
molecules—via reduction of NADP+.
 ATP and NADPH are produced on the stroma side of the thylakoid
membrane, where they can be used by the Calvin cycle.

The Calvin cycle takes place in the stroma and uses the ATP and NADPH
from the light-dependent reactions to fix carbon dioxide, producing
three-carbon sugars—glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate, or G3P, molecules.

The Calvin cycle converts ATP to ADP and Pi, and it converts NADPH to
NADP+. The ADP, Pi, and NADP+ can be reused as substrates in the light
reactions.
Image credit: modified from "Overview of photosynthesis: Figure 6" by OpenStax College, Biology, CC BY 3.0

Overall, the light-dependent reactions capture light energy and store it

temporarily in the chemical forms of \text{ATP}ATPstart text, A, T, P,
end text and \text{NADPH}NADPHstart text, N, A, D, P, H, end text.
There, \text{ATP}ATPstart text, A, T, P, end text is broken down to
release energy, and \text{NADPH}NADPHstart text, N, A, D, P, H, end
text donates its electrons to convert carbon dioxide molecules into
sugars. In the end, the energy that started out as light winds up trapped
in the bonds of the sugars.

Photosynthesis vs. cellular respiration

At the level of the overall reactions, photosynthesis and cellular
respiration are near-opposite processes. They differ only in the form of
energy absorbed or released, as shown in the diagram below.
 On a simplified level, photosynthesis and cellular respiration are
opposite reactions of each other. In photosynthesis, solar energy is
harvested as chemical energy in a process that converts water and
carbon dioxide to glucose. Oxygen is released as a byproduct. In cellular
respiration, oxygen is used to break down glucose, releasing chemical
energy and heat in the process. Carbon dioxide and water are products of
this reaction.

At the level of individual steps, photosynthesis isn't just cellular

respiration run in reverse. Instead, as we'll see the rest of this section,
photosynthesis takes place in its own unique series of steps. However,
there are some notable similarities between photosynthesis and cellular
respiration.

For instance, photosynthesis and cellular respiration both involve a

series of redox reactions (reactions involving electron transfers). In
cellular respiration, electrons flow from glucose to oxygen, forming
water and releasing energy. In photosynthesis, they go in the opposite
direction, starting in water and winding up in glucose—an energy-
requiring process powered by light. Like cellular respiration,
photosynthesis also uses an electron transport chain to make a \
text{H}^+H+start text, H, end text, start superscript, plus, end
superscript concentration gradient, which drives \text{ATP}ATPstart
text, A, T, P, end text synthesis by chemiosmosis.

If those things don't sound familiar, though, don't worry! You don't need
to know cellular respiration to understand photosynthesis. Just keep
reading and watching, and you'll learn all the ins and outs of this life-
sustaining process.

What is cellular respiration? 

Humans, like other animals, are heterotrophs. We can’t make our own food via
photosynthesis, so we have to eat other organisms to gain glucose, which powers
the process of cellular respiration in our bodies. Cellular respiration is the
process that breaks down glucose and produces ATP (a form of stored energy
that cells use to carry out essential processes). 

Here is the basic chemical formula for cellular respiration:

C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + (approximately) 38 ATP

In organisms that carry out aerobic cellular respiration—that is, cellular

respiration that uses oxygen—there are four main steps involved in breaking
down glucose to produce ATP: glycolysis, pyruvate oxidation, the citric acid cycle
(Krebs cycle), and oxidative phosphorylation. We have a more detailed blog post
dedicated to cellular respiration, but we’ll also quickly go over each step of
aerobic cellular respiration in the following sections.

1. Glycolysis
The first phase of cellular respiration, glycolysis, is the initial breakdown of
glucose into pyruvate—one molecule of glucose produces two molecules of
pyruvate. On its own, glycolysis doesn’t generate very much ATP. In fact, two ATP
molecules are required to begin glycolysis in the first place. What’s really
important about glycolysis in aerobic respiration is that it provides the material
needed for the next step of cellular respiration: the citric acid cycle, also known
as the Krebs cycle.

Cellular respiration: glycolysis

Goal Break down glucose into pyruvic acid (pyruvate)

Location Cytoplasm of cell

Input C6H12O6, ATP

Output ATP, Pyruvate (C3H4O3), NADH

The results of glycolysis: 4 ATP, 2 pyruvate molecules, and 2 NADH. Image from Visible Biology.
Note: Since glycolysis doesn’t require oxygen, it’s also part of anaerobic cellular
respiration. You can read more about metabolism in the absence of oxygen in this
chapter from OpenStax Biology (2e). 

Glycolysis takes place in the cytoplasm of animal and plant cells, whereas the
subsequent steps of cellular respiration take place in the mitochondria.

The
cytoplasm contains cytosol, the jelly-like substance filling the inside of the cell. Image from Visible Biology.

2. Pyruvate oxidation
Before the citric acid cycle can begin in earnest, the pyruvate molecules produced
during glycolysis lose their carboxyl groups and combine with coenzyme A to
form acetyl-CoA. The carbon molecules that are removed during this process are
released as carbon dioxide.

3. Citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle)

The citric acid cycle takes place twice per molecule of glucose that was broken
down in the previous step—one “turn” of the citric acid cycle occurs for each
molecule of acetyl-CoA.

During each of these two turns, the molecule of acetyl-CoA goes through a series
of chemical reactions. The energy from these reactions (in the form of electrons)
is captured in the “energy carrier” molecules NADH and FADH 2. Two more
molecules of carbon dioxide and another molecule of ATP are also produced.

Cellular respiration: citric acid cycle

Capture energy from chemical reactions, produce a little bit of

Goal
ATP 

Location Mitochondria - matrix

Input 2 Acetyl-CoA

Output ATP, NADH & FADH2 (energy carriers), CO2 (waste product)

 
 The results of the citric acid cycle: 2 ATP, 6 NADH, 2 FADH 2, and 4 CO2 (waste product). Image from Visible Biology.

4. Oxidative phosphorylation
Oxidative phosphorylation, which includes the electron transport chain and
chemiosmosis, is the part of aerobic cellular respiration that produces most of
the ATP. The electron transport chain uses high-energy electrons from
FADH2 and NADH to pump hydrogen ions (H+) across the inner membrane of the
mitochondrion, into the outer compartment. 
 Mitochondria. The “membrane” label in this image refers to the outer membrane. The inner membrane is the yellow
structure surrounding the matrix. Check out more AR models on the Biology Learn Site.

As a result of the electron transport chain, there are more positively charged ions
on one side of the membrane than the other. As these ions travel back across the
membrane to restore equilibrium, they pass through (and “power”) an enzyme
called ATP synthase, which turns molecules of ADP into ATP by adding a third
phosphate group. 

Cellular respiration: oxidative phosphorylation

Use stored energy from the citric acid cycle to power

Goal
ATP synthase and generate ATP
 Location Mitochondria - inner membrane

Electrons
Input
Oxygen—it is the final acceptor for “spent” electrons

Output Lots of ATP, H2O (waste product)

The results of oxidative phosphorylation. So much ATP, and also some water (waste product)! Image from Visible Biology.

How are photosynthesis and cellular

respiration connected? 
When I think about the connections between photosynthesis and cellular
respiration, I can’t help but start singing “Circle of Life” from The Lion King in my
head. Why? Because the products of photosynthesis are required for cellular
respiration, and the products of cellular respiration can be used to power
photosynthesis.

Putting the chemical formulas for these processes side-by-side shows this quite
clearly:

Photosynthesis: 6CO2 + 6H2O + Sunlight → C6H12O6 + 6O2

Cellular Respiration: C6H12O2 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + (approximately) 38* ATP

*The number of ATP molecules produced can vary. 38 ATP is the theoretical
maximum yield for the metabolism of one molecule of glucose.

The food that plants make (glucose) and the waste product from producing that
food (O2) give animals like us the materials we need to carry out aerobic cellular
respiration. We breathe in the oxygen from the air and either eat plants or other
animals—either way, plants and their delicious glucose are at the root of
our food web. In return, humans and other organisms that carry out aerobic
respiration put the waste products from this process (mainly CO 2) back into the
atmosphere. 

Plants carry out both photosynthesis and cellular respiration. They make their
own food, and then break down those glucose molecules later, generating ATP to
power their cellular processes. 

Fun fact! Photosynthesis by microorganisms called cyanobacteria is what put

oxygen into the Earth’s atmosphere in the first place. These organisms first
produced oxygen between 2.7 and 2.8 billion years ago, and oxygen became a
significant portion of the atmosphere by around 2.45 billion years ago. This
paved the way for oxygen-breathing animals like us to evolve later.

Before we go, here’s a handy chart comparing photosynthesis and aerobic

cellular respiration. Happy studying! 

  Photosynthesis Cellular Respiration (Aerobic)

Chemical C6H12O2 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O +

6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2
equation (approximately) 38 ATP

Input Carbon dioxide, water, sunlight Glucose, Oxygen

Steps 1. Light-dependent reactions 1. Glycolysis

 2. Pyruvate oxidation
2. Light-independent reactions (Calvin
3. Citric acid cycle
cycle)
4. Oxidative phosphorylation

Output Glucose, oxygen ATP, carbon dioxide, water

Associated
Chloroplasts Mitochondria
organelle

Use light, water, and carbon dioxide Use glucose to make a form of
Function for
to create food for the organism in the energy the organism can use in
the organism
form of sugar (glucose) cellular processes (ATP)

Transpiration in Plants
Like all living organism, plants also require an excretory system to discharge excess water from their
body. This process of elimination of excess water from the plant body is known as transpiration. It is
generally the evaporation of water from the surface of the leaves.
During the process of transpiration, water molecules in the plant tissues are removed from the aerial
parts of the plants. Only a small amount of water absorbed by the plants is utilised in growth and
development. The rest is eliminated in the form of transpiration.
 Transpiration in Plants

Types of Transpiration
There are three different types of transpiration in plants:

Stomatal Transpiration
It is the evaporation of water from the stomata of the plants. Most of the water from the plants is
transpired this way. The water near the surface of the leaves changes into vapour and evaporates when
the stomata are open.

Lenticular Transpiration
Lenticels are minute openings in the bark of branches and twigs. Evaporation of water from the lenticels
of the plants is known as lenticular transpiration.
Lenticels are not present in all the plants. A minimal amount of water is lost through lenticels.

Cuticular Transpiration
It is the evaporation of water from the cuticle of the plants. The cuticle is a waxy covering on the surface
of the leaves of the plants. About 5-10% of the water from the leaves is lost through cuticular
transpiration. During dry conditions when the stomata are closed, more water is transpired through the
cuticles.
Also Read: Guttation

Factors Affecting Transpiration in Plants

Different factors affecting the rate of transpiration are:

Cellular Factors
The cellular factors affecting the rate of transpiration are:

1. The orientation of leaf,

2. The water status of the plant,
3. Structural Peculiarities of the leaf,
4. Total number and distribution of stomata in a leaf.

Environmental Factors
The environmental factors affecting the rate of transpiration are:

1. Light,
2. Humidity,
3. Temperature,
4. Atmospheric pressure,
5. Wind speed or velocity.

Relative Humidity
The amount of water vapour present in the air at a particular time and temperature is expressed as a
percentage of the amount required for saturation at the same temperature. The rate of transpiration is
inversely proportional to relative humidity. More the relative humidity less is the transpirate rate.

Temperature
A high temperature lowers the relative humidity and opens the stomata even in darkness. As a result,
the rate of transpiration increases.

Light
The stomata open during the day and close in the dark. Presence of light is directly proportional to the
rate of transpiration.

Air
If the air is still, the transpiration rate is low. This is because the water vapour accumulates around the
transpiring organs and reduce the diffusion pressure deficit of the air.
If the air is moving, the saturated air around the leaves is removed and the transpiration rate increases.

Water Availability
The transpiration rate is directly proportional to the absorption of water by the roots from the soil. A
decrease in water absorption causes the closure of stomata and wilting, thereby reducing the rate of
transpiration.
Surface Area of the Leaves
A leaf having more surface area will show more transpiration rate than the leaf with a lesser surface
area.
Also Read: Difference between Transpiration and Guttation

Ascent of Saps
When water evaporates through the leaves, a pull is created through the xylem, and water moves back
to the leaves. This is known as the transpiration pull.
The ascent of sap that is driven by transpiration depends on the following properties of water:

 Cohesion – This is the mutual attraction between molecules of water.

 Adhesion – The attraction of water molecules towards polar surfaces.
 Surface tension – The molecules of water are more attracted to each other in the liquid phase
than in the gas phase.

Opening and Closing of Stomata

Stomata consist of a pair of guard cells with an aperture in between. It remains open during the daytime
and is closed at night. The reason for the opening and closing of this structure is the turgidity of guard
cells.
The interior wall of the guard cells present towards the aperture is dense and flexible. The stomata open
when the turgidity of the guard cells increases. The exterior walls bulge out, and the interior walls form
a crescent shape.
The orientation of the microfibrils in the guard cells also plays an important role in the opening of the
stomata. The radial orientation of the microfibrils makes it easier for the stomata to open. The stomata
close when the turgidity of the guard cells decreases due to the water loss and the interior walls form a
crescent shape retrieve their original shape.
In dicots, the lower side of leaves have more stomata while in monocots, both the sides have an equal
number of stomata.
Also refer: Photosynthesis

Significance of Transpiration in Plants

The significance of transpiration is explained below:
 1.  Transpiration helps in the conduction of water and minerals to different parts of the plants.
2. Due to the continuous elimination of water from the plant body, there is a balance of water
maintained within the plant.
3.  It maintains osmosis and keeps the cells rigid.
4.  A suction force is created by transpiration that helps in the upward movement of water in the
plants.
5. Certain hydrophilic salts are accumulated on the surface of the leaves, which keeps the leaves
moist.
6. It maintains the turgidity of the cells and helps in cell division.
7. Optimum transpiration helps in the proper growth of the plants.
8. The cooling effect of a tree is due to the evaporation of water from its leaves.

In addition to the significance, transpiration has a few drawbacks:

 Transpiration slows down if the transpired water is not compensated by absorption from the
soil.
 A lot of energy is released during transpiration.
 Plenty of unnecessary water is absorbed by the plants during the process.

Conclusion
Transpiration in plants is a crucial process. In the absence of transpiration, excess water will get
accumulated in the plant cells, and the cells will eventually burst. More than 10% of the earth’s
moisture is from transpiration. It is known to be a part of the water cycle.
Also Read: Transportation in Plants
To know more about transpiration in plants, its definition, types, process, factors affecting transpiration
rate and other related topics, keep visiting BYJU’S Biology or download BYJU’S app for further reference.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is transpiration?
Transpiration is the biological process of removal of excess water from the aerial parts of the plants.

What are the different types of transpiration in plants?

There are the following different types of transpiration in plants:

 Stomatal transpiration
 Lenticular transpiration
 Cuticular transpiration
How does the opening and closing of stomata regulate the
transpiration process?
Stomata are minute pores present on the lower side of the leaves that help in the exchange of gases and
water vapour. When the stomatal pores open the rate of transpiration increases, and when the pores are
closed, the loss of water is reduced.

How is transpiration important to the plants?

The process of transpiration keeps the cell turgid, cools the surface of the leaves, and helps in the
movement of minerals from the soil to different parts of the plant.

What are the drawbacks of transpiration?

Transpiration results in water scarcity that can damage the plants due to desiccation. It also causes
wilting of the leaves and results in stunted growth of the plants.

Evaporation of water from the lenticels of the plants is known as

Options:
A

Cuticular Transpiration

Stomatal Transpiration

Lenticular Transpiration

All of these
Evaporation of water from the stomata of the plants is known as

Options:
A
 Cuticular Transpiration

Stomatal Transpiration

Lenticular Transpiration

All of thes

Evaporation of water from the cuticle of the plants is known as

Options:
A

Cuticular Transpiration

Stomatal Transpiration

Lenticular Transpiration

All o
Which of these are the factrors affecting the rate of transpiration
Options:
A

Cellular Factors

Environmental Factors

Surface Area of the Leaves

All of t
Which of the following are the drawbacks of transpiration?

Options:
A

Stunted growth

Wilting of the leaves

Scarcity of water

All of these
Q1 : Answer is C
Correct Answer is Lenticular Transpiration

Q2 : Answer is B
Correct Answer is Stomatal Transpiration

Q3 : Answer is A
Correct Answer is Cuticular Transpiration

Q4 : Answer is D
Correct Answer is All of these

Q5 : Answer is D
Correct Answer is All of these

Definition of Transpiration
A plant does not use most of the water that it absorbs. About 97-99% of the
water is lost through transpiration. Transpiration is defined as the
physiological loss of water in the form of water vapor, mainly from the
stomata in leaves, but also through evaporation from the surfaces of leaves,
flowers, and stems.

There are three main types of transpiration, based on where the process
occurs:

Stomatal transpiration: Stomata make up only 3% of the leaf surface area,

but most water loss happens through these openings due to the necessities
of photosynthesis. Stomata are open to let carbon dioxide in for
photosynthesis; however, this also causes the water in the mesophyll tissue
in leaves to evaporate if the air outside is drier due to factors like high
temperature.
Cuticular transpiration: The leaf surface has a waxy cuticle through which
water vapor can evaporate. Water loss here is lower compared to stomatal
transpiration, except when the stomata are closed.
Lenticular transpiration:  Lenticels, small openings in some plants’ bark,
are another area where some water loss can be seen. This type of
transpiration sees the lowest amounts of water loss.

What Factors Affect Transpiration Rate?

Several external and internal factors interact to regulate the rate of
transpiration at the plant level. 

Solar radiation is the most important factor, as stomata are open in only
daylight, and this is when transpiration can occur.
The Cohesion-Tension theory, which explains how transpiration moves
water in the plants, shows how the external and internal plant atmosphere
are connected.

Loss of water vapor at the leaves creates negative water pressure or

potential at the leaf surface. Water potential describes the tendency of
water to move from one place to another. The water potential is lower in
the leaves than in the stem, which is lower than the water potential in the
roots. Since water moves from an area of high to lower water potential,
water is drawn up from the roots to the leaves; see Figure 1.

In addition, the adhesion of water molecules to the xylem walls and

cohesion/attraction between water molecules pull water up to the leaves in
tall trees.

Ultimately, for transpiration to occur, the water vapor pressure deficit of

the surrounding air must be lower than the water potential of the leaves.
Transpiration rates are higher when the relative humidity of air is low,
which can occur due to windy conditions or when the temperatures are
high. At higher relative humidity, there is less transpiration.

Carbon dioxide levels in the air that control the stomata opening will also
influence transpiration rates.

In addition, various biochemical and morphological features of plants will

also affect transpiration rate:

 Orientation of leaves

 Leaf area and shape

 Leaf surface characteristics like thick cuticle and presence
of hair
  Root-shoot ratio

 Leaf and root hormones

 Age of the plant

In ecosystems, other factors, such as species composition and density of

plants, will also play a role in determining largescale transpiration rates.
There are two important aspects to transpiration: the movement of water
through the plant to the leaves and the movement out of the leaves into the
atmosphere. These two aspects are crucial on the plant and global scales.

Why is Transpiration Important?

The rate at which water moves through the plants due to transpiration
plays an important role in maintaining plant water balance. This has many
benefits for plants.

1. Uptake of Nutrients, is one of the main benefits of the Cohesion-Tension

mechanism, triggered by transpiration, which pulls water out of the soil
into the roots. This moves water and other nutrients absorbed by roots to
the shoots and other parts of the plant. Hence, transpiration is very
important for the survival and productivity of plants. In agriculture, the
rate of transpiration determines yields.
2. Plant survival due to heat and drought stress will depend on
transpiration rate, as too much water loss can leave the plants dehydrated.
Since water is a limiting factor in many cases, much of crop research is
focused on trying to improve plant water use to increase productivity in
combination with photosynthesis. Transpiration and water use efficiency
are intricately connected with photosynthesis through stomata.
Between the three types of photosynthesis, water use efficiency is the least
in C3 plants, better in C4 plants, and best in CAM plants. CAM, or
crassulacean acid metabolism, is found in plants in arid areas that have
developed adaptations to reduce transpiration through leaves. However,
there is a wide range of water use efficiency in each type based on species.
3. Through evaporative cooling, plant transpiration brings down the
temperature of leaves, the largest plant organ.
4. Water balance in plants is also maintained by transpiration. Plants
absorb a lot of water and transpiration is a means by which excess water is
removed. Much of the water uptake is used for photosynthesis, cell
expansion, and growth, but a single tree that is 20 meters high can take up
between 10 liters to 200 liters daily, depending on its species. Euperua
purpurea, an Amazonian overstory tree, absorbs 1,180 kg day-1, and even a
simple corn plant can absorb 200 liters in the summer.
5. Turgor pressure keeps the plant cells full and turgid, due to the
transpiration stream of water from roots to shoots. This has many uses for
plants:
 It maintains plant form and structure. Without water,
plants would become flaccid and wilt.

 Nastic movements in plants in response to stimuli are

possible due to turgor pressure.

 Turgor pressure is necessary for many cell functions. It

causes stomata to open and let in carbon dioxide for
photosynthesis and helps in apical growth through cell
expansion.

Global Role of Transpiration

Transpiration is an important component of the global water cycle. The
amount of water that is lost by plants is great enough to influence the
atmosphere.
Transpiration along with evaporation is called evapotranspiration. In the
USA, it was estimated that nearly 67% of rainfall returns to the atmosphere
in the form of evapotranspiration, while 29% enters the oceans as runoff,
2% makes up groundwater, and 2% is used by people; see Figure 2.  

The contribution of transpiration to evapotranspiration is a hotly debated

topic. Various studies estimate that transpiration from land surfaces
accounts for 61-75% of evapotranspiration. On a global scale, when
evaporation from the oceans, lakes, wetlands, and soil is also considered,
transpiration still accounts for 10-15% of the entire global evaporation.
Transpiration varies based on vegetation, with the maximum amount
coming from rainforests (70%) and the minimum coming from steppe and
desert (51%).

Differences in transpiration can be attributed to geographic location,

season, time of day, and cloud cover. Anthropogenic activities resulting in
increased carbon dioxide levels, land use, deforestation, and climate change
also alter the transpiration rate.

Higher temperatures due to climate change are speeding up

evapotranspiration. This increases the amount of water vapor in the
atmosphere, leading to more intense and frequent rains in some places,
especially in coastal areas. Colder regions are experiencing warmer and
longer growing periods, which also produces higher levels of transpiration.
Applications of Transpiration
With added pressure from climate change, measuring transpiration is
becoming an important part of many disciplines, including the following:

 Plant breeding for heat- and drought-proofing plants

 Increasing crop productivity without increasing irrigation

 Wood production through silviculture

 Carbon sequestration studies

 Carbon accounting

 Hydrological study and practice

 Meteorology study and practice

 Ecosystem management

 Watershed management

 Green roofing

Measuring Transpiration
The increased role that transpiration plays requires the use of devices that
can give precise, rapid results. To allow for in situ measurements, tools also
have to be portable and small. The CI-340 Handheld Photosynthesis
System, manufactured by CID-BioScience Inc., combines all of these
qualities. Tools like Leaf Area Meters and Plant Canopy Imagers are also
needed to measure factors that influence transpiration. With the help of
this new technology, it is possible to utilize plant-scale transpiration
measurements to aid global needs.
—

Vijayalaxmi Kinhal
Science Writer, CID Bio-Science
Ph.D. Ecology and Environmental Science, B.Sc Agriculture
Sources
Biologydictionary.net Editors. (2017, January 31). Transpiration. Retrieved
from https://biologydictionary.net/transpiration/
Donev, J.M.K.C., et al. (2016). Energy Education – Transpiration [Online].
Available: https://energyeducation.ca/encyclopedia/Transpiration.
[Accessed: September 8, 2021].
Kupers, s. (2020). The Soil Moisture Niche in a Moist Tropical Forest – A
Demographic Approach. Ph.D. Thesis. Retrieved
from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/339133813_The_Soil_Moi
sture_Niche_in_a_Moist_Tropical_Forest_-_A_Demographic_Approach
Liu, Y., Kumar, M., Katul, G.G. et al. Plant hydraulics accentuates the effect of
atmospheric moisture stress on transpiration. Nat. Clim. Chang. 10, 691–
695 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-020-0781-5
McElrone, A. J., Choat, B., Gambetta, G. A. & Brodersen, C. R. (2013) Water
Uptake and Transport in Vascular Plants. Nature Education Knowledge
4(5):6
Pallardy, S.G. (2008). CHAPTER 12 – Transpiration and Plant Water
Balance. In
Eds Pallardy, S.G. Physiology of Woody Plants (Third Edition). Academic
Press, 325-366,
ISBN 9780120887651. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-012088765-
1.50013-0.
Schlesinger, W., & Jasechko, S. (2014). Transpiration in the global water
cycle. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, 189, 115-117.
Partitioning of Assimilate in
Plants | Crop Plants | Botany
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In this article we will discuss how assimilate moves in plants and how it is partitioned among
different organs of the plant.

Partitioning of assimilate is generally to the sinks closest to the source. For example, upper
leaves export principally to the shoot apex, lower leaves to roots, and middle leaves to both.
Since phloem sieve connections are on one side of the stem, the leaves on one side may be more
efficient at exporting assimilate to sinks on the same side.

This has been shown for many crops; for example, the upper, expanding leaves of soybean will
import more assimilate from the second leaf below them, which is on the same side of the stem,
than from the closest leaf, which is on the other side of the stem. Cross-linking of sieve tube
elements occurs in most species, but some seem more efficient than others. Grasses have
extensive cross-linking at nodes, which essentially eliminates a preferred route by assimilate
from any leaf to any particular sink.

Sink-Source Relationships and Partitioning:

The movement of assimilate from source to sink is currently believed to occur something like
the following. The photosynthetic source cell produces the sugars, which can move
symplastically to the sieve tubes. Phloem loading increases the sugar concentration of sieve
tubes above that of the apoplast.

At the sink, carbohydrates are being absorbed and either actively partitioned into cell
constituents (e.g., starches) or changed to other carbohydrates that have little effect on
hydrostatic pressure of the phloem. Phloem unloading lowers the concentration of sugars in
sieve tubes. The buildup of sugars at the source and the removal of sugars at the sink establish
a hydrostatic pressure gradient, which moves water and sugars from sources to sinks.

Where the limitations for movement are assimilate from sources to sinks? According to the
mass flow hypothesis, anything increasing photosynthesis increases hydrostatic pressure and
translocation rate. However, this is true only if sinks have the ability to utilize more assimilate.
If they are unable to utilize the increased production there would be a steady buildup of sugars
in the system, causing a feedback inhibition resulting in reduced photosynthesis.

Presumably, photosynthetic rate would be reduced to the rate at which sinks could accept
assimilate. For leaf photosynthesis to be at maximum potential rates, sinks must be able to
utilize all the assimilation produced. Under these conditions partitioning would be controlled
by sink strength, that is, sink availability and the rates at which available sinks can utilize
assimilate.

Factors that control sink strength also control the partitioning in crop plants. The effect of
hormones on enzymatic activity and the elasticity of sink cells can have a dramatic effect on
partitioning. Indoleacetic acid (IAA), cytokines, ethylene, and gibberellic acid, when applied to
cut stem surfaces, causes assimilate to accumulate in the region of application.

In bean seedlings, the main control over the distribution of sucrose between root and shoot
sinks can be attributed to auxin and cytokinin concentrations in various sinks. Hormonal
influences on initiation, development, and abortion of flowers and seeds have a significant
effect on the source-sink relationships in crops.

Although there is some evidence that hormones may have a direct effect on translocation rates,
most results show an indirect influence through affecting sink demand.

Assimilate Partitioning during the Vegetative Phase:

Leaves and other green tissues are the original sources of assimilate. Some remains in the
green tissue for cell maintenance and, if translocation is slow, can be converted to starch or
some other form of storage. The rest is exported (translocated) to vegetative sinks, which are
composed of growth, maintenance and storage functions.

During vegetative growth, roots, stems, and leaves are competitive sinks for assimilate. The
proportions of assimilate partitioned to these three organs can influence plant growth and
productivity.

The investment of assimilate into greater leaf area development results in greater light
interception. However, the leaves also require water and nutrients, so investment in root
growth is necessary. Some crop plants, such as most grasses, have essentially no stem growth
during vegetative development and favor partitioning to leaves and roots.

Some meristems are in more favorable positions to intercept assimilate. For example, the
intercalary meristems of leaves are in a better position to intercept translocated assimilate
than are the peripheral root and shoot meristems.

Young developing leaves need imported assimilate to provide the energy and carbon skeletons
for growth and development until they produce enough assimilate to handle their own
requirements.

Thrower (1962) and Webb and Gorham (1964) have shown that the leaves of soybean and
squash are largely self-sufficient when 50% of their final area is developed. After full expansion
and under good environmental conditions for photosynthesis, leaves may export 60 to 80% of
their assimilate to other areas of the plant.

As the leaf gets older and begins senescence, it may fail to support its own energy requirements
because of age or shading or both. Under these conditions the leaf does not export or import
assimilates. Instead, cell maintenance requirements (respiration) are often greatly reduced,
which allows the leaf merely to survive. Before death, many of the inorganic and organic
compounds in the leaf are remobilized and translocated to other parts of the plant.

The early growth of branches and tillers requires importing assimilate from the main stem or
other branches until they become autotrophic. In oats, this usually occurs between the two-
and four-leaf stages. Whether a branch or tiller becomes completely independent of the rest of
the plant is variable among species.

In timothy, the tillers behave as separate units once they become autotrophic. Little interaction
between timothy tillers occurs even under stress conditions, and roots are supplied only by the
tillers to which they are attached.

When under stress the autotrophic tillers of some species, such as ryegrass and oats, will again
start transporting assimilate from the main culm. How partitioning of assimilate among tillers
affects total yield is influenced by how much the additional leaf area of the tiller contributes to
the total dry weight of the plant and how much the tiller contributes to harvestable yield; for
example, tillers of maize do not usually produce grain.
Assimilate Partitioning during the Reproductive Phase:
Reproductive growth is often the primary part of the plant harvested for yield. Crops, whose
flowers, fruits, and seeds (and their products) are the economic yield, have been selected over
time to partition large amounts of their total dry matter into reproductive parts. In such plants
a large photosynthetic surface and supporting structure are required prior to fruiting.

After flowering the reproductive sink becomes extremely strong, which limits the assimilate
partitioned for additional leaf, stem, and root growth. In determinate species, leaf and stem
growth cease at flowering, while indeterminate species may have vegetative and reproductive
growth occurring simultaneously. Thus indeterminate species are variable in the relative
strength of their vegetative and reproductive sinks. If there is much vegetative growth during
reproductive development, reproductive yield may be reduced.

In determinate grain crops early growth is vegetative, allowing the plant to intercept more light
energy for photosynthesis as it increases in size and allowing for adequate water and nutrient
absorption to support leaf growth. The number of leaves is established at the initiation of
inflorescence and is affected by temperature and photoperiod. Shortly after seed initiation,
seeds become the dominant sink of annual plants. Therefore, during seed filling, the major part
of assimilate, both current and stored, is used for increasing seed weight.

Harvest Index:
Two useful terms used to describe partitioning of dry matter by the plant are biological yield
and economic yield. The term biological yield was proposed by Nichiporovich (1960) to
represent the total dry matter accumulation of a plant’s system. Economic yield and
agricultural yield have been used to refer to the volume or weight of those plant organs that
constitute the product of economic or agricultural value.

The proportion of biological yield represented by economic yield has been called the harvest
index, the coefficient of effectiveness, or the migration-coefficient. All these terms characterize
the movement of dry matter to the harvested part of the plant.
The harvest index, the most widely used term, is defined as –
Harvest index = economic yield/biological yield × 100 biological yield.

(It must be remembered that the biological yield total often does not include root weights
because of the difficulty of obtaining those values.)

Crop yield can be increased either by increasing the total dry matter produced in the field or by
increasing the proportion of economic yield (the harvest index) or both. There is potential for
increasing yields by both methods. In oats a large genetic population showed variability in both
biological yield and harvest index.

Oat lines with high biological yield and a harvest index of 40 to 50% showed the highest grain
yield. Crosbie and Mock (1981) should that increases in both biological yield and harvest index
were responsible for increased grain yield of three maize populations.

In some grain crops, the increase in seed yield has been primarily due to increases in harvest
index. In other words, the plants are not producing any more total dry matter but are rather
partitioning more of their dry matter into seed yield. Donald and Hamblin (1976) reported that
increased grain yields in small grains were primarily due to increases in the harvest index.
Research on peanuts showed the same phenomenon.

‘Dixie Runner,’ developed in 1943, had a harvest index of 23 and a biological yield of 10.8 Mg
(metric ton)/ha. In 1952, ‘Early Runner’ showed a 50% increase in seed yield over ‘Dixie
Runner,’ primarily due to an increased harvest index of 36. In 1969, ‘Florunner’ showed a 20%
increase in seed yield over ‘Early Runner,’ due to a harvest index of 41; and in 1977 ‘Early
Bunch’ was introduced with a 10% increase in seed yield over ‘Florunner,’ due to a harvest
index of about 51.

Yet the total dry matter yields of all these varieties are essentially the same. The question now
for peanut breeders is whether they should select for plants with a harvest index even higher
than 51, if possible, or instead breed for plants that will yield more dry matter and still have a
harvest index of 51. Obviously, there must be a limit to the amount of total dry matter that can
efficiently be converted to seeds.

Yield Components:
Grain yield is a product of a number of sub-fractions called yield components and can be
expressed as:
Y = NrNgWg
Where Y = grain yield, Nr = the number of reproductive units (e.g., heads, ears, panicles) per
unit of ground area, Ng = the number of grains per reproductive unit, and Wg = the average
weight per grain.
Yield components are affected by management, genotype, and environment, which often help
explain why a reduction in yield occurred.

The genotype can influence emergence capabilities and sets the potential for tillering, flower
number, number of flowers that develop into grain, amount of assimilate produced, and
assimilate partitioning.
The environment affects the ability of the plant to express its genetic potential. Managerial
factors include the number of seeds planted and the ability of the crop manager to produce a
growth environment favoring maximum yield. Water, nutrients, temperature, light, and other
environmental factors at levels other than optimum can reduce one or more yield components.

Remobilization:
Once produced, assimilate is transported to many areas in the plant. It can be transformed into
many compounds, some of the structural compounds, such as cellulose and hemicellulose that
provide for the physical structure of the plant and usually remain where they are synthesized.
Plant cells do not have enzyme systems to degrade structural compounds, but many storage
compounds that can be changed back into forms that can be translocated to other parts of the
plant are also produced.

These storage compounds are significant in maintaining growth and development constancy
despite photosynthetic fluctuations. Storage compounds are mostly composed of carbo-
hydrates but often include significant amounts of lipids and proteins.

The movement of compounds from an area where they were once deposited to an area where
they can be reutilized is referred to as remobilization. During certain phases of development
more assimilate is being produced than is used in growth and development, and this excess can
be directed to storage compounds.

At a later phase, for example, fruiting, when photosynthesis is not able to furnish the assimilate
requirements of plant sinks, storage compounds can be remobilized and moved to active sites,
such as seed development. Remobilization occurs with both organic and inorganic compounds.
During leaf senescence carbohydrates, nitrogenous compounds, phosphorus, sulfur, and other
mobile elements are remobilized and translocated to current plant sinks.

During the heading and flowering stage of the plant, the assimilate produced by photosynthesis
is more than is required by these processes. The extra assimilate is moved to the stem and
stored primarily as starch. However, as the plant goes into grain fill, starch is converted to
sugars and translocated to the filling grain.

Assimilate Partitioning during Grain Fill:

Photosynthate deposited in grain can come from three major sources- current leaf
photosynthesis, current photosynthesis from non-leaf parts, and remobilization of assimilate
deposited in other plant organs. How much each of these factors contributes to final grain yield
is affected by species and environment.

Partitioning has been extensively studied in small grain crops. Work in wheat and barley has
shown that photosynthesis of the flag leaf, stem, and head, which are the closest sources to the
grain, is the primary contributor to the grain.

Lower leaves supply the needs of lower stem and roots. The strength of the grain as a sink and
the relative availability and strength of sources affect the assimilate partitioning. If the top
leaves are removed, the lower leaves will supply assimilate to the grain; if the lower leaves are
removed, the flag leaf will transport assimilate to roots.
It would be helpful to know just how much each source contributes to grain yield and the
variability involved. Early work on shading the head of wheat or barley showed a 20% to 30%
reduction in grain weight.

Using shading and measuring photosynthesis, these investigators calculated the contribution of
different photosynthetic sources to final grain yield. They estimated that the contribution of
parenthesis photosynthesis (remobilized assimilate) was 25%, current leaf and stem
photosynthesis was 45%, and head photosynthesis was 30%.

These percentages were confirmed by recent studies using more sophisticated procedures.
Drought stress during grain filling reduces grain yield through reduced photosynthesis. Thus
the sink demand for grain filling uses more remobilized stored assimilate, which results in a
much higher proportional contribution by remobilization.

Although remobilization is an important component of grain yield, photosynthesis during the

grain filling period is normally the most important source of weight for grain yield. This is
because most assimilate is used for vegetative or flower production before grain filling,
whereas during grain filling most assimilate is used for that process.

Since the heads of small grains are located at the top of the canopy in the best light conditions
for photosynthesis, and since the assimilate produced is next to the grain, head photosynthesis
would be expected to contribute heavily to grain yield. Primitive wheat types have lower yields,
and thus lower sink demand, than modern wheat. They rely primarily on head photosynthesis
for grain yield, partitioning very little from leaves.

Wheat developed with greater yield has an increased partitioning of photosynthate from upper
leaves. Increasing photosynthesis of small grain heads could also increase yields; one way is to
add awns (thin extensions of the glume or lemma), which have been shown to double the
photosynthesis rate of heads. Several elaborate studies have shown that in semiarid and arid
environments isolines of wheat with awns will out-yield isolines without awns by as much as
12%.

Illustrating the same effect, awn removal can decrease yield as much as 21%. The primary
effect of awns on yield components is to increase kernel weight. Lupton (1966) showed that
the amount of assimilate from glumes and flag leaves partitioned to the seeds increased as
grain filling progressed and that glumes, which are closest to the seeds, partitioned a larger
percentage of assimilate to seeds than did flag leaves. Awns have shown no yield advantage in
humid climates, possibly because of an increased susceptibility to disease or lodging.

In maize, in which the ear is located in the middle of the stem, almost all the assimilate
produced is from leaves or sheaths. During grain filling, the upper leaves distribute about 85%
of their assimilate to the ear. Lower leaves contribute to root growth and stem and leaf
maintenance as well as to ear weight. In contrast to small grains, all leaves of maize may
contribute some assimilate to grain yield.

Remobilization of stalk reserves in modern maize is not much different from that in primitive
maize. Stalk reserves are positively correlated with stalk strength; lower reserves mean
 weaker stems, favoring stalk rot disease organisms. Apparently, modern maize cultivars have
not been selected for strong remobilization, so the plants maintain resistance to lodging.

In soybean, in which almost every node provides seed growth and development, the pattern of
translocation from each leaf is similar. The greatest amount of assimilate remains with the pods
at the node of the applied leaf, with the rest transported to upper and lower nodes. Lower
leaves retain more assimilate than upper nodes, which may be due to the lower light levels
reducing the amount of assimilate produced.

Conclusion:
Partitioning of assimilate in the plant takes place in the phloem where assimilate translocates
from photosynthetic sources to sinks. Source cells synthesize sugars, which move to the
apoplast around the phloem.

These sugars are actively taken up by the phloem (phloem loading), which increases the
hydrostatic pressure in that area of phloem by increasing water uptake. Assimilate moves to
sinks, where the removal of sugars in the apoplast around the phloem causes sugars and water
to move out of the phloem (phloem unloading), keeping a low hydrostatic pressure in that area
of the phloem.
In terms of yield, assimilate partitioning is important in both the vegetative and reproductive
growth phases. Partitioning during the vegetative phase will determine the final leaf area, root
development, and branching. Investment of assimilate into plant growth during the vegetative
period determines the productivity at later stages of development, including seed number just
prior to anthesis.

Partitioning during reproductive development is important for flower, fruit, and seed crops.
Assimilate can be distributed from current leaf photosynthesis, non-laminar photosynthesis,
and remobilization of stored assimilate. The proportion of assimilate coming from each source
depends on genotype and environment.

For high yield, the crop should quickly produce enough leaf area indexes to intercept most of
the light for maximum dry matter production, after which it should maintain high light
interception and should partition assimilate in the largest quantities possible to the organs of
economic value without affecting quality or harvestability.

 ritten ByPriyanka Srivastava

 Last Modified 20-07-2022

Plant Movements – Definition, Types & Examples

Plant Movements: Movement refers to the act of moving or changing its position. The
act of moving from one place to another is known as locomotion, whereas the plants
movements are not considered locomotion because they have their roots fixed in one
place. However, in plants, we can see different types of movement for their growth,
development, and reproduction. Examples of plant movements include roots growing
downward, stomata opening and closing, petals opening, etc.
In this article, we have provided detailed information on plant movements. Students can
go through this article and find definitions of plant movements, types of movement in
plants, seismonastic movement and much more. Continue reading to gain a thorough
understanding of plant movements and Make no mistakes on questions about plant
movements in the exam.

Plant Movements: Definition

Plants do not have a nervous system, but they respond to various stimuli like light,
temperature, touch, water, etc., which can be observed by their different movements
called plant movements. As a result of external or internal stimuli, plants move their
parts. 
LEARN EXAM CONCEPTS ON EMBIBE

What are the Different Types of Movement in Plants?

1. Movements of Locomotion
a. Autonomic (Spontaneous)
i. Ciliary
ii. Amoeboid
iii. Cyclosis
b. Paratonic (Induced)
i. Phototactic
ii. Chemotactic
iii. Thermotactic
2. Movements of Curvature
a. Autonomic (Spontaneous)
i. Variation movements
ii. Growth movements
1. Nutational
2. Nastic-
a. Epinastic
b. Hyponastic
b. Paratonic (Induced)
i. Tropic (Growth movements)
1. Geotropic
2. Phototropic
3. Thigmotropic
4. Chemotropic
5. Hydrotropic
6. Thermotropic
7. Aerotropic
ii. Nastic (Variation movements)
1. Photonastic
2. Nyctinastic
3. Thermonastic
4. Thigmonastic or seismonastic
LEARN ABOUT PLANT MOVEMENT HERE

Movement in Plants: Description with Examples

Plant movements can be divided into two on the basis of the criteria, which is
responsible for the movement to take place:
 Fig: Flow Chart Showing Classification of Plant Movements

1. Movements of Locomotion
It refers to the movement of the whole plant body from one place to another. Like that of
male gametes of Bryophytes and Pteridophytes. Male gametes here are flagellated and
move from one place to another, i.e. from the male reproductive part to the female
gamete. This type of movement can be autonomic (spontaneous) or paratonic (induced).
i. Autonomic movements
a. Ciliary Movements – This type of movement is seen in some organisms having cilia or
flagella. Like movements seen in Chlamydomonas,  Volvox, etc.
b. Amoeboid Movements – This type of movement is due to the formation of
pseudopodia. Like in Amoeba, amoeboid movement is seen to capture food. 
c. Cyclosis- It refers to the protoplasmic movement of a cell. It can be rotational
movement or circular movement. Example- Chara, Hydrilla exhibit rotational movement
while trichomes or staminal hairs of  Tradescantia (spiderwort) shows protoplasmic
movement in a circular manner. 
ii. Paratonic (Induced) movement or Tactic movements
It refers to the movement of locomotion which is due to external stimulus. This type of
movement is directional.
a. Phototactic– Here, the external stimulus is light. Light induces locomotion in certain
organisms like Chlamydomonas that have flagellated structures. It swims towards the
light.
Other examples can be seen in the case of Euglena,  which is considered as a link between
plants and animals. It has a plant-like structure called the chloroplast. So if the light is
there, it moves towards light and can perform photosynthesis. If the light is not there,
then it will start eating other organisms like animals.
b. Chemotactic–  Here, the external stimulus is chemical, i.e. Chemicals are responsible
for the movement of the plant. Example- Male gamete of Bryophyte fern moves from
antheridium to archegonium due to chemicals secreted by archegonium. Chemical
secreted here is sucrose and malic acid produced by archegonium.
c. Thermotactic– Here, the external stimulus is temperature. Cells with flagella move
towards the warmer temperature because the enzymatic activity is optimum in warmer
conditions. Example- This can be seen in Chlamydomonas that will move towards the
warmer side called positive thermotaxis while if the temperature is too high, then it will
move away from the high temperature and is called negative thermotaxis.
2. Movements of Curvature 
The movement of curvature is due to the bending of some plant parts. This is divided
into-
a. Autonomic (Spontaneous)- In this, no external stimulus is present. This is further
divided into-
i. Autonomic movement of curvature due to variation- There occurs bending in plants
due to turgor pressure which is due to endo or exosmosis. 
Like periodic up and down movements of leaflets in a Telegraph plant. This happens due
to the gaining and losing of water by the leaflets. When the cells of leaflets lose water,
they drop down, but when they gain water due to endosmosis, then they move up.
ii. Autonomic movements of curvature due to growth- There occurs bending in plants
due to unequal growth of the organs of the plants. It can be of the following types-
1. Nutation– This type of movement is seen in growing tips of vine or tendril. In this,
there are differences in the growth of different parts of the plant. When tendril is given
support, its side, which is attached to the support, grows at a slower rate than the part or
side of the tendril which is away from the support, i.e. part of the tendril which away
from the support will grow at a faster rate, which results in bending and twining of the
plant around that support.
2. Nastic– There occur differences in the growth of different surfaces of organs of plants.
Like if movement occurs due to the fast growth of the upper surface of the organ of a
plant, then this type of movement is called epinastic movement.
If movement occurs due to the fast growth of the lower surface of the organ of a plant,
then this type of movement is called hyponastic movement.
b. Paratonic (Induced)– This type of movement of curvature is caused by external
stimuli. It is further divided into the following two types:- 
i. Tropic (Growth movements) or Tropism- These movements are directional.
Movements can be towards or away from the stimulus.
PRACTICE EXAM QUESTIONS
1. Geotropic– It refers to the tropic movement which occurs in response to gravity. Here
gravity acts as an external stimulus. These types of movements are called geotropic
movements, and the phenomenon is called geotropism. It can be positive or negative
geotropism.
Like we can take the example of the growth of roots. This movement is taking place
towards the gravity so-called positive geotropism. In contrast, the growth of the stem is
away from gravity, so it shows negative geotropism.

Fig: Positive and Negative Geotropism

2. Phototropic–  It refers to the tropic movement which occurs in response to light. Here
light acts as an external stimulus. These types of movements are called phototropic
movements, and the phenomenon is called phototropism. Like bending the stem of a
growing plant towards the light source.
 Fig: Phototropism
3. Thigmotropic– It refers to the movement of plants in response to touch. This
movement is directional, and the movement is called thigmotropic movement, the
phenomenon is called thigmotropism. 
Curling movement of tendrils of Passiflora around support are examples of thigmotropic
plants.
 Fig: Response of ‘Tendril’ to Touch
4. Chemotropic– Movement in response to the chemicals are called chemotropic
movement and the phenomenon is called chemotropism. E.g. growth of pollen tubes.
5. Hydrotropic– Growth movements in response to the water or movement of water in
plants are called hydrotropic movements and the phenomenon is called hydrotropism.
Growth of roots towards the source of water shows hydrotropism.
6. Thermotropic – If the tropic movement occurs due to the stimulus temperature, then
that type of movement is called thermotropic movement. 
7. Aerotropic– If air is the stimulus and growth is due to this stimulus, then it is called
aerotropic movement, and the phenomenon is called aerotropism.
ii. Nastic (Variation movements)- These movements are not unidirectional.
1. Photonastic movement– Here, the stimulus is a change in light intensity.  This
movement is seen in the noon flowers, in which flowers open up in sunlight and then
close when the intensity of light decreases.
2. Nyctinastic movement – It refers to the rhythmic nastic movements which occur day
and night. Some of the legumes close their leaves at night and open up during daylight.
This is called sleep movement in plants.
3. Thermonastic movement – It refers to the non-directional movement of plants in
response to temperature. Flowers open up as the temperature increases. E.g. The leaves
of  Oxalis triangularis  fold up as temperature decreases.
4. Thigmonastic or seismonastic movement – This type of movement occurs in
response to touch. Like in “Touch me not” plant. 
As soon as we touch the leaves of this plant, a chemical is released, which is transported
through the xylem and phloem to the pulvinus (swollen base of the leaves). Once the
chemical reaches the pulvinus, the inner cells actively loose K+ ions to the outer cells. As
a result of which the inner cells will become hypotonic, and outer cells become
hypertonic. As water moves from hypotonic to hypertonic medium, water molecules
from inner cells move out. Due to which inner cells become loose, and outer cells become
turgid.
Due to which both the sides of the leaves will come closer to each other or bend towards
the central axis. 
Then again, after some time, the inner cell becomes turgid, and levees will open up again.
This thigmonastic in Mimosa pudica was explained by Snow and Bose.

Fig: Bending of Leaves of Mimosa pudica

Fig: The Leaves of Sensitive Plant Fold due to the Loss of Water from pulvinus at their
Base
 ATTEMPT MOCK TESTS

Plant Movements: Summary

Plant movement refers to the movements of the organs of the plants in response to
external or internal stimuli. It can be spontaneous or induced. Plants respond to light,
gravity, temperature, chemical, air, touch, and water to move. All of these are stimuli for
the plants. In some of the plants like Chlamydomonas, Volvox, Amoeba, etc., locomotion is
observed in response to light or food, etc.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) on Plant Movements

Here are some of the common questions which students may have in mind regarding
Plant Movements:
Q.1. What is the major function of Plant Movements?
Ans: Plant movement is important for the growth, development and survival of the
plants.
Q.2. Explain Plant Movements with examples?
Ans: Plant movements refer to the movement of the plant organs in response to internal
or external stimuli. Like the growth of the stem of the plants towards light is called
phototropic movement. The growth of roots towards gravity is called geotropic
movement. If growth occurs towards any chemical released, then it is called a
chemotropic movement, like the growth of a pollen tube.
Q.3. What are the different types of plant movement?
Ans: a. Geotropic movement
b. Phototropic movement
c. Thigmotropic movement
e. Chemotropic movement
f. Hydrotropic movement
g. Thermotropic movement
h. Aerotropic movement
Q.4. Why is movement in plants important?
Ans: Plant movement is important for growth, survival and reproduction in plants.
Q.5. What are growth movements?
Ans: Growing plants move their organs in response to external stimuli in order to grow
and survive. As an example, phototropism refers to the tendency of a stem to move
towards the light in order to grow and survive.

The Three Types of Environmental

Adaptations
Adaptations
Organisms, from microbes to plants and animals, inhabit environments that can change to
become drier, hotter, colder, more acidic, darker and sunnier -- with an almost infinite
number of variables. Organisms with genetic advantages, such as a mutation that helps
them survive the new conditions, pass down the change to descendants, and it becomes
prevalent in the population to be expressed as an adaptation. The three basic types of
adaptations, based on how the genetic changes are expressed, are structural,
physiological and behavioral adaptations. Most organisms have combinations of all these
types.

Structural
An organism's environment shapes its appearance through structural adaptations. Desert
foxes have large ears for heat radiation and Arctic foxes have small ears to retain body
heat. Seals have flippers to navigate water and raccoons have separate, flexible digits to
manipulate food. White polar bears blend into ice floes and spotted jaguars into the
speckled jungle shade. Trees may have corky bark to protect from wildfires. Structural
modifications affect organisms at different levels, from the way a knee is hinged to the
presence of large flight muscles and sharp eyesight for predatory birds.

Physiological
Based on body chemistry and metabolism, physiological adaptations usually don't show
from the outside. They consist of things like more efficient kidneys for desert animals like
kangaroo rats, compounds that prevent blood coagulation in mosquito saliva, or the
presence of toxins in plant leaves to repel herbivores. Laboratory studies that measure
the contents of blood, urine and other body fluids, that trace metabolic pathways, or
microscopic studies of an organism's tissues are often necessary to identify physiological
adaptations. Sometimes detecting them is difficult if there isn't a common ancestor or a
closely related species with which to compare findings.

Behavioral
Adaptations that affect how an organism acts are called behavioral adaptations. Bears
hibernate to escape cold; birds and whales migrate to warmer winter climates. Desert
animals are active at night during hot summer weather. Lizards seek a sunny spot in the
morning to warm up to operating temperatures more quickly. A nesting killdeer will
pretend to be injured to lure a predator away from her young. Behavioral adaptations
that involve mating procedures, such as that exhibited by the Australian bowerbird, can
be amazingly complex. Often behavioral adaptations take careful field and laboratory
studies to bring them fully to light, and often involve physiological mechanisms as well.
Humans employ cultural adaptations as a subset of behavioral adaptations, where people
who live in a given environment learn ways of raising the food they need and coping with
the particular given climate.