Dela Cruz, Joy Ann, P.

February 27, 2023

BSPSYCH B2021 Organic Chemistry
Assignment: Define the ff.

1. Shells
 Electrons orbit the nucleus of an atom at different ranges, called shells. Each
shell has a different energy level, increasing the further it is from the nucleus.
2. Orbitals
 A mathematical equation which defines a volume of space in which there is a
specified probability of finding an electron of a specified energy.
3. Lewis Structure
 also known as Lewis-dot diagrams, show the bonding relationship between
atoms of a molecule and the lone pairs of electrons in the molecule. Lewis
structures can also be useful in predicting molecular geometry in conjunction with
hybrid orbitals.
4. Valence Shell
 The outermost shell of an atom is its valence shell, and the electrons in the
valence shell are valence electrons. Valence electrons are the highest energy
electrons in an atom and are therefore the most reactive.
5. Lewis model of bonding
 In Lewis structures, multiple bonds are depicted by two or three lines between
the bonded atoms. The bond order of a covalent interaction between two atoms
is the number of electron pairs that are shared between them. Single bonds have
a bond order of 1, double bonds 2, and triple bonds 3.
6. Cations
 Is an ionic species with a positive charge. The word "cation" comes from the
Greek word "Kato," which means "down." A cation has more protons than
electrons, giving it a net positive charge.
7. Anions
 A radical anion is a free radical species that carries a negative charge. Radical
anions are encountered in organic chemistry as reduced derivatives of polycyclic
aromatic compounds, e.g., sodium naphthenide.
8. Ionic Bond
 They allow the synthesis of specific organic compounds. Scientists can
manipulate ionic properties and these interactions in order to form desired
products. Covalent bonds are especially important since most carbon molecules
interact primarily through covalent bonding.
9. Covalent Bond
 Covalent bonding between carbon atoms forms the basis of organic chemistry as
this property enables the formation of thousands of organic compounds found in
living bodies. In organic compounds, the electrons might be shared with more
than two atoms, in which case the electrons are said to be localized in order to
achieve a stable structure.
10. Octet Rule
 The concept that compounds containing carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and fluorine
are more stable if these atoms have eight valence electrons. When one of these
atoms has less than eight valence electrons it has an open octet.
11. Electronegativity
 A measure of an atom's ability to attract electrons (or electron density) toward
itself. On the Pauling scale, fluorine is the most electronegative element (EN =
4.0) and cesium and francium are the least electronegative elements (EN = 0.7).
12. Nonpolar Covalent Bond
 Is a type of chemical bond that is formed when electrons are shared equally
between two atoms. Thus, in an atom, the number of electrons shared by the
adjacent atoms will be the same. The covalent bond is also termed as nonpolar
because the difference in electronegativity is mostly negligible.
13. Polar Covalent Bond
 Is a type of covalent bond. A bond between two or more atoms is polar if the
atoms have significantly different electronegativities (>0.4). Polar bonds do not
share electrons equally, meaning the negative charge from the electrons is not
evenly distributed in the molecule. This causes a dipole moment.
14. Formal Change
 In the covalent view of chemical bonding, is the hypothetical charge assigned to
an atom in a molecule, assuming that electrons in all chemical bonds are shared
equally between atoms, regardless of relative electronegativity. In simple terms,
formal charge is the difference between the number of valence electrons of an
atom in a neutral free state and the number assigned to that atom in a Lewis
structure.
15. Valence-Shell Electron-pair (VSEPR) model
 Is a model used to predict 3-D molecular geometry based on the number of
valence shell electron bond pairs among the atoms in a molecule or ion. This
model assumes that electron pairs will arrange themselves to minimize repulsion
effects from one another.
16. Theory of Resonance
 In chemistry, theory by which the actual normal state of a molecule is
represented not by a single valence-bond structure but by a combination of
several alternative distinct structures.
17. Contributing Structures
 Also called "canonical forms", themselves thus have a purely formal significance:
they are the components from which wavefunctions can be built. Structures may
be covalent (or non-polar) or ionic (or polar).
18. Double-headed arrows
 Link the different resonance structures of a compound: The double-headed arrow
indicates that the actual electronic structure is an average of those shown, not
that the molecule oscillates between the two structures.
19. Curved Arrows
 Are a formal notation to help us understand the electron flow in organic reactions.
This makes it easier to keep track of the bonds forming and breaking during the
reaction as well as visualizing and explain more advanced features such as the
region and stereochemistry of certain reactions.
20. Electron Pushing
 Is a technique used to describe the progression of organic chemistry reaction
mechanisms. It was first developed by Sir Robert Robinson. In using arrow
pushing, "curved arrows" or "curly arrows" are superimposed over the structural
formulae of reactants in a chemical equation to show the reaction mechanism.
21. Valence Bond Model
 Is most often used to describe bonding in organic molecules. In this model,
bonds are considered to form from the overlap of two atomic orbitals on different
atoms, each orbital containing a single electron.
22. Hybridization
 Is a concept used in organic chemistry to explain chemical bonding in cases
where the valence bond theory does not provide satisfactory clarification. This
theory is especially useful to explain the covalent bonds in organic molecules.
23. Hybrid Orbitals
 Is an orbital formed by the combination of two or more atomic orbitals. The
resulting orbital has a different shape and energy than the component orbitals
that form it. Hybridization is used to model molecular geometry and to explain
atomic bonding.
24. Sigma Bond
  In chemistry, a mechanism by which two atoms are held together as the result of
the forces operating between them and a pair of electrons regarded as shared by
them.
25. Pi Bond
 Is formed by lateral overlapping of the half-filled atomic orbitals (p - orbitals) of
atoms is called a pi bond. It is denoted by. We find pi bonds in alkenes and
alkynes. The electrons which take part in the formation of pi covalent bonds are
called pi – electrons.
26. Functional Groups
 Are structural units within organic compounds that are defined by specific
bonding arrangements between specific atoms. The structure of capsaicin, the
compound discussed in the beginning of this chapter, incorporates several
functional groups, labeled in the figure below and explained throughout this
section.
27. Hydroxyl Group
 Is a functional group that attaches to some molecules containing an oxygen and
hydrogen atom, bonded together. Also spelled hydroxy, this functional group
provides important functions to both alcohols and carboxylic acids. Alcohols are
chains of carbon molecules with a functional hydroxyl group side chain.
28. Carbonyl Group
 Is a functional group with the formula C=O, composed of a carbon atom double-
bonded to an oxygen atom, and it is divalent at the C atom. It is common to
several classes of organic compounds (such as aldehydes, ketones, and
carboxylic acids), as part of many larger functional groups.

29.Carboxyl Group

 A very common functional group that is defined as having a carbonyl and

hydroxyl group linked to a carbon atom through a single bond. Similarly, an
organic compound containing a carboxyl group is referred to as a carboxylic acid.
29. Amino Group
 Are single functional groups comprised of a nitrogen atom linked to hydrogen
atoms, aryl groups, alkyl groups or some combination of those structures. If an
amino group is attached to an organic compound (compounds containing carbon)
it is referred to as an amine.
30. Hydrocarbon
 Any of a class of organic chemical compounds composed only of the elements
carbon (C) and hydrogen (H). The carbon atoms join to form the framework of
the compound, and the hydrogen atoms attach to them in many different
configurations. Hydrocarbons are the principal constituents of petroleum and
natural gas.
31. Saturated Hydrocarbon
 Are compounds that are made up of atoms of carbon and hydrogen exclusively.
The unique nature of the carbon ensures that it shares a strong covalent bond
 with hydrogen. Since carbon atoms will make long chains with relative ease,
hydrocarbons can be very big molecules linking even hundreds of atoms.
32. Constitutional Isomers
 Are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structural
formulas. e.g., 1: Butane and isobutane have the same molecular formula, C 4 H
10, but different structural formulas. Therefore, butane and isobutane are
constitutional isomers.
33. International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC)
 Is an international federation of National Adhering Organizations that represents
chemists in individual countries. It is a member of the International Science
Council (ISC).
34. Prefix
 Are added prior to the root of the compounds IUPAC nomenclature. Prefixes are
very useful since they indicate the presence of side chains or substituent groups
in the given organic molecule. These prefixes also offer insight into the cyclic or
acyclic natures of the compounds in question.
35. Infix
 Is an affix inserted inside a word stem (an existing word or the core of a family of
words).
36. Suffix
 The suffix used to represent the saturation or unsaturation of carbon atoms
present in the parent chain is called a primary suffix.
37. Alkyl Groups
 An alkyl group substituent is an alkane missing one hydrogen. The term alkyl is
intentionally unspecific to include many possible substitutions. An acyclic alkyl
has the general formula CnH2n+1.
38. Primary
 Is a term used in organic chemistry to classify various types of compounds (e.g.
alcohols, alkyl halides, amines) or reactive intermediates (e.g. alkyl radicals,
carbocations).
39. Secondary
 Is a term used in organic chemistry to classify various types of compounds (e. g.
alcohols, alkyl halides, amines) or reactive intermediates (e. g. alkyl radicals,
carbocations). An atom is considered secondary if it has two 'R' Groups attached
to it.

41.Tertiary

 Is a term used in organic chemistry to classify various types of compounds (e. g.

alcohols, alkyl halides, amines) or reactive intermediates (e. g. alkyl radicals,
carbocations).

42. Quaternary

 Is a compound consisting of exactly four chemical elements. In another use of

the term in organic chemistry, a quaternary compound is or has a cation
 consisting of a central positively charged atom with four substituents, especially
organic (alkyl and aryl) groups, discounting hydrogen atoms.

43. Cycloalkane

 The cycloalkanes (also called naphthene, but distinct from naphthalene) are the
monocyclic saturated hydrocarbons. In other words, a cycloalkane consists only
of hydrogen and carbon atoms arranged in a structure containing a single ring
(possibly with side chains), and all the carbon-carbon bonds are single. The
larger cycloalkanes, with more than 20 carbon atoms are typically called
cycloparaffins. All cycloalkanes are isomers of alkenes.

44.Confirmation

 A conformation of an acyclic molecule is a specific disposition of atoms in the

molecule in space within the molecule due to free rotation around bonds.

45. Newman Projection

 Is a diagram used to depict a specific conformation of a molecule. eg. 1:

Staggered conformation of ethane To draw the staggered conformation of ethane
as a Newman projection look at the molecule from the point shown above.

46. Intramolecular Strain

 Describes a process or characteristic limited within the structure of a single

molecule, a property or phenomenon limited to the extent of a single molecule.

47. Angle Strain

 Is the increase in potential energy of a molecule due to bond angles deviating

from the ideal values.

48. Nonbonded Interaction Strain

 Are possible between atoms that are neither bound to one another (1,2
interactions) nor bound to a common atom (1,3 interactions). They include both
van der Waals and electrostatic interactions.

49.Chair Conformations

 A six-membered ring conformation in which atoms 2, 3, 5, and 6 lie in the same

plane, atom 1 lies above the plane, and atom 4 lies below the plane. Chair
conformations of methyl cyclohexane.

50. Axis

 Is a line with respect to which a curve or figure is drawn, measured, rotated, etc.
The most common axes encountered are commonly the mutually perpendicular
 Cartesian axes in the plane or in space. The plural of "axis" is "axes,"
pronounced "ax-ees."

51. Equatorial

 Bonds to non-ring atoms which make only a small angle compared with the plane
of the ring are termed equatorial. Thus, the axial bonds are approximately
parallel to the C3 axis and the equatorial bonds approximately parallel to two of
the ring bonds. These terms are also used for the chair form of other saturated
six-membered rings.

52. Boat Confirmation

 Is one of the infinite number of conformations the cyclohexane ring could

assume. In the boat conformation the two bonds shown in red are called flagpole
bonds. The hydrogen atoms on the flagpole bonds are called flagpole hydrogens.

53. Axial-Axial Interactions

 Repulsion between substituents on adjacent axial positions of a cyclohexane

ring.

54. Cis-trans Isomers

 Or geometrical isomerism is also known as configurational isomerism. Cis means

"on this side of," and trans means "on the other side of." In the cis orientation, the
functional groups are on the same side of the carbon-carbon double bond.

55.Dispersion Forces

 Are inversely proportional to the sixth power of the distance between interacting
atoms or molecules. For them to be important the interacting atoms or molecules
must be in virtual contact with one another.

56. Petroleum

 A naturally occurring complex mixture consisting mainly of hydrocarbons.

Formed by decomposition of prehistoric plant material under pressure and
temperature. Used mainly as a fossil fuel and as feedstock for the chemical
industry.

57. Synthesis Gas

 Syngas, or synthesis gas, is a mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide, in

various ratios. The gas often contains some carbon dioxide and methane. It is
principally used for producing ammonia or methanol. Syngas is combustible and
can be used as a fuel.