CHAPTER 1

SETS
A set is a well defined collection or system of objects. The
objects that belongs to a set are called its elements ( ¿ po i nts∨members ) .If
A is a set , then a∈ A denotes that a is an element of A and the
notation a ∉ A denotes the negation of a ∈ A . For any element a ,
and a set A , either a ∈ A∨¿ a ∉ A .
Two methods used frequently to describe sets are the
tabulation method and the defining property method ,the
individual elements are enumerated , then separated by commas
and enclosed in braces. By this method , the set of vowels of
English alphabets is written as ( a , e ,i , o , u ).
In defining – property method , each elements satisfies a
property called defining property. This standard notation for a
set so described is ¿ or { x : }. In such a representation x is a
dummy symbol and the space between ‘:’ and ‘}’ is filled by the
defining property. The above set , by this method is described as
{ x : x is a vowel of englisℎalpℎabet } .

Given two sets A∧B , If the relation a ∈ A implies

a ∈ B for all a , then A is said to be a subset of
B ( ¿ B is a superset of A respectively ) which is denoted as A ⊂B . ¿
respectively).
Two sets A∧B are said to be equal if A ⊂B and
B⊂ A ; denoted by A=B. If
a set contains no elements, then A is called
empty set and denoted by ∅ . Empty set is a subset of every
set. If A ≠ ∅ and A ⊂B with A ≠ B , then A is a proper subset of B. A
subset is said to be improper if it is not proper.
 Let A be a set .Then the power set of A ; P ( A ) is the collection of
all subset of A . P ( A ) is always a nonempty set. If A is a finite set
having ‘ n ’ distinct elements , then P ( A ) has 2nelements.
Under certain operations on two sets namely A∧B , we
obtain four other sets. Union of two sets A∧B (
A ∪ B : called ∑ written as A+ B ¿ .

One of these is called the union of two sets : written A ∪B

(sometimes,called the sum and written as A+ B ¿ ; it consists of all
elements that are in or Ain Bor in both ( an element tℎat is∈botℎ is counted once ) .
The second is called the intersection of two sets,written as A ∩ B
(sometimes, called the product and written as A . B ¿: it consists of all
elements in A as well as in B. The third one is called the difference of
two sets;written A−B : it consists of all those elements of A which are
not elements of B. The fourth one is called the cartesian product of
two sets; written A× B ,consists of all ordered pairs ( a , b ) , where a ∈ A∧b ∈ B .
Two sets A∧B are said to be disjoint if A ∩ B=∅ , otherwise A intersects B .if B ⊂
A, A − Bis called the complement of B with respect to A .In case A is
taken as a universal set , A − B is written as Bc ( ¿ B ) and simply read as
complement of B.
Let A , B∧C be any three non-empty sets.Then the following
laws hold good;
1. Commutative laws

A∪ B=B ∪ A∧ A ∩ B=B ∩ A

2. Associative laws

A∪ ( B∪ C )=( A ∪ B ) ∪C∧¿
A ∩ ( B∩ C )= ( A ∩ B ) ∩C

3. Distributive laws

A∩ ( B ∪C )= ( A ∩ B ) ∪ ( A ∩C ) and
A∪ ( B∩C )= ( A ∪ B ) ∩ ( A ∪C )

4. De Morgan's laws

c c
( A ∪ B) = A ∩ B
c
and ( A ∩ B)c =A c ∪ Bc

FUNCTIONS

Let A and B denote arbitrary given sets. A function

a of A , a unique elementb of B. If
f : A → B is a rule which assigns ¿ each element
a ∈ A ,t he corresponding element b ∈ B is called the f-image of a and is
denoted by f (a),i.e .b=f (a).
If f ∧g are two functions defined on the same domain A and f(a)
¿ g(a) for every a ∈ A , the functions f ∧g are equal and we write f¿ g . Let f be a
function of A into B . Then f ( A )⊂ B . If f ( A )=B, f is a function of A onto B ,or
f : A → B is an onto (surjective )function.The function f:A→ B is one-one
(injective) if for any two element a 1and a 2 of A , a 1 ≠ a2 implies f (a 1)≠ f ¿). A
function which is both injective and surjective is called bijective.
 Let A be any set. Then f : A → B defined by f ( x)= x , x ∈ A is called the
identity function,denoted by I A. An identity function is bijective. A
function f is called a constant function if its range consists of only one
element. Let f : A → B and g : B → C be two functions such that
f (a)=b , a∈ A and b ∈ B ; and g ( b ) =c , where c ∈C . Then,the function h : A →C
defined by
h( a)=c=g (b)=g(f ( a)) , a ϵ A

is called the composite function of two functions f ∧g denoted by g ∘ f .

If f : A → B , then I B ∘ f =f ∧f ∘ I A=f. Letf:A→ B be a function∧E ⊂ A .The function
f
f ∘ I E:E→ B is called the restriction of f to the set E , denoted by E dually
;
f
the function f is referred to as the extension of E to the set A .

Let f : A → B∧¿ b ∈ B . Then the f -inverse ( f −1 ( b ) ¿consists of those

elements of A that are mapped ontob by f . i.e those elements of A
which have b as their f −¿image.
f
−1
( b ) ={ x ϵ A : f ( x)=b }

A function f : A → B is said to be invertible ( f −1 exists) iff it is

bijective,and we note that;
f −1 ∘ f =I Aand f ∘ f − 1= I B

It may also be seen that

A = B
I −1 I

RELATIONS

Let S be any set.A binary relation R on S is defined as subset of S × S . If

R is a relation on a set S,then for x , y ∈ S we write x R y to mean ( x , y )∈ R
and read it as ' x is related to y under R ' .A relation R defined on a set S
is said to be reflexive if x R y for every x ∈ S ; symmetric if x R y implies
y R x;and transitive if x R y and y R z implies x R z .A relation is said to be
an equivalence relation if it is reflexive,symmetric and transitive.
Another concept closely associated to the equivalence relation is
that of partition of a set. A partition of a set S is a pairwise disjoint
collection of non-empty subsets of S whose union is S. An equivalance
relation in Sdefines a partition of Sand, conversely,a partition of S
yields on equivalance relation in S. Let R be an equivalance relation in
S.

Then for each s ∈ S ,let

R( s)={ x ϵ S : x R s }

The collection { R( s) : s ϵ S } is a partition of S. The members of this

collection are called the equivalance classes and the collection is
called the quotient set of Swith respect to R .

SEQUENCE

A function f : ℕ → X ,where X is any set,is called a sequence in X

.Because a sequence uniquely and completely determined by the
values x n ( ¿ f ( n ) ) for n ∈ℕ , a sequence is usually denoted by { x n } without
explicit reference to f . The value x n is called nth value (or term) of the
sequence { x n }.
If { x n } is a given sequence and {n k } is an increasing (strictly)
sequence of positive integers,then { x nk } is called a subsequence of { x n } .
COUNTABLE AND UNCOUNTABLE SETS

Two sets A∧B are said to be equivalent if there exists a bijective

mapping f : A → B .A set is said to be finite if it is equivalent to the set
{ 1,2 ,.... , n } for some n ∈ℕ , where ℕ is the set of all natural numbers;
otherwise the set is said to be infinite.
A set is said to be denumerable if it is equivalent to ℕ. A set which is
finite or denumerable is called a countable set. Sometimes,
denumerable sets are also referred to as countably infinite sets.
There is no general agreement in English usage governing the
meaning attached to the words 'denumerable' and 'countable'. Both
of these terms are used by various authors to mean finite or
equivalent to ℕ. However, we will follow the convention that
'denumerable' means only equivalent to ℕ and that 'countable'
means finite or equivalent to ℕ.
A set which is not countable is called uncountable. Since an
uncountable set is necessary an infinite set, we can call that as non-
denumerable set. We now give quite a few results and examples in
regard to the above concepts which are useful in the subsequent
work.

1. A set is said to be infinite if and only if it contains a denumerable

subset.
2. An infinite set is equivalent to a proper subset of it.
3. A subset of a countable set is countable.
4. If A∧B are countable sets, then A × B is countable.
5. The union of a countable collection of countable sets is countable.
6. Each of the following sets is countable:
(i) The set ℤ of all integers.
(ii) The set ℚof all rational numbers
(iii) The set of all complex numbers which are algebraic over the field
of rational numbers.
(iv) The set of all finite sequences whose terms are algebraic
numbers.
(v) The set of all straight lines in a plane each of which passes
through (at least) two different points with rational coordinates.
(vi) The set of all rational points in ℝ n.
7. The family of all finite subsets of a countable set is countable.
8. Each of the following is an uncountable set:
(i) An open interval ¿ a , b ¿, a closed interval [a, b],where a ≠ b; more
generally, any interval I which do not degenerate to a single point.
(ii) The set of irrational numbers, the set of transcendental numbers.
(iii) ℝ , the set of all real numbers.
(iv) The set of all sequences of natural numbers.
(v) The set of all points of a plane.
(vi) The family of all subsets of a denumerable set.