Islamic University of Gaza

Faculty of Engineering
Department of Computer Engineering
Fall 2011
ECOM 2311: Discrete Mathematics
Eng. Ahmed Abumarasa

Discrete Mathematics

Sec 2.1-2.4
Basic Structures: Sets, Functions, Sequences, and Sums
Chapter 2:

Basic Structures: Sets, Functions, Sequences, and Sums

 2.1: Sets

 A set is an unordered collection of objects.

 The objects in a set are called the elements, or members, of the set. A set is said to
contain its elements.
 Two sets are equal if and only if they have the same elements. That is, if A and B are
sets, then A and B are equal if and only if ∀x(x ϵ A ↔ x ϵ B).We write A = B if A and
B are equal sets.
 The set A is said to be a subset of B if and only if every element of A is also an element
of B. We use the notation (A ⊆ B) to indicate that A is a subset of the set B.
 Let S be a set. If there are exactly distinct elements in S where n is a nonnegative
integer, we say that S is a finite set and that n is the cardinality of S. The cardinality of S
is denoted by I S I.
 A set is said to be infinite if it is not finite.
 Given a set S, the power set of S is the set of all subsets of the set S. The power set of S
is denoted by P (S).
 Let A and B be sets. The Cartesian product of A and B, denoted by A x B, is the set of all
ordered pairs (a, b), where a ϵ A and b ϵ B. Hence,
Exercises:
1) 2.1.5 For each of the following sets, determine whether 2 is an element of that set.

a) {x ϵ R| x is an integer greater than 1}

b) {x ϵ R| x is the square of an integer}
c) {2,{2}}
d) {{2},{{2}}}
e) {{2},{2,{2}}}
f) {{{2}}}

a Yes
b No
c Yes
d No
e No
f No

2) 2.1.7 Determine whether each of these statements is true or false.

a False
b false
E False
d true
e false
f False
g True
∅ is a set not element.

3) 2.1.16 Find two sets A and B such that A ϵ B and A ⊆ B.

Solution:
Let a = ∅ b= {∅}
Now ∅ ϵ {∅} and ∅ ⊆ {∅}
So, A ϵ B and A ⊆ B.
 4) 2.1.22 Determine whether each of these sets is the power set of a set, where a and b are
distinct elements.

a No set.
b Power set of {a}
c No set
d Power set of {a, b}

5) 2.1.28 Let A = {a, b, c}, B = {x, y}, and C = {0, 1}. Find
a) A x B x C
b) C x B x A
c) C x A x B
d) B x B x B

Solution:
a) {(a, x, 0), (a, x, 1), (a, y, 0), (a, y, 1), (b, x, 0), (b, x, 1), (b, y, 0), (b, y, 1), (c, x, 0), (c, x, 1), (c,
y, 0), (c, y, 1)}
b) {(0,x,a),(0,x,b),(0,x,c),(0,y,a),(0,y,b),(0,y,c),(1,x,a),(1x,b),(l,x,c),(1,y,a),(1,y,b),(1,y,c)}
c) {(0, a, x), (0, a, y), (0,b, x), (0, b, y), (0, c, x), (0, c, y), (1, a, x), (1, a, y), (1, b, x), (1,b, y), (1,
c, x), (1, c, y)}
d) {(x, x, x), (x, x, y), (x, y, x), (x, y, y), (y, x, x), (y, x, y), (y, y, x), (y, y, y)}
 2.2 Set Operations

 Let A and B be sets. The union of the sets A and B, denoted by A ∪ B, is the set
that contains those elements that are either in A or in B, or in both.
 Lei A and B be sets. The intersection of the sets A and B. denoted by A ∩ B. is
the set containing those elements in both A and B.
 Two sets are called disjoint if their intersection is the empty set.
 Let A and B be sets. The difference of A and B, denoted by A - B. is the set
containing those elements that are in A but not in B. The difference of A and B is
also called the complement of B with respect to A.
 Lei U be the universal set. The complement of the set A, denoted by A, is the
complement of A with respect to U. In other words, the complement of the set
A is U - A.

 The union of a collection of sets is the set that contains those elements that are
members of at least one set in the collection.

 The intersection of a collection of sets is the set that contains those elements
that are members of all the sets in the collection.
 Exercises:

1) 2.2.1 Let A be the set of students who live within one mile of school and let B be the
set of students who walk to classes. Describe the students in each of these sets.

a) A∩B
b) AUB
c) A–B
d) B–A

a The set of students who live within one mile of school and walk to classes.
b the set of students who either live within one mile of school or walk to classes
c the set of students who live within one mile of school but do not walk to class
d The set of students who walk to classes but live more than a mile from school.

2) Let A = {I, 2, 3, 4, 5} and B = {0, 3, 6}. Find

a) A∩B
b) AUB
c) A–B
d) B–A

A {3, 6}
B {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
C {1, 2, 4, 5}
d {0, 6}

3) 2.2.6 Prove the identity laws in Table 1 by showing that

a) AU∅ = {x| x ϵ A V x ϵ ∅} = {x| x ϵ A V F} = {x| x ϵ A} = A

b) A∩ U = {x| x ϵ A ᴧ x ϵ U} = {x| x ϵ A ᴧ T} = {x| x ϵ A} = A
 2.3: Function:

 Let A and B be nonempty sets. A function f from A to B is an assignment of exactly one

element of B to each element of A. We write f (a) = b if b is the unique element of B
assigned by the function f to the element a of A. If f is a function from A to B, we write f: A
→ B.
 If f is a function from A to B, we say that A is the domain of f and B is the codomain of f If f
(a) = b, we say that b is the image of a and a is a preimage of b. The range of f is the set of
all images of elements of A. Also, if f is a function from A to B, we say that f maps A to B.
 Let 11 and h be functions from A to R. Then f1 + f2 and f1f2 are also functions from A to R
defined by

 Let f be a function from the set A to the set B and let S be a subset of A. The image of S
under the function f is the subset of B that consists of the images of the elements of S. We
denote the image of S by f(S), so

 A function f is said to be one-to-one, or injective, if and only if f(a) = f(b) implies that a = b
for all a and b in the domain of f. A function is said to be an injection if it is one-to-one.
 A function f from A to B is called onto, or surjective, if and only if for every element b E B
there is an element a E A with f(a) = b. A function f is called a surjection if it is onto.
 The function f is a one-to-one correspondence, or a bijection, if it is both one-to-one and
onto.
 Let f be a one-to-one correspondence from the set A to the set B. The inverse function of f
is the function that assigns to an element b belonging to B the unique element a in A such
that f (a) = b. The inverse function of f is denoted by f-1. Hence, f-1(b) = a when f (a) = b.
 Let g be a function from the set A to the set B and let f be a function from the set B to the
set C. The composition of the functions f and g, denoted by (f o g), is defined by
Exercises:
1. 2.3.2 Determine whether f is a function from Z to R if

Solution:
a Not function, every value in the domain has 2 value in codomain
b Yes, function.
c Not function, for n= 2 or n =-2 there is no value.

2. 2.3.8 Find the value:

A 1
B 2
C -1
D 0
E 3
F -2
G 1
H 2

3. 2.3.10/2.3.11 Determine whether each of these functions from {a, b, c, d} to itself is

one-to-one and onto.

one-to-one (q 10) Onto (q11)

A yes Yes
B no no
c no no
4. 2.3.20 Let I: R → R and let f(x) > 0 for all x ϵ R. Show that f(x) is strictly increasing if
and only if the function g(x) = 1/ f(x) is strictly decreasing.

Solution:

Let x1 > x2 then f(x1) > f(x2)

So 1/ (fx1) < 1/f(x2)
So g(x1) < g(x2)
So, g(x) is strictly decreasing

5. 2.3.24 Show that the function f(x) = eX from the set of real number to the set of real
numbers is not invertible, but if the codomain is restricted to the set of positive real
numbers, the resulting function is invertible.

Solution:

Since eX is positive for all x.

Then inverse of f f-1(x) is not exist for x <0.

6. 2.3.30 if f and f o g are one-to-one, does it follow that g is one-to-one? Justify your
answer.

7. If f and f o g are onto, does it follow that g is onto? Justify your answer.
 2.4 Sequences and Summations:

 A sequence is a function from a subset of the set of integers (usually either the set {0, 1, 2…} or
the set {I, 2, 3…}) to a set S. We use the notation an to denote the image of the integer n. We call
an a term of the sequence.
 A geometric progression is a sequence of the form

 An arithmetic progression is a sequence of the form


Exercises
1. 2.4.9 For each of these lists of integers, provide a simple formula or rule that generates
the terms of an integer sequence that begins with the given list. Assuming that your
formula or rule is correct, determine the next three terms of the sequence.

2. 2.4.13 what are the values of these sums?

3. 2.4.19 show that , where a0, a1. . . an is a sequence of real

numbers. This type of sum is called telescoping.

4. 2.4.23

5. 2.4.28