Set Theory:

Navie Set Theory (Cantorian Set Theory):

In this theory set was defined as collection of objects which as distinguishable . how ever it could not
address Rusell’s paradox which states that. Suppose that the universe of discourse is the set of all sets
and let S be set a set whose object are set which are not members of themsellves,then S a member of
itself?

It can be reprsented as {x|x does not belong to x}.

Axiomatic set theory.

This theory was free from contradictions. Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory, named after
mathematicians Ernst Zermelo and Abraham Fraenkel, is one of several axiomatic systems that were
proposed in the early twentieth century. ZFC is intended to formalize a single primitive notion, that of
a hereditary well-founded set, so that all entities in the universe of discourse are such sets. Thus the
axioms of ZFC refer only to pure sets and prevent its models from containing urelements (elements of
sets that are not themselves sets). Furthermore, proper classes (collections of mathematical
objectsdefined by a property shared by their members which are too big to be sets) can only be treated
indirectly. Specifically, ZFC does not allow for the existence of a universal set (a set containing all
sets) nor for unrestricted comprehension, thereby avoiding Russell's paradox.

AXIOMS.

1. Axiom of Extensionality: If and have the same elements, then .

(1)

2. Axiom of the Unordered Pair: For any and there exists a set that contains
exactly and . (also called Axiom of Pairing)

(2)

3. Axiom of Subsets: If is a property (with parameter ), then for any and there exists a
set that contains all those that have the property . (also called Axiom of
Separation or Axiom of Comprehension)

(3)

4. Axiom of the Sum Set: For any there exists a set , the union of all elements of . (also
called Axiom of Union)

(4)
5. Axiom of the Power Set: For any there exists a set , the set of all subsets of .

(5)

6. Axiom of Infinity: There exists an infinite set.

(6)

7. Axiom of Replacement: If is a function, then for any there exists a

set .

(7)

8. Axiom of Foundation: Every nonempty set has an -minimal element. (also called Axiom of
Regularity)

(8)

9. Axiom of Choice: Every family of nonempty sets has a choice function.

Representation of Sets

Definition:

A set is collection of Object

An object is collection of elements

A set may contain finite or infinte elements

A set is said empty set or null set if it contains no elements it is represented by ø

Notation:

There is a fairly simple notation for sets. We simply list each element (or "member") separated by a
comma, and then put some curly brackets around the whole thing:

{3,6,9,10,…}

Numerical Sets
So what does this have to do with mathematics? When we define a set, all we have to specify is a
common characteristic. Who says we can't do so with numbers?

Set of even numbers: {..., -4, -2, 0, 2, 4, ...}

Set of odd numbers: {..., -3, -1, 1, 3, ...}
Set of prime numbers: {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, ...}
Positive multiples of 3 that are less than 10: {3, 6, 9}

And the list goes on. We can come up with all different types of sets.

There can also be sets of numbers that have no common property, they are just defined that way. For
example:

{2, 3, 6, 828, 3839, 8827}

{4, 5, 6, 10, 21}
{2, 949, 48282, 42882959, 119484203}

Are all sets that I just randomly banged on my keyboard to produce.

Why are Sets Important?

Sets are the fundamental property of mathematics. Now as a word of warning, sets, by themselves,
seem pretty pointless. But it's only when we apply sets in different situations do they become the
powerful building block of mathematics that they are.

Math can get amazingly complicated quite fast. Graph Theory, Abstract Algebra, Real Analysis,
Complex Analysis, Linear Algebra, Number Theory, and the list goes on. But there is one thing that
all of these share in common: Sets.

Set-Builder Notation

How to describe a set by saying what properties its members have.

A Set is a collection of things (usually numbers).

Example: {5, 7, 11} is a set.

But we can also "build" a set by describing what is in it.

Here is a simple example of set-builder notation:

{x|x>0}

It says "the set of all x's, such that x is greater than 0".

In other words any value greater than 0

Universal Set

We call this the universal set. It's a set that contains everything. Well,
not exactlyeverything. Everything that is relevant to our question.

Equailty of Sets

Two sets are equal if they have precisely the same members. Now, at first glance they may not seem
equal, so we may have to examine them closely!

Example: Are A and B equal where:

A is the set whose members are the first four positive whole numbers

B = {4, 2, 1, 3}

Let's check. They both contain 1. They both contain 2. And 3, And 4. And we have checked every
element of both sets, so: Yes, they are equal!

Subsets

When we define a set, if we take pieces of that set, we can form what is called a subset.

Example: the set {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

A subset of this is {1, 2, 3}. Another subset is {3, 4} or even another is {1}, etc.

But {1, 6} is not a subset, since it has an element (6) which is not in the parent set.

In general:

A is a subset of B if and only if every element of A is in B.

So let's use this definition in some examples.

Example: Is A a subset of B, where A = {1, 3, 4} and B = {1, 4, 3, 2}?

1 is in A, and 1 is in B as well. So far so good.

3 is in A and 3 is also in B.

4 is in A, and 4 is in B.

That's all the elements of A, and every single one is in B, so we're done.

Yes, A is a subset of B

Note that 2 is in B, but 2 is not in A. But remember, that doesn't matter, we only look at the elements
in A.
Venn diagram

A Venn diagram (also called primary diagram, set diagram or logic diagram) is a diagram that
shows all possible logical relations between a finite collection of different sets. These diagrams
depict elements as points in the plane, and sets as regions inside closed curves. A Venn diagram
consists of multiple overlapping closed curves, usually circles, each representing a set. The points
inside a curve labelled Srepresent elements of the set S, while points outside the boundary represent
elements not in the set S.

This example involves two sets, A and B, represented here as coloured circles. The orange circle, set
A, represents all living creatures that are two-legged. The blue circle, set B, represents the living
creatures that can fly. Each separate type of creature can be imagined as a point somewhere in the
diagram. Living creatures that both can fly and have two legs—for example, parrots—are then in both
sets, so they correspond to points in the region where the blue and orange circles overlap. That region
contains all such and only such living creatures.

Set Operatipns

Sets can be combined in a number of different ways to produce another set. Here four basic
operations are introduced and their properties are discussed.

1.Definition (Union): The union of sets A and B, denoted by A B , is the set defined as

A B={x|x A x B}

Example 1: If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {4, 5} , then A B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} .

Example 2: If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {1, 2, 4, 5} , then A B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} .

Note that elements are not repeated in a set.

2.Definition (Intersection): The intersection of sets A and B, denoted by A B , is the set defined as

A B={x|x A x B}

Example 3: If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {1, 2, 4, 5} , then A B = {1, 2} .

Example 4: If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {4, 5} , then A B= .

3.Definition (Difference): The difference of sets A from B , denoted by A - B , is the set defined as

A-B={x|x A x B}

Example 5: If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {1, 2, 4, 5} , then A - B = {3} .

Example 6: If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {4, 5} , then A - B = {1, 2, 3} .

Note that in general A - B B-A

4.Definition (Complement): For a set A, the difference U - A , where U is the universe, is called
the complement of A and it is denoted by .
Thus is the set of everything that is not in A.

The fourth set operation is the Cartesian product We first define an ordered pair and Cartesian
product of two sets using it. Then the Cartesian product of multiple sets is defined using the concept
of n-tuple.

5.Definition (ordered pair):

An ordered pair is a pair of objects with an order associated with them.
If objects are represented by x and y, then we write the ordered pair as <x, y>.

Two ordered pairs <a, b> and <c, d> are equal if and only if a = c and b = d. For example the ordered
pair <1, 2> is not equal to the ordered pair <2, 1>.

6.Definition (Cartesian product):

The set of all ordered pairs <a, b>, where a is an element of A and b is an element of B, is called
the Cartesian product of A and B and is denoted by A X B. The concept of Cartesian product can be
extended to that of more than two sets. First we are going to define the concept of ordered n-tuple.
7.Definition (ordered n-tuple): An ordered n-tuple is a set of n objects with an order associated with
them (rigorous definition to be filled in). If n objects are represented by x1, x2, ..., xn, then we write
the ordered n-tuple as <x1, x2, ..., xn> .

Definition (Cartesian product): Let A1, ..., An be n sets. Then the set of all ordered n-tuples <x1,
..., xn> , where xi Ai for all i, 1 i n , is called the Cartesian product of A1, ..., An, and is

denoted byA1 ... An .

Definition (equality of n-tuples): Two ordered n-tuples <x1, ..., xn> and <y1, ..., yn> are equal if and
only if xi = yi for all i, 1 i n.
For example the ordered 3-tuple <1, 2, 3> is not equal to the ordered n-tuple <2, 3, 1>.

Cardinality of Sets.

The cardinality of a set is a measure of the "number of elements of the set". For example, the set A =
{2, 4, 6} contains 3 elements, and therefore A has a cardinality of 3.

Algebra of Set Operations

1. Commutative Laws:

For any two finite sets A and B;

(i) A U B = B U A

(ii) A ∩ B = B ∩ A

2. Associative Laws:

For any three finite sets A, B and C;

(i) (A U B) U C = A U (B U C)

(ii) (A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C)

Thus, union and intersection are associative.

3. Idempotent Laws:

For any finite set A;

(i) A U A = A
(ii) A ∩ A = A

4. Distributive Laws:

For any three finite sets A, B and C;

(i) A U (B ∩ C) = (A U B) ∩ (A U C)

(ii) A ∩ (B U C) = (A ∩ B) U (A ∩ C)

Thus, union and intersection are distributive over intersection and union respectively.

5. De Morgan’s Laws:

For any two finite sets A and B;

(i) A – (B U C) = (A – B) ∩ (A – C)

(ii) A - (B ∩ C) = (A – B) U (A – C)

De Morgan’s Laws can also we written as:

(i) (A U B)’ = A' ∩ B'

(ii) (A ∩ B)’ = A' U B'

More laws of algebra of sets:

6. For any two finite sets A and B;

(i) A – B = A ∩ B'

(ii) B – A = B ∩ A'

(iii) A – B = A ⇔A ∩ B = ∅

(iv) (A – B) U B = A U B

(v) (A – B) ∩ B = ∅

(vi) A ⊆ B ⇔B' ⊆ A'

(vii) (A – B) U (B – A) = (A U B) – (A ∩ B)
7. For any three finite sets A, B and C;

(i) A – (B ∩ C) = (A – B) U (A – C)

(ii) A – (B U C) = (A – B) ∩ (A – C)

(iii) A ∩ (B - C) = (A ∩ B) - (A ∩ C)

(iv) A ∩ (B △ C) = (A ∩ B) △ (A ∩ C)

Principle of inclusion and exclusion

The inclusion–exclusion principle is a counting technique which generalizes the familiar method of
obtaining the number of elements in the union of two finite sets; symbolically expressed as

AUB=A+B- A ∩ B

where A and B are two finite sets and |S| indicates the cardinality of a set S (which may be considered
as the number of elements of the set, if the set is finite). The formula expresses the fact that the sum
of the sizes of the two sets may be too large since some elements may be counted twice. The double-
counted elements are those in the intersection of the two sets and the count is corrected by subtracting
the size of the intersection.

The principle is more clearly seen in the case of three sets, which for the sets A, B and C is given by

AUBUC=A+B+C-A∩B-A∩C-B∩C+ A ∩ C ∩ B

This formula can be verified by counting how many times each region in the Venn diagram figure is
included in the right-hand side of the formula. In this case, when removing the contributions of over-
counted elements, the number of elements in the mutual intersection of the three sets has been
subtracted too often, so must be added back in to get the correct total.
Inclusion–exclusion illustrated by a Venn diagram for three sets

Generalizing the results of these examples gives the principle of inclusion–exclusion. To find the
cardinality of the union of n sets:

Include the cardinalities of the sets.

Exclude the cardinalities of the pairwise intersections.

Include the cardinalities of the triple-wise intersections.

Exclude the cardinalities of the quadruple-wise intersections.

Include the cardinalities of the quintuple-wise intersections.

Continue, until the cardinality of the n-tuple-wise intersection is included (if n is odd) or excluded
(n even).

Problems

1. Let A and B be two finite sets such that n(A) = 20, n(B) = 28 and n(A ∪ B) = 36, find n(A ∩ B).

Solution:

Using the formula n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) - n(A ∩ B).

then n(A ∩ B) = n(A) + n(B) - n(A ∪ B)

= 20 + 28 - 36

= 48 - 36

= 12

2. If n(A - B) = 18, n(A ∪ B) = 70 and n(A ∩ B) = 25, then find n(B).

Solution:

Using the formula n(A∪ B) = n(A - B) + n(A ∩ B) + n(B - A)

70 = 18 + 25 + n(B - A)

70 = 43 + n(B - A)
 n(B - A) = 70 - 43

n(B - A) = 27

Now n(B) = n(A ∩ B) + n(B - A)

= 25 + 27

= 52

3. In a group of 60 people, 27 like cold drinks and 42 like hot drinks and each person likes at least
one of the two drinks. How many like both coffee and tea?

Solution:

Let A = Set of people who like cold drinks.

B = Set of people who like hot drinks.

Given

(A ∪ B) = 60 n(A) = 27 n(B) = 42 then;

n(A ∩ B) = n(A) + n(B) - n(A ∪ B)

= 27 + 42 - 60

= 69 - 60 = 9

=9

Therefore, 9 people like both tea and coffee.

4. There are 35 students in art class and 57 students in dance class. Find the number of students who
are either in art class or in dance class.

• When two classes meet at different hours and 12 students are enrolled in both activities.

• When two classes meet at the same hour.

Solution:

n(A) = 35, n(B) = 57, n(A ∩ B) = 12

(Let A be the set of students in art class.

B be the set of students in dance class.)

(i) When 2 classes meet at different hours n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) - n(A ∩ B)

= 35 + 57 - 12

= 92 - 12

= 80

(ii) When two classes meet at the same hour, A∩B = ∅ n (A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) - n(A ∩ B)

= n(A) + n(B)

= 35 + 57

= 92

5. In a group of 100 persons, 72 people can speak English and 43 can speak French. How many can
speak English only? How many can speak French only and how many can speak both English and
French?

Solution:

Let A be the set of people who speak English.

B be the set of people who speak French.

A - B be the set of people who speak English and not French.

B - A be the set of people who speak French and not English.

A ∩ B be the set of people who speak both French and English.

Given,
n(A) = 72 n(B) = 43 n(A ∪ B) = 100

Now, n(A ∩ B) = n(A) + n(B) - n(A ∪ B)

= 72 + 43 - 100

= 115 - 100

= 15

Therefore, Number of persons who speak both French and English = 15

n(A) = n(A - B) + n(A ∩ B)

⇒ n(A - B) = n(A) - n(A ∩ B)

= 72 - 15

= 57

and n(B - A) = n(B) - n(A ∩ B)

= 43 - 15

= 28

Therefore, Number of people speaking English only = 57

Number of people speaking French only = 28

6. In a competition, a school awarded medals in different categories. 36 medals in dance, 12 medals

in dramatics and 18 medals in music. If these medals went to a total of 45 persons and only 4 persons
got medals in all the three categories, how many received medals in exactly two of these categories?

Solution:

Let A = set of persons who got medals in dance.

B = set of persons who got medals in dramatics.

C = set of persons who got medals in music.

Given,

n(A) = 36 n(B) = 12 n(C) = 18

n(A ∪ B ∪ C) = 45 n(A ∩ B ∩ C) = 4

We know that number of elements belonging to exactly two of the three sets A, B, C

= n(A ∩ B) + n(B ∩ C) + n(A ∩ C) - 3n(A ∩ B ∩ C)

= n(A ∩ B) + n(B ∩ C) + n(A ∩ C) - 3 × 4 ……..(i)

n(A ∪ B ∪ C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) - n(A ∩ B) - n(B ∩ C) - n(A ∩ C) + n(A ∩ B ∩ C)

Therefore, n(A ∩ B) + n(B ∩ C) + n(A ∩ C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) + n(A ∩ B ∩ C) - n(A ∪ B ∪ C)

From (i) required number

= n(A) + n(B) + n(C) + n(A ∩ B ∩ C) - n(A ∪ B ∪ C) - 12

= 36 + 12 + 18 + 4 - 45 - 12

= 70 - 67

=3

7. Each student in a class of 40 plays at least one indoor game chess, carrom and scrabble. 18 play
chess, 20 play scrabble and 27 play carrom. 7 play chess and scrabble, 12 play scrabble and carrom
and 4 play chess, carrom and scrabble. Find the number of students who play (i) chess and carrom.
(ii) chess, carrom but not scrabble.

Solution:

Let A be the set of students who play chess

B be the set of students who play scrabble

C be the set of students who play carrom

Therefore, We are given n(A ∪ B ∪ C) = 40,

n(A) = 18, n(B) = 20 n(C) = 27,

n(A ∩ B) = 7, n(C ∩ B) = 12 n(A ∩ B ∩ C) = 4

We have

n(A ∪ B ∪ C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) - n(A ∩ B) - n(B ∩ C) - n(C ∩ A) + n(A ∩ B ∩ C)

Therefore, 40 = 18 + 20 + 27 - 7 - 12 - n(C ∩ A) + 4

40 = 69 – 19 - n(C ∩ A)

40 = 50 - n(C ∩ A) n(C ∩ A) = 50 - 40

n(C ∩ A) = 10

Therefore, Number of students who play chess and carrom are 10.

Also, number of students who play chess, carrom and not scrabble.

= n(C ∩ A) - n(A ∩ B ∩ C)

= 10 – 4

=6

Therefore, we learned how to solve different types of word problems on sets without using Venn
diagram.
Propositional Logic.

A proposition is a collection of declarative statements that has either a truth value "true” or a truth
value "false". A propositional consists of propositional variables and connectives. We denote the
propositional variables by capital letters (A, B, etc). The connectives connect the propositional
variables.

Some examples of Propositions are given below −

"Man is Mortal", it returns truth value “TRUE”

"12 + 9 = 3 – 2", it returns truth value “FALSE”

The following is not a Proposition −

"A is less than 2". It is because unless we give a specific value of A, we cannot say whether the
statement is true or false.

Connectives
In propositional logic generally we use five connectives which are −

OR (∨ )

AND (∧ )

Negation/ NOT (¬)

Implication / if-then (→)

If and only if (⇔).

OR (∨ ) − The OR operation of two propositions A and B (written as A∨ B) is true if at least any of

the propositional variable A or B is true.
The truth table is as follows −

A B A ∨B

True True True

True False True

False True True

False False False

AND (∧) − The AND operation of two propositions A and B (written as A∧B) is true if both the
propositional variable A and B is true.

The truth table is as follows −

A B A ∧B

True True True

True False False

False True False

False False False

Negation (¬) − The negation of a proposition A (written as ¬A) is false when A is true and is true
when A is false.

The truth table is as follows −

A ¬A

True False
 False True

Implication / if-then (→) − An implication A→B is the proposition “if A, then B”. It is false if A is true
and B is false. The rest cases are true.

The truth table is as follows −

A B A→B

True True True

True False False

False True True

False False True

If and only if (⇔
) − A⇔
B is bi-conditional logical connective which is true when p and q are same, i.e.
both are false or both are true.

The truth table is as follows −

A B A ⇔B

True True True

True False False

False True False

False False True

Tautologies

A Tautology is a formula which is always true for every value of its propositional variables.

Example − Prove [(A→B)∧A]→B[(A→B)∧A]→B is a tautology

The truth table is as follows −

A B A→B (A → B) ∧ A [( A → B ) ∧ A] → B

True True True True True

True False False False True

False True True False True

False False True False True

As we can see every value of [(A→B)∧A]→B[(A→B)∧A]→B is "True", it is a tautology.

Contradictions

A Contradiction is a formula which is always false for every value of its propositional variables.

Example − Prove (A∨B)∧[(¬A)∧(¬B)](A∨B)∧[(¬A)∧(¬B)] is a contradiction

The truth table is as follows −

A B A ∨B ¬A ¬B (¬ A) ∧ ( ¬ B) (A ∨ B) ∧ [( ¬ A) ∧ (¬ B)]

True True True False False False False

True False True False True False False

False True True True False False False

False False False True True True False

As we can see every value of (A∨B)∧[(¬A)∧(¬B)](A∨B)∧[(¬A)∧(¬B)] is “False”, it is a contradiction.

Contingency

A Contingency is a formula which has both some true and some false values for every value of its
propositional variables.

Example − Prove (A∨B)∧(¬A)(A∨B)∧(¬A) a contingency

The truth table is as follows −

A B A ∨B ¬A (A ∨ B) ∧ (¬ A)

True True True False False

True False True False False

False True True True True

False False False True False

As we can see every value of (A∨B)∧(¬A)(A∨B)∧(¬A) has both “True” and “False”, it is a contingency.

Propositional Equivalences

Two statements X and Y are logically equivalent if any of the following two conditions hold −

The truth tables of each statement have the same truth values.

The bi-conditional statement X⇔

YX⇔
Y is a tautology.

Example − Prove ¬(A∨B)and[(¬A)∧(¬B)]¬(A∨B)and[(¬A)∧(¬B)] are equivalent

Testing by 1st method (Matching truth table)

A B A ∨B ¬ (A ∨ B) ¬A ¬B [(¬ A) ∧ (¬ B)]

True True True False False False False

True False True False False True False

False True True False True False False

False False False True True True True

Here, we can see the truth values of ¬(A∨B)and[(¬A)∧(¬B)]¬(A∨B)and[(¬A)∧(¬B)] are same, hence the
statements are equivalent.

Testing by 2nd method (Bi-conditionality)

A B ¬ (A ∨ B ) [(¬ A) ∧ (¬ B)] [¬ (A ∨ B)] ⇔[(¬ A ) ∧ (¬ B)]

True True False False True

True False False False True

False True False False True

False False True True True

As [¬(A∨B)]⇔
[(¬A)∧(¬B)][¬(A∨B)]⇔
[(¬A)∧(¬B)] is a tautology, the statements are equivalent.

Inverse, Converse, and Contra-positive

Implication / if-then (→)(→) is also called a conditional statement. It has two parts −

Hypothesis, p

Conclusion, q

As mentioned earlier, it is denoted as p→qp→q.

Example of Conditional Statement − “If you do your homework, you will not be punished.” Here,
"you do your homework" is the hypothesis, p, and "you will not be punished" is the conclusion, q.

Inverse − An inverse of the conditional statement is the negation of both the hypothesis and the
conclusion. If the statement is “If p, then q”, the inverse will be “If not p, then not q”. Thus the
inverse of p→qp→q is ¬p→¬q¬p→¬q.

Example − The inverse of “If you do your homework, you will not be punished” is “If you do not do
your homework, you will be punished.”
Converse − The converse of the conditional statement is computed by interchanging the hypothesis
and the conclusion. If the statement is “If p, then q”, the converse will be “If q, then p”. The
converse of p→qp→q is q→pq→p.

Example − The converse of "If you do your homework, you will not be punished" is "If you will not be
punished, you do not do your homework”.

Contra-positive − The contra-positive of the conditional is computed by interchanging the

hypothesis and the conclusion of the inverse statement. If the statement is “If p, then q”, the
contra-positive will be “If not q, then not p”. The contra-positive of p→qp→q is ¬q→¬p¬q→¬p.

Example − The Contra-positive of " If you do your homework, you will not be punished” is "If you are
not punished, then you do not do your homework”.

Duality Principle

Duality principle states that for any true statement, the dual statement obtained by interchanging
unions into intersections (and vice versa) and interchanging Universal set into Null set (and vice
versa) is also true. If dual of any statement is the statement itself, it is said self-dual statement.

Example − The dual of (A∩B)∪C(A∩B)∪C is (A∪B)∩C(A∪B)∩C

Normal Forms

We can convert any proposition in two normal forms −

1.Conjunctive Normal Form

A compound statement is in conjunctive normal form if it is obtained by operating AND among

variables (negation of variables included) connected with ORs. In terms of set operations, it is a
compound statement obtained by Intersection among variables connected with Unions.

Examples

(A∨B)∧(A∨C)∧(B∨C∨D)(A∨B)∧(A∨C)∧(B∨C∨D)

(P∪Q)∩(Q∪R)(P∪Q)∩(Q∪R)

2.Disjunctive Normal Form

A compound statement is in conjunctive normal form if it is obtained by operating OR among

variables (negation of variables included) connected with ANDs. In terms of set operations, it is a
compound statement obtained by Union among variables connected with Intersections.

Examples
(A∧B)∨(A∧C)∨(B∧C∧D)(A∧B)∨(A∧C)∨(B∧C∧D)

(P∩Q)∪(Q∩R)

List of Identities:

1.P (P P) ----- idempotence of

2.P (P P) ----- idempotence of

3.(P Q) (Q P) ----- commutativity of

4.(P Q) (Q P) ----- commutativity of

5.[(P Q) R] [P (Q R)] ----- associativity of

6.[(P Q) R] [P (Q R)] ----- associativity of

7. (P Q) ( P Q) ----- DeMorgan's Law

8. (P Q) ( P Q) ----- DeMorgan's Law

9.[P (Q R] [(P Q) (P R)] ----- distributivity of over

10.[P (Q R] [(P Q) (P R)] ----- distributivity of over

11.(P True) True

12.(P False) False

13.(P False) P

14.(P True) P

15.(P P) True

16.(P P) False

17.P ( P) ----- double negation

18.(P Q) ( P Q) ----- implication

19.(P Q) [(P Q) (Q P)]----- equivalence

20.[(P Q) R] [P (Q R)] ----- exportation

21.[(P Q) (P Q)] P ----- absurdity

22.(P Q) ( Q P) ----- contrapositive

Logical equivalence

Two Statements are logically equivalent if both have same truth values.

Example

P Q P Q P Q P Q
True True True False False True
True False False True False False
False True True False True True
False False True True True True

here P Q is logically equivalent to P Q

Solved Problems.

1. Show (X Y) (~(X Y)) =(X (~Y)) Y simple equivalence.

Proof:

LHS:

(X Y) (~(X Y))

X Y X Y (~(X Y) (X Y) (~(X Y))

T T T F T

T F T F T

F T T F T

F F F T T
RHS:

(X (~Y)) Y

X Y ~Y (X (~Y)) (X (~Y)) Y

T T F T T

T F T T T

F T F F T

F F T T T

2. Show that P (Q R) and( P R) Q are equivalent

P Q R Q R P ( P R (P R)
Q R) Q
True True True False False True False True
True True False False True False True False
True False True True False True False True
True False False True True True True True
False True True False False True False True
False True False False True True False True
False False True True False True False True
False False False True True True False True

Predicate Logic – Definition

A predicate is an expression of one or more variables defined on some specific domain. A predicate
with variables can be made a proposition by either assigning a value to the variable or by
quantifying the variable.

The following are some examples of predicates −

Let E(x, y) denote "x = y"

Let X(a, b, c) denote "a + b + c = 0"

Let M(x, y) denote "x is married to y"

Well Formed Formula

Well Formed Formula (wff) is a predicate holding any of the following −

All propositional constants and propositional variables are wffs

If x is a variable and Y is a wff, ∀xY∀xY and ∃xY∃xY are also wff

Truth value and false values are wffs

Each atomic formula is a wff

All connectives connecting wffs are wffs

Quantifiers

The variable of predicates is quantified by quantifiers. There are two types of quantifier in predicate
logic − Universal Quantifier and Existential Quantifier.

Universal Quantifier
Universal quantifier states that the statements within its scope are true for
every value of the specific variable. It is denoted by the symbol ∀∀ .
∀xP(x)∀xP(x) is read as for every value of x, P(x) is true.
Example − "Man is mortal" can be transformed into the propositional
form ∀xP(x)∀xP(x) where P(x) is the predicate which denotes x is mortal and
the universe of discourse is all men.
Existential Quantifier
Existential quantifier states that the statements within its scope are true for
some values of the specific variable. It is denoted by the symbol ∃∃.
∃xP(x)∃xP(x) is read as for some values of x, P(x) is true.
Example − "Some people are dishonest" can be transformed into the
propositional form ∃xP(x)∃xP(x) where P(x) is the predicate which denotes x is
dishonest and the universe of discourse is some people.
Nested Quantifiers
If we use a quantifier that appears within the scope of another quantifier, it is
called nested quantifier.

Example

∀ a∃bP(x,y)∀ a∃bP(x,y) where P(a,b)P(a,b) denotes a+b=0a+b=0



 ∀ a∀b∀cP(a,b,c)∀ a∀b∀cP(a,b,c) where P(a,b)P(a,b) denotes a+(b+c)=(

a+b)+ca+(b+c)=(a+b)+c
Note − ∀a∃bP(x,y)≠∃a∀bP(x,y)

Translating English Sentences

Logic is the study of arguments. We all share a basic understanding of this term. An argument is a
series of reasons supporting a conclusion. The following argument supports the conclusion that John
is wearing a coat.

(1) If it is snowing, it is cold If it is cold,

John is wearing a coat

It is snowing

Therefore, John is wearing a coat

I have separated the reasons in this argument (above the line) from the conclusion (below the line).
There is a strong sense that the argument in (1) constitutes a valid piece of reasoning. If the reasons
hold, then the conclusion is guaranteed. There are arguments that are less transparent than the one
in (1). The argument in (2), for example, is a little more difficult to see but it too is valid.

(2) If it is raining, it is not cold If is not raining,

John is not wearing a coat It is cold

Therefore, John is not wearing a coat There are also arguments that fall short.

Arguments for which the conclusion is not guaranteed. Such arguments do not constitute valid
pieces of reasoning. The argument illustrated in (3) is not valid. (3) If it is snowing, it is cold or it is
wet If it is cold, John is wearing a coat It is snowing Therefore, John is wearing a coat
Translating Simple Declarative Sentences a.

1. Let p = It is raining
2. Let q = Mary is sick
3. Let t = Bob stayed up late last night
4. Let r = Paris is the capital of France
5. Let s = John is a loud-mouth

Translating Negation a. It isn’t raining ¬p b. It is not the case that Mary isn’t sick ¬¬q

Translating Conjunction a. It is raining and Mary is sick (p ∧ q) b. Bob stayed up late last night and
John is a loud-mouth (t ∧ s)

Translating Disjunction a. It is raining or Mary is sick (p ∨ q) b. Paris is the capital of France and it is
raining or John is a loud-mouth ((r ∧ p) ∨ s) (r ∧ (p ∨ s))

Translating Implication a. If it is raining, then Mary is sick (p → q) b. It is raining, when John is a loud-
mouth (s → p) c. Mary is sick and it is raining implies that Bob stayed up late last night ((q ∧ p) → t)

Translating Equivalence a. It is raining if and only if Mary is sick (p ↔ q) b. If Mary is sick then it is
raining, and vice versa ((p → q) ∧ (q → p)) (p ↔ q)

Mathematical Induction:

Mathematical Induction is a special way of proving things. It has only 2 steps:

Step 1. Show it is true for the first one

Step 2. Show that if any one is true then the next one is true
Then all are true

How to Do it

Step 1 is usually easy, we just have to prove it is true for n=1

Step 2 is best done this way:

 Assume it is true for n=k
 Prove it is true for n=k+1 (we can use the n=k case as a fact.)

Note: Step 2 can often be tricky, we may need to use imaginative tricks to make it work!

Like in this example:

example: is 3n−1 a multiple of 2?

Is that true? Let us find out.

1. Show it is true for n=1

31−1 = 3−1 = 2

Yes 2 is a multiple of 2. That was easy.

31−1 is true

2. Assume it is true for n=k

3k−1 is true

Now, prove that 3k+1−1 is a multiple of 2

3k+1 is also 3×3k

And then split 3× into 2× and 1×

And each of these are multiples of 2

Because:

 2×3k is a multiple of 2 (we are multiplying by 2)

 3k−1 is true (we said that in the assumption above)

So:

3k+1−1 is true

1 + 3 + 5 + ... + (2n−1) = n2

1. Show it is true for n=1

1 = 12 is True

2. Assume it is true for n=k

1 + 3 + 5 + ... + (2k−1) = k2 is True

(An assumption!)

Now, prove it is true for "k+1"

1 + 3 + 5 + ... + (2k−1) + (2(k+1)−1) = (k+1)2 ?

We know that 1 + 3 + 5 + ... + (2k−1) = k2 (the assumption above), so we can do a replacement for all
but the last term:

k2 + (2(k+1)−1) = (k+1)2

Now expand all terms:

k2 + 2k + 2 − 1 = k2 + 2k+1

And simplify:

k2 + 2k + 1 = k2 + 2k + 1

They are the same! So it is true.

So:

1 + 3 + 5 + ... + (2(k+1)−1) = (k+1)2 is True