Contents

8.1 lntroduction ........................................................................................................................................ 8.2

8.2 Types of Grinding Machines .............................................................................................................. 8.2
8.3 Roughing or Non-Precision Grinders ................................................................................................. 8.3
8.4 Cylindrical Grinders ........................................................................................................................... 8.6
8.5 Surface Grinders............................................................................................................................... 8.10
8.6 Rotary Table Type Surface Grinders................................................................................................ 8.11
8.7 Internal Grinders .............................................................................................................................. 8.12
8.8 Special Grinding Machines .............................................................................................................. 8.14
8.9 Common Grinding Wheel Shapes .................................................................................................... 8.16
8.10 Method of specifying or marking of grinding wheel........................................................................ 8.17
8.11 Grinding Wheels and Materials ........................................................................................................ 8.18
8.12 Bonds................................................................................................................................................ 8.19
8.13 Grain Grade and Structure of Grinding wheels ................................................................................ 8.21
8.14 Selection of Grinding Wheel ............................................................................................................ 8.22
8.15 Mounting of Grinding Wheel ........................................................................................................... 8.23
8.16 Loading and Glazing of Grinding Wheels ....................................................................................... 8.24
8.17 Turning and dressing of Grinding wheel .......................................................................................... 8.24
8.18 Balancing of Grinding wheel ........................................................................................................... 8.25
8.19 References ........................................................................................................................................ 8.25
8.1 introduction
 We have already seen the grinding operation in our domestic applications For example sharpening of knives,
sensors, etc.
 Grinding is a process of removing the wheel on the surface of the workpiece. material by the abrasive action
of a revolving
 During the grinding process, the material is removed in the form of small chips
 The wheel used for performing the grinding operation is called a grinding wheel.
 Grinding wheel consists of sharp crystals which are called abrasives held together with the bonding materials.
 Grinding is considered as finishing operation because a very small amount of material is removed from the
surface
 Hence, the machine tool used for providing a good surface finish and high accuracy to the components by
removing the small amount of material with the help of the grinding wheel is called grinding machine or
grinder.
Working principle of grinding machine
 Generally, in a grinding machine, the grinding wheel is mounted on the spindle which is driven by an electric
motor.
 During the process, a high-speed revolving grinding wheel is brought in contact with the workpiece.
 ln many of the grinding machines, the workpiece is also revolving (cylindrical grinder) and in some of the
machines reciprocating (surface grinders). Refer Fig. 8.1 (a) and (b),

a. cylindrical grinder b. surface grinder

Fig.8.1 – Working principle of grinding machine

8.2 Types of Grinding Machines

 There are various types of grinding machines which have been designed and some of them are used for
roughing work, for precision work and for special
 However, the most commonly used types can be broadly classified as follows :
1. Rough or Non-Precision Grinders
2. Precision grinders

Prof. Paras G. Vegada Department of Mechanical Engineering

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 1. Rough or Non-Precision grinders
 The main purpose of roughing grinders is to remove more material than that can be removed by the other
types of grinders this class of grinders includes followings grinding machines
a) Bench, pedestal or floor grinders
b) Swing frame grinders
c) Portable grinders
d) Belt grinders
2. Precision grinders
 Precision grinders remove a small amount of material and finish the workpiece to a very accurate dimension.
 As per the type of surface generated, precision grinders are classified as follows:
I. Cylindrical grinders
a) Plain cylindrical grinders
b) Universal cylindrical grinders
c) Centreless grinders
II. Surface grinders
a) Reciprocating table
i. Horizontal spindle
ii. Vertical spindle
b) Rotary table
i. Horizontal spindle
ii. Vertical spindle
III. Internal grinders:
a) Plain internal grinders
b) Universal internal grinders
c) Planetary internal grinders
d) Centreless internal grinders
IV. Special grinding machines

8.3 Roughing or Non-Precision Grinders

8.3.1 Bench, Pedestal or Floor Grinders

 These types of grinders are mostly used for Snagging and Off-hand grinding of different materials and cutting
tools in the tool room, foundries, general workshops, etc.

 It consists of a horizontal spindle having grinding wheels mounted at both ends.

 Fig. 8.2 shows a typical bench grinder.

Prof. Paras G. Vegada Department of Mechanical Engineering

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 Fig.8.2 – Bench grinder

 It consists of a horizontal spindle having grinding wheels mounted at both ends.

 Fig. 8.2 shows a typical bench grinder.
 A bench grinder can be easily bolted on a bench at a convenient height.
 The floor or pedestal grinders are nothing but a bench grinder that can be mounted on a steel stand or pedestal
of suitable height. Refer Fig. 8.3.

Fig.8.3 – pedestal grinder

 The working principle of these grinders is similar to bench grinders.

 These grinders are also used for polishing by replacing the grinding wheel with a polishing wheel

8.3.2 SwingFrame Grinder

 Swing frame grinders have a 2 to 4 meters long horizontal frame which is freely suspended at its center.
 The frame carries a grinding wheel at one of the ends and a motor at the other end. Refer Fig. 8.4.

Prof. Paras G. Vegada Department of Mechanical Engineering

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 Fig.8.4 – Swing Frame Grinder

 During the operation, to cover the required grinding area the motor revolves the wheel and the frame is swung
by the operator about its suspension point.
 The motor drives the grinding wheel by using a belt drive.
 This is used for snagging, particularly for casting that is too large for the operator to hold up to the wheel.

8.3.3 Portable Grinders

 Portable grinders are similar to a portable electric drill, in construction and operation.
 The only difference is that the drill spindle carries a drill chuck and the grinder carries the grinding wheel.

Fig.8.5 – portable pneumatic grinder

 For safety purpose, a safety guard is provided over the wheel,

 These grinders are widely used for finishing of castings, forgings. Welded joints, removing burrs and nicks,
jigs and fixtures, etc.
 Portable grinders can be of the electric type or pneumatic type.
 Fig. 8.5 shows a portable pneumatic grinder.

8.3.4 Belt Grinders

 Belt grinders are designed for using an endless abrasive belt for grinding instead of the regular grinding
wheel.
 The belt runs around the pulleys and the workpiece is fed against the revolving abrasive coated belt.
 Machines are available in various varieties such as wet belts, dry belts, combination machines, etc.

Prof. Paras G. Vegada Department of Mechanical Engineering

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8.4 Cylindrical Grinders
 Cylindrical grinding involves holding of the workpiece rigidly on centers, in a chuck or in a suitable holding
fixture, rotating it about its axis and feeding a revolving grinding wheel against the same.

Fig.8.6 – the principle of cylindrical grinding

 Fig. 8.6 shows the principle of cylindrical grinding.

 If the workpiece is longer than the face width of the grinding wheel, then the workpiece is traversed past the
wheel or wheel is traversed past the workpiece.
 Traversing of the wheel is done either hydraulically, mechanically or manually.
 When the face width of the wheel is more or equal to the workpiece, then traversing of workpiece or wheel
is not required and that is called plunge grinding.
 There are three main types of cylindrical grinding machines :
1. Plain grinders 2. Universal grinders 3. Centreless grinder

8.4.1 Plain Cylindrical Grinders

 It consists of two centers i.e. one in the headstock and other in the tailstock and the Workpiece is held between
these two centers. Refer Fig. 8.7.

Fig.8.7 – Plain Cylindrical Grinders

Prof. Paras G. Vegada Department of Mechanical Engineering

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  While operation, the rotating workpiece is traversed across the face width of the grinding wheel.
 The amount of feed of the workpiece is equal to the depth of cut.
 Tailstock and headstock both can be moved along the table as per the workpiece requirement, but generally,
the headstock center is not disturbed.
 The table is made in two parts i.e. the upper table and the lower table.
 The upper table contains tailstock, headstock, and workpiece.
 Also, the upper table can be swivelled in a horizontal plane up to 10° on either side, along the circular ways
provided on the lower table,
 The lower table is mounted over horizontal guideways for providing longitudinal traverse to the upper table
and workpiece.
 The table movements can be controlled both by hand and power.

8.4.2 Universal Cylindrical Grinders

 Universal cylindrical grinder contains all the parts and movements of a plain cylindrical grinder and some
additional features are as follows :
 The headstock spindle may be used alive or dead so that the work can be held and revolved by chuck and
grounded between the centers.
 The headstock can be swivelled in a horizontal plane.
 Its wheel head can be raised or lowered and also swivelled to ± 90° for grinding taper surfaces having large
taper angles.

8.4.3 Centreless Grinders

 The working principle of centreless grinding is different than the center type grinding.
 In centreless grinding, the workpiece is supported by a combination of the grinding wheel, regulating wheel
and a work rest blade.
 Fig. 8.8 shows the principle of centreless grinding which is used for both external and internal grinding.
 Many hollow cylindrical and tapered workpieces such as bushes, pistons, valves, tubes, and balls are easily
grounded on centreless grinders.

Fig.8.8 – the principle of through-feed centreless grinding

Prof. Paras G. Vegada Department of Mechanical Engineering

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 Fig.8.9 – Centreless Grinders

 Fig. 8.9 shows the block diagram of the centreless grinder with its main parts and controls.
 It contains a heavy base and two-wheel heads i.e. grinding wheel (bigger one) and regulating wheel (smaller
one).
 Each wheel head carries a separate truing mechanism for the wheel it carries.
 The workpiece rests on the work rest blade between these two wheels.
 The grinding operation is performed by the grinding wheel only whereas; the regulating wheel provides
support to the workpiece when it is pushed away by the cutting pressure of the grinding wheel
 Also, bottom support is provided by the work rest as the workpiece during rotation rests on the work rest
blade.
 Due to this, the workpiece remains in contact with the grinding wheel.
 The direction of rotation of the grinding wheel and regulating wheel is the same
 The common methods used for feeding the workpiece are as follows :
a) Through feed
b) linefeed
c) End feed
1. Through feed grinding:
 In this method, the workpiece is supported and rotated as described earlier, but it is simultaneously given an
axial movement also by the regulating wheel and guides.
 For this purpose, the axis of the regulating wheel can be inclined from 2° to 10° (α) with the vertical. Refer
to Fig' 8.8.
 The amount of actual feed is determined by using the following relation :

Prof. Paras G. Vegada Department of Mechanical Engineering

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 𝑓 = 𝜋𝑑𝑛 sin 𝛼
Where f =Feed in mm/min
N = Number of revolutions/min
D =Diameter of regulating wheel in mm
g = Angle of inclination of regulating wheel with vertical
2. infeed grinding

Fig.8.10 – infeed grinding

 Infeed grinding is similar to plunge cut grinding used on cylindrical grinders

 Before the operation, the regulating wheel is drawn back so that the workpiece may be placed on the work
rest blade
 After this, the regulating wheel is pushed in to feed the workpiece against the grinding wheel
 This method is used for grinding shouldered and formed surfaces. Refer Fig. 8.10
3. End feed grinding
 In this method, the grinding wheel and regulating wheel are dressed to contain the desired shape or form.
Refer Fig. 8.11

Fig.8.11 – End feed centreless grinding

 The workpiece is fed longitudinally from the side of the wheels.

 As the workpiece advances between both wheels, its surface is ground till it further touches the end stop.

Prof. Paras G. Vegada Department of Mechanical Engineering

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  This grinding method is used for spherical and tapered surfaces

8.4.3.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Centreless Grinding

Advantage
 In centreless grinding, the need for centering and the use of fixtures is totally avoided.
 This method is applicable for both internal and external grinding,
 The process is continuous and hence, suitable for production work.
 During the operation, the workpiece is rigidly supported and can be subjected to heavy cuts, resulting in a
rapid and economical grinding.
 Large grinding wheels are used hence; errors due to wheel wear are reduced. Less maintenance of the
machine.
 For operating the machine high skilled operators are not required.
 Direct adjustment of sizes can be made which results in higher accuracy.
Disadvantage
Some disadvantages of centreless grinding are as follows:
 A workpiece having multiple diameters is difficult to handle.
 In a hollow workpiece, there is no certainty that the outside diameter will be concentric with the inside
diameter.

8.5 Surface Grinders

 The operation of surface grinders is similar to shaper, planer or milling machines but with more precision.
 Basically, surface grinders are used to machine flat surfaces and irregular, regular or tapered surfaces.
 As per the table movement and positions of the spindle, the surface grinders are classified as follows :

1. Reciprocating table :
a. Horizontal spindle
b. Vertical spindle
2. Rotary table:
a. Horizontal spindle
b. Vertical spindle

8.5.1 Reciprocating Table Type Surface Grinders

 Fig. 8.12 (a) and (b) shows the working principle of reciprocating table type surface grinders with horizontal
and vertical spindles.
 The horizontal spindle machine carries a straight wheel whereas; vertical spindle machine carries a cup type
wheel.
 The cutting action is carried by the periphery of the straight wheel in case of a horizontal spindle machine,
whereas on the revolving edge of the cup wheel in case of vertical spindle machine.

Prof. Paras G. Vegada Department of Mechanical Engineering

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 a.Vertical spindle reciprocating b. Horizontal spindle reciprocating
table surface grinder table surface grinder
Fig.8.12 – Surface grinders

 On these machines, the workpiece is generally held on a magnetic chuck.

 These machines are mostly used for grinding flat surfaces.
 In the case of vertical spindle grinder, the table along with the workpiece reciprocates under the wheel and
wheel covers all or major portions of the width of the job.

8.6 Rotary Table Type Surface Grinders

 Fig. 8.13 (a) and (b) shows the relative movements of the wheel and table.
 ln, these machines the workpiece are held on a magnetic chuck and arranged in a circle.

a. Horizontal spindle rotary table surface b. Vertical spindle rotary table surface
grinder grinder

Fig.8.13 – Surface grinders

 In both of the machines, the direction of rotation of the wheel and table is the opposite.
 In a horizontal spindle grinder, the crossfeed is given by the horizontal movement of the wheel spindle
whereas in vertical spindle grinder it is by sliding a table on a slide.

Prof. Paras G. Vegada Department of Mechanical Engineering

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8.7 Internal Grinders
 Internal grinders are used for grinding internal surfaces of different types of holes such as cylindrical, tapered,
formed, etc.
 Blind or through holes can be ground by internal grinders.
 These machines are made in various types and designs, some of the common types are as follows :
a. Plain internal grinders b. Universal internal grinders
c. Planetary internal grinders d. Centreless internal grinders

8.7.1 Plain Internal Grinders

Fig.8.14 – the principle of internal grinding on a plain internal

grinding machine

 It carries an individually driven wheel head mounted on a cross-slide.

 To hold the workpiece, the work head carries either a chuck or faceplate or sometimes fixture attached to the
work head spindle.
 For grinding the tapered holes, the warhead can be swivelled.
 Fig8.14 shows the operating principle and relative movements of the grinding wheel and

8.7.2 Universal internal grinder

 A universal internal grinder carries all the similar features of the plain internal grinder.
 In addition, its work head is mounted on a cross-slide which provides a cross-feed to the work head.
 Another important feature of universal grinders is that its work head can be swivelled through 90.

Fig.8.15 – the principle of internal grinding on a universal internal grinding

machine

Prof. Paras G. Vegada Department of Mechanical Engineering

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  Fig. 8.15 shows the relative moments of the workpiece and grinding wheel.
 Universal grinders are used to grind cylindrical and tapered holes, flat surfaces, convex and concave surfaces,
etc.

8.7.3 Planetary internal Grinders

Fig.8.16 – the principle of planetary internal Grinding

 In planetary grinding, the workpiece is mounted on a slide and remains stationary.

 The wheel head carries a mechanism, because of which the axis of the rotating grinding wheel travels along
a circular path around the hole axis. Refer Fig. 8.16.
 The longitudinal traversing movement can be obtained in the following two ways :
1. By the reciprocating movement of the grinding wheel.
2. By moving the slide (forward and backward), on which the workpiece is mounted.
 Planetary grinders are used to grind holes in large, irregular shaped and heard workpiece.

8.7.4 Centreless Internal Grinders

 The principle of internal centreless grinding is almost similar to external cylindrical grinding.
 Only the method of supporting the workpiece is different.

Fig.8.17 – Centreless Internal Grinders

Prof. Paras G. Vegada Department of Mechanical Engineering

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  In an internal centreless grinding the workpiece is supported between three rolls i.e. pressure ro11, supporting
ro11 and a regulating wheel. Refer Fig. 8.17.
 All three rolls rotate in the same direction whereas, the workpiece and the grinding wheel rotate in the
opposite direction.
 The grinding wheel remains in contact with the internal surface of the workpiece at the horizontal centerline
of the regulating wheel.
 It ensures a uniform wall thickness of the workpiece and hence, concentricity of the grounded internal hole
with the external surface of the workpiece.
 For loading and unloading of the workpiece, the pressure roll can be swung to a side

8.8 Special Grinding Machines

 These machines are designed, to do some specialized operations. Some common types of special grinding
machines are as follows :
1. Tool and cutter grinders 2. Piston grinders
3. Tool post grinders 4. Camshaft grinders
5. Disc grinders 6. Thread grinders

8.8.1 Tool and Cutter Grinders

 Tool and cutter grinders are mostly used to sharpen and recondition multiple tooth cutters such as reamers,
milling cutters, drills, taps, hobs, broaches, etc.
 These machines are mainly used for tool room work.

Fig.8.18 – Tool and cutter grinder

 These machines are also capable of doing light cylindrical, surface and internal grinding operations.
 Tool and cutter grinder is a machine that supports the cutter while a rotating abrasive wheel is applied to the
cuffing edge for the purpose of sharpening it.
 According to the purpose of grinding, they are classified into two groups :
1. Universal tool and cutter grinders
2. Single-purpose tool and cutter grinders

Prof. Paras G. Vegada Department of Mechanical Engineering

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  But, a universal tool and cutter grinder is the most versatile and widely used type.
 Single-purpose grinders are particularly used for grinding tools such as drills, tool-bit, etc. in large production
plants where a large amount of grinding work is needed.
 Also, with single purpose grinder tools can be grounded uniformly and with accurate cutting angles.
 Fig. 8.18 shows a typical tool and cutter grinder.

8.8.2 Thread Grinding

 Thread grinding is applied when :
o The hardness of the work material makes it difficult to produce the thread by other processes.
o The dimensional and form accuracy is very high.
o The work material is too soft to get a good surface finish by the other methods.
 Taps, thread milling cutters, thread gauges, precision lead screw, and micrometer screw are some examples
of thread grinding applications.
 Threads are ground by contact between a rotating workpiece and a grinding wheel dressed to the desired
form

8.8.2.1 Thread Grinding Machines

 These are similar to cylindrical grinding machines but they have following important additional features :
 Means for imparting precise longitudinal travel of the table for each revolution of the work to produce the
desired helical form.
 Provision of tilting the wheel head to the helix angle of the thread.
 Devices for dressing the wheel periphery to the required form of thread.
 Provision for relief grinding components such as taps and cutters.
 Thread grinding machines may be of external, internal or universal type and they employ either single ribbed
or multi-ribbed wheels.
Single Ribbed Wheel
 In this type, the wheel terms against the rotation of the workpiece.
 With this rotary motion, relative axial motion between the wheel and job is provided by means of a lead
screw.
 The wheel is tilted at a helix angle of thread, which is to be produced with the job axis.

a. Traverse grinding b. Plunge cut grinding

Fig.8.19 – Multi-ribbed wheel

Prof. Paras G. Vegada Department of Mechanical Engineering

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  This method is called as Traverse grinding of thread, as shown in Fig. 8.19 (a) and useful for the production
of long and coarse pitch threads,
Multi-Ribbed Wheel
 In this process, the grinding wheel is a little bit longer than the workpiece and used to cut whole threads in
one revolution of the workpiece.
 During the process, the wheel is fed into the work to the required depth and moves axially through a distance
of pitch.
 The wheel (cutter) is set parallel to the axis of the job. This method is called plunge-cut grinding as shown
in Fig. 8.19.
 Very accurate threads are produced by this method'

8.9 Common Grinding Wheel Shapes

 The most common shapes of grinding wheels are shown in Table 8.1 with their typical applications

Table 8.1 - Grinding wheel shapes

Shape Name Application

Straight Cylindrical, centreless, internal, cutter,
(Type 1) surface and off-hand grinding operations

Cylinder Surface grinding on horizontal and vertical

(Type 2) spindle grinders.

Tapered It is primarily used for grinding thread, gear

(both sides) teeth, etc.
(Type 4)
Recessed Cylindrical, centreless. internal, and surface
(one side) grinders; recess, provides clearance for
(Type 5) mounting; the flange
Straight cup Cutter and tool grinder and surface grinding
(Type 6) on vertical and horizontal spindle machines.

Recessed Cylindrical, centreless and surface grinders;

(both sides) its recess provides clearance for mounting the
(Type 7) flanges
Flaring cup Cutter and tool grinder; it used mainly for
(Type 11) sharpening milling cutters and reamer.

Dish Cutter and tool grinder its used edge permit it

(Type 12) to be used in narrow slots

Saucer It is generally used for sharpening of circular

(Type 13) or band saw

Prof. Paras G. Vegada Department of Mechanical Engineering

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8.10 Method of specifying or marking of grinding wheel
 For specifying or designating the grinding wheel there is a various method in different countries.
 To maintain uniformity throughout the country in the marking system of grinding wheel the Bureau of Indian
standard (BIS) has devised a standard system to be followed by all manufacturers
 As per this system' the various elements and characteristics indicated on a, of grinding wheels are the wheels
in a definite sequence which is as follows :
1. Abrasive 2. Grit or grain size
3. Grade 4. Structure
5. Bond
 In addition to this, a manufacturer can use a suitable prefix, preceding the abrasive notation to indicate his
own brand of used abrasive.
 Also, a suitable suffix at the end of all the notations to indicate the manufacturer, some symbolic
representation for that particular type of wheel.
 The use of prefix and suffix is not compulsory.
 Table 8.2 shows the marking system recommended by BIS in their IS code :
 Apart from the above data to specify the grinding wheel completely, i.e. diameter, width or thickness, and
bore diameter are also required to be mentioned.

Fig.8.20 – Indian Standards system of marking grinding wheels

Table 8.2 - Grade Scale

Soft Medium Hard

ABCDEFGH IJKLMNOP QRSTUVWXYZ

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  For example, the grinding wheel marked with 250×25×32W A 46 L 4 V 17 shows the following
specifications
 Where,
250 mm = Wheel diameter
25 mm = Wheel thickness
32 mm = Bore diameter
W = Manufacturer's prefix for abrasive, It is optional
(Here, denotes White).
A = Abrasive type (Here, Aluminum oxide)
46 = Grain size (Here, medium)
L = Grade type (Here, medium)
4 = Type of structure (Here, dense)
V = Nature of bond (Here, Vitrified bond)
17 = Manufacturer's suffix for bond type. It is optional

8.11 Grinding Wheels and Materials

 A grinding wheel essentially consists of the following two materials:
1. Abrasive
2. Bond

8.11.1 Abrasives
 Abrasives are extremely hard materials consisting of very small particles called grains.
 The grains carry a number of sharp cutting edges and corners.
 There are two types of abrasives :
1 Natural
2 Artificial or manufactured
1. Natural abrasives
 They are obtained from mines directly.
 The most commonly used natural abrasives are sandstone, emery, quartz, corundum, and diamond.
 Out of these, diamond is used for dressing of grinding wheels and is considered as an abrasive for grinding
hard materials.
 Solid quartz is one of the natural abrasive stones from which grindstones are shaped.
 Emery is a natural aluminum oxide that contains 60 to 70 % alumina and remaining is iron oxide and other
impurities.
 Corundum is also natural aluminum oxide which contains 70 to 90 % aluminum oxide and remaining is
other impurities.
2. Artificial abrasives
 They are manufactured in closed electric furnaces under controlled conditions, to avoid the introduction of
impurities and to achieve the required temperature for the chemical reactions to take place.
 The most commonly used artificial abrasives are as follows :
a) Aluminum oxide Al2O3,
b) Silicon carbide (SiC)
c) Artificial diamonds.

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 a) Aluminum oxide Al2O3
 This type of abrasives is obtained by fusing the impure aluminum oxide called Bauxite, in an electric arc
furnace.
 For this purpose, dry bauxite is mixed with ground coke and iron chips and the mixture is charged into the
furnace.
 Due to excess heat in the furnace, a block of aluminum oxide is formed which is afterward crushed and thus
powdered grains are formed.
 This abrasive carries hard and tough grains having sharp cutting edges.
 .Aluminium oxide is mostly selected for wheels used for grinding of hardened tool Steel components.
 Aluminiumoxide is represented byletter'A'.ReferTable8.2.
b) Silicon Carbide (SiC)
 Silicon carbide is made from silicon dioxide, coke, sawdust, and salt.
 These ingredients are mixed together and heated in an electric furnace abort 2600 °c.
 Due to excess heat, the mass fuses and following chemical reaction occurs :
SiO2 + 3C = SiC+2CO
 After completion of the reaction, the furnace is cooled down and a core of silicon Carbide is removed from
there.
 The outer shell is then removed and the core is crushed into the grains.
 silicon carbide is mostly selected for wheels used for grinding ductile materials like copper, brass,
aluminum, etc.
 Silicon carbide is represented by letter'C' Refer to Table 8.2.
c) Artificial diamonds
 Diamond abrasive is a form of pure carbon that is mainly used for the sharpening of cemented carbide tools
and truing and dressing of grinding wheels.
 Its initial cost is high, but they have proved economical because of their rapid cutting ability, slow wear,
and free-cutting action.

Properties for a good abrasive:

 Abrasives are used as cutting materials. Such abrasive grains possess the following properties :
a. Penetration hardness: It is the ability of the abrasive to cut or scratch a softer material
b. Fracture resistance: It is the ability of the abrasive to resist cracking or breaking under the applied load.
c. Wear resistance: It is the ability of the abrasive grain to maintain sharpness.

8.12 Bonds
 Bond material of the grinding wheel acts as a binder to hold the abrasive grains together.
 It is necessary that the grains of abrasive material should be held firmly together to form a series of cutting
edges.
 The principle bond materials are as follows ;
a. Vitrified bond b. Silicate bond
c. Oxychloride bond d. Resinoid bond
e. Shellac bond f. Rubber bond
a. Vitrified bond
 It is a clay bond that is reddish-brown in color.
 The base material is felspar which is fusible clay.
 Proper proportions of refractories and flux are added to felspar and mixed thoroughly.
 This mixture together with abrasive grains is fed into revolving drums that contain water to form a paste.
 Most of the grinding wheel possesses this type of bond.
 Vitrified bond is denoted by the letter'V'. Refer to Table g.2.

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 Advantages
 The bond itself is very hard and acts as an abrasive.
 Due to the wet mixing of the different constituents, the structure of the wheel is uniform.
 It is not affected by water, oil, acids or climatic conditions.
 It is made porous and it removes material quickly.

Disadvantages
 The manufacturing process is slow.
 wheels having a diameter of more than 750 mm cannot be easily produced.
 The high temperature of the process makes the abrasive grains weak.
 During the process, cracks may develop in large wheels.
b. Silicate bond
 The base material is a silicate of soda.
 The process of manufacturing is similar to a vitrified bond, but at low temperature, which results in high
tensile strength.
 Wheels possessing this type of bond are light grey in color.
 Silicate bond is denoted by letter's'. Refer to Table 8.2.
Advantages
 .The process of manufacturing is fast.
 The low temperature of the process makes the abrasive grains strong.
 Large wheels i.e. up to 1500 mm diameter can be easily produced.
 The cutting action of the wheel is smoother and cooler.
Disadvantages
 Extra hard wheels cannot be produced.
 Harder grades of this bond do not provide a free cutting action.
c. Oxychloride bond
 Oxychloride bond is a mixture of oxide and chloride of magnesium.
 This type of bond provides a cost-cutting action, but grinding is generally done in dry conditions because it
is very susceptible to the action of conventional coolants.
 Oxychloride bond is used for the making of disc-shaped wheels.
 Oxychloride bond is denoted by the letter 'O'. Refer to Table 8.2.
d. Resinoid bond
 Resinoid bonded wheels are manufactured from a mixture of abrasive grains synthetic resins and some
compounds.
 This mixture is filled in molds and fed into the furnace and baked at a temperature of about 200 °C.
 Due to heat, resin sets and binds the abrasive grains together.
 A resinoid bond is a synthetic organic compound that is strong and flexible.
 Resinoid bonded wheels are used for cutting bar stocks, fine grinding of cams, precision grinding of rolls,
etc.
 Resinoid bond is denoted by the letter 'B'. Refer to Table 8.2.
e. Shellac bond
 Shellac bonded wheels are produced by mixing the bond and abrasive grains in a steam-heated mixture
 Shellac bonds wheel is used on hardened tool steel and thin section. They are also helpful in producing high
surface finish on the component like camshaft.
 Shellac bond wheel re strong but possesses some elasticity.
 Shellac bond is denoted by letter ‘E’ Refer Table8.2
f. Rubber bond
 Rubber bond wheel is manufactured by passing a rubber and sulphur through the mixing rolls and adding
abrasive slowly. Abrasive grains are added until the required proportion is added.
 The mixture is again passed through another set of rolls, to obtain the desired thickness

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  The wheel is then cut vulcanized under pressure
 Rubber bonded wheel is strong and can be made in the thin section also.
 During grinding water can be used as a coolant but caustic soda and oil should be avoided
 Rubber bond is denoted by letter ‘R’ Refer Table 8.2

8.13 Grain Grade and Structure of Grinding wheels

 The grain is also as grit which denoted the approximate size of abrasive particles and indicates coarseness
or fitness of the Grinding wheel
 A grinding wheel may contain abrasive particles of the same of different sizes.
 If same sized abrasive are used then the wheel is known as straight wheel and for different sized abrasive
particles the wheel is known as compound wheel
 The choice of grain size depends upon the following factor
a. Quality of surface finish required
b. Quantity of stock material to be removed
c. The physical property of workpiece
 The coarse grain removes the material at a faster rate and for a finer finish. Fine grains are required
 Coarse grain wheel more suitable for grinding soft and ductile material whereas for grinding hard and brittle
material fine grain wheel are used
 The grain size of an abrasive is indicated by a number representing the number of meshes per square inch
of the screen, through which the grain of crushes abrasives are passed for grinding.
 The standard numbers which represent different grain sizes are as follows, (Refer Table 8.3) :

Table 8.3 - Standard grain size for grinding wheel

Grit Designation Grain Size or Grit No.

Coarse 10 12 14 16 20 24

Medium 30 36 46 54 60

Fine 80 100 120 150 180

Very fine 220 240 280 320 400 500 600

Coarse 10 12 14 16 20 24

Grade
 Grade denotes the strength of a bond in a wheel i.e. the power of the abrasive particles to hold together and
resist disintegration under the cutting pressure.
 If the proportion of bond for a specified quantify of abrasive particles is higher, then the wheel becomes
harder and lower proportion makes the wheel soft.
 The selection of a particular grade of the wheel depends on the following factors :
a. Nature of workpiece
b. Composition of workpiece
c. Size and hardness of the workpiece
 Softer wheels are considered for grinding hard materials and harder wheels for grinding soft materials.
 Generally, all the wheel manufacturers provide a table of recommended grits and grades for specific
operations and materials to be machined.
 It is advisable to follow the table for selecting a wheel for a particular job.
Prof. Paras G. Vegada Department of Mechanical Engineering
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  Table 8.4 shows the different grades of grinding wheel :

Table 8.4 - Different grades of grinding wheel

Soft A B C D E F G H
Medium I J K L M N O P
Hard Q R S T U V W X Y Z

Structure
 The term structure indicates the spacing between the abrasive density grains or indicates the of the wheel
 The structure of a wheel is mainly affected by the proportion of the bond.
 A higher proportion of bonds is considered a close structure.
 A higher proportion of bonds considers as an open structure, whereas a lower proportion as close structure.
 The selection of particular structure depends on the following factors :
a. Hardness of workpiece
b. Type of grinding operation
c. Quality of surface finish required on the workpiece
 For grinding brittle and hard materials dense structure is considered whereas for soft and tough materials
open structure is selected.
 Table 8.5shows some standard numbers, which are categorized into dense and open structure

Table 8.5 - Structure of grinding wheel

Structure type Represented number

Dense 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
medium 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 or up

8.14 Selection of Grinding Wheel

 To obtain good results from grinding work, the selection of grinding wheel important.
 A wheel may be required to perform following different functions :
a. Quick removal of stock material
b. Obtain high class of surface finish
c. Obtain close dimensional tolerances
 For this purpose, a grinding wheel with proper grain size, bond, strength, shape and should be selected.
 The factors on which the selection of wheel depends are as follows :
Constant factors
a. Workpiece material: It affects the selection of abrasive, grain, size, grade, structure and bond
b. Amount of material to be removed.
c. Contact area: For small contact area finer and harder wheels are used whereas, for large contact area
coarse and softer wheels are used.
d. Type of grinding machine.
Variable factors
a. Speed of the wheel: It affects the selection of grade and bond.
b. Speed of the workpiece: Higher workpiece speed indicates more material is to be ground in given time
hence, greater wear on the wheel. For this, the harder wheel is selected.
c. Machine condition.

Prof. Paras G. Vegada Department of Mechanical Engineering

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Manufacturing Process (3141908) | Unit-8 Grinding Machine and Abrasive
 d. Personal factor.

8.15 Mounting of Grinding Wheel

 The operating speed of the grinding wheel is very high.
 So, it is essential that sufficient care should be taken while mounting a grinding wheel on the machine
spindle.
 Proper mounting of the wheel ensures adequate safety and avoids the chances of failure of the wheel during
the operation.
 During mounting some important precautions are required, which are as follows:
a. Before mounting each wheel should be thoroughly inspected, to ensure that it is sound and free of all
defects, cracks, etc.
b. The liner bushings should be carefully checked, to ensure that they are neither loose nor extend beyond
the grinding wheel sides.
c. The grinding wheel should slide freely on the spindle. If it is tight, then the bush should be slightly
reamed.
d. On each side of the wheel, a flange should be provided. Both the flanges must be of equal diameter and
should be large enough, at least equal to or more than half of the wheel diameter. Refer Fig. 8.20.
e. The inner flange should be secured firmly to the spindle either by keying, screwing pressing or shrink
fitting.
f. A blotter (washer) should remain between the abutting surfaces of the wheel and inner flange
g. A similar washer should be provided on the other side of the wheel (between wheel surface and outer
flange). These washers are made of blotting paper, cardboard, rubber, leather or any suitable
compressible material.

Fig.8.21 – Mounting of grinding wheel

h. The outer flange should be a sliding fit on the spindle.

i. After placing the washer on the outer flange side of the wheel, the outer flange is pushed on the spindle
for bearing against the wheel.
j. Another cover is then placed against the outer flange which provides a proper seat for the nut. This is
followed by tightening the spindle nuts, just enough to firmly hold the wheel.

Prof. Paras G. Vegada Department of Mechanical Engineering

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Manufacturing Process (3141908) | Unit-8 Grinding Machine and Abrasive
 k. Finally, the wheel guard is put in position and a trial run is made for few minutes without loading,
followed by truing of the wheel if necessary.

8.16 Loading and Glazing of Grinding Wheels

 After continuous usage of the grinding wheel, the cutting points of the abrasive grains become dull.
 They lose their cutting ability, sharpness and are severely worn out.
 Hence the wheel becomes smooth and provides a short of rubbing action only, instead of cutting the work
material.
 The above phenomenon which makes them ineffective for cutting is known as the glazing of the grinding
wheel.
 It is more predominant in a harder wheel at a higher speed.
 The grinding wheel affected by this phenomenon is called a glazed wheel.
 Another problem associated with the grinding wheel during the operation is the adherence of cut particles
of the work material to the face of the grinding wheel.
 The open space between the cutting point is lost by these particles.
 Hence sharpness of the cutting point is lost and face become smooth
 This phenomenon is called as loading of wheel and the wheel and the wheel affected by this is termed as
load wheel
 This effect is mostly observed in those wheels which carry a hard bond when softer material is ground at
slow speed.
 Also, a high depth of cut contributes to this effect.

8.17 Turning and dressing of the Grinding wheel

 The turning and dressing operation is performed for the following purpose
a. To make wheel concentric with its circle
b. To make its side true and to recover the lost shape of its face
c. To use the full cutting capacity of a grinding wheel which has gone dull or got clogged with some foreign
material
 A wheel is to be trued or dressed will depend upon the type of work skill of the operator and the wheel
fitness
 Frequent truing is required in case of internal grinding, whereas in the case of external grinding it is not
required.
 For dressing of grinding wheel following common devices are used :
a. Wheel dressers b. Abrasive sticks
c. Abrasive wheels d. Diamond
e. Shellac bond f. Crush dressing fixtures
Wheel dressers
 Wheel dressers are made of four common types i.e.
a. Star dresser b. Corrugated disc type
c. Locked dresser d. Cylinder dresser
 The star dresser is having a number of pointed discs mounted on a pin and fed to the wheel surface by being
held in a handle. They are used for the dressing of rough grinding wheels.
 The locked dresser is having a set of cut or cast discs, carrying zig-zag or serrated edges mounted on a pin
and supported on suitable bearings.
 The wheels which are used in rough cylindrical grindings are dressed by the locked dresser.
 Corrugated disc type dresser contains corrugated cast disc and used for dressing smoother wheels.

Prof. Paras G. Vegada Department of Mechanical Engineering

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Manufacturing Process (3141908) | Unit-8 Grinding Machine and Abrasive
  Cylinder dresser is having solid steel cylinders that carry helical grooves and used for dressing of wheels
used in cylindrical grinding.
Abrasive sticks
 They are made in round and square sections.
 The square section is used in hand dressing for tool room work and the round section is mounted on a
magazine and used for shaping the wheel faces, truing, and dressing thin wheels.
Abrasive wheel dresser
 This is a silicon carbide grain wheel with a vitrified bond and mounted on a holder.
 It can be available in various designs to operate by hand or by machine.
 It is widely used for dressing the wheels used on cylindrical and centreless grinders.
Diamond
 They form an unparalleled device for truing and dressing the wheels which are used in precision work.

8.18 Balancing of Grinding wheel

Fig.8.22 – balancing of wheel

 To obtain a good surface finish, to prevent vibration and to avoid undue wear on machine parts, it is
necessary that the grinding wheel should have a good balance before its use.
 Hence, the wheel is properly tested for balance before its use. But, before testing it is trued.
 Generally, small size wheels do not require any balancing but larger wheels operating at high speeds require
balancing.
 Balancing is done in the static position of the wheel by shifting the position of weights on one of the
mounting flanges of the wheel.
 The wheel is mounted on a suitable mandrel and placed on a balancing fixture for finding out the direction
in which the weights are to be shifted. Refer Fig. 8.21

8.19 References
1. Hajra & Choudhari. “Element of Workshop Technology Vol. II” Media Promoters and Pvt. Ltd
2. B.S.Raghuvanshi “A Course in Workshop technology Vol. II” Dhanpat Rai & Co,
3. R. K. Jain.”Production Technology” Khanna Publications

Prof. Paras G. Vegada Department of Mechanical Engineering

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