Appendix A – Rules of thumb for global dimensions

Appendix A
Rules of Thumb for global dimensions

1
Appendix A – Rules of thumb for global dimensions

1. Introduction

When designing structures the following steps are followed:

a. Global dimensions by rules of thumb

For possible structural designs fitting the boundary conditions the
dimensions are determined by rules of thumb. In an early stage of the
design process the dimensions are estimated to give a general idea of the
cross sections for the structural elements without extensive calculations.
These estimates make it possible to compare different structural
alternatives on costs and special consequences.
The rules of thumb give the main dimension of a structural element in
relation to the span of the element. These main dimensions are the
thickness of the floor, the height of the beam and the smallest dimension
for columns. For columns the unsupported height is taken as the span.
The rules are derived from numerous calculations where the values for
the parameters are taken from common practical situations. These
include the permanent and variable load, the mean height for a certain
span and common relations between beam height and width, the
material properties and boundary conditions.
In cases where the design deviates strongly from the assumptions, for
example when high variable loads are present, the rules of thumb should
be used with caution. It goes without saying that the rules of thumb will
never eliminate the need to perform design- and control calculations.

b. Design calculations
For a more precise determination of the dimensions of a structure design
calculations are made, based on the design values for the loads
(permanent and variable load) and the determining moments, shear and
axial forces. The dimensions are checked by comparing the occurring
stresses with the design value of the material strength.
𝑀
Bending stress: 𝑊 For prismatic beams, and
𝑀 For assembled beams, such as trusses.
The value of h is the centre to centre distance
𝑊 between the upper and lower chord.
The value of A is the cross section of the upper
and lower chord.
Axial stress:
𝑁 Where N is the compression or tensile force and
A the cross section of the element.
𝐴 The compression force is also checked against
the buckling load.
Shear stress: 𝑉 𝑉∙𝑆
𝑜𝑟
𝐴 𝑏∙𝐼

2
 Appendix A – Rules of thumb for global dimensions

The values of the bending stress and axial stress are to be combined. So
for a column subjected to a compression force and a bending moment
the maximum stress occurs in the middle of the span.
The design values of the material strengths are given in the Eurocode of
the material considered.

Control calculations
When the dimensions of the structural elements are determined control
calculations are to be performed to check whether the strength and
stiffness comply with the codes of practice (the Eurocode).
The result of the control calculations can cause modifications of the
dimensions. For well executed design calculations, these changes will be
minimal and sporadic.

3
COLUMNS & WALLS TABLE 1.1 STONE
(centre to centre distance 4 – 5 meters)

Usual
𝓵∗
Element Cross section height Critical factors Remarks
[mm] 𝒅

- Buckling (ℓ/𝑑 > 6)

- Failure under compression
Column ≤ 4000 15 – 20
(ℓ/𝑑 < 6)
- Bending

- Buckling (ℓ/𝑑 > 6)

- Failure under compression
Wall ≤ 5000 18 – 22 Ribbed wall
(ℓ/𝑑 < 6)
- Bending

≤ 20 000 15 – 20 - Bending Diaphragm wall

Reinforced
≤ 7000 20 – 35 - Bending
column / wall

*
ℓ is the unsupported height of the column, d is the smallest dimension of the element
COLUMNS & WALLS TABLE 1.2 CONCRETE
(centre to centre distance 5 – 6 meters)

Usual
𝓵∗
Element Cross section height Critical factors Remarks
[mm] 𝒅
- Buckling (ℓ/𝑑 > 10)
Cast in situ
≤ 8000 12 – 18 - Failure under compression Minimum dimension
- One story
- Multiple stories
≤ 4000 6 – 15 (ℓ/𝑑 < 10) 150 mm
- Bending

Cast in situ wall - Buckling Minimum thickness of

≤ 4000 18 – 25
- Reinforced - Execution method 150 mm

Cast in situ house Minimum thickness of

separating wall ≤ 3000 10 – 15 - Failure under compression 250 mm due to
- Unreinforced soundproofing

- Buckling (ℓ/𝑑 > 6)

Prefab column
≤ 8000 15 – 30 - Failure under compression
- One story
- Multiple stories
≤ 4000 6 – 20 (ℓ/𝑑 < 6)
- Bending

- Buckling
- Connections
Prefab wall ≤ 3000 20 – 25
- Stresses from transport
and assembly

Pre-stressed
column ≤ 8000 15 – 25 Pre-stress reduces
- Buckling
- One story ≤ 4000 10 – 20 tensile stresses
- Multiple stories
*
ℓ is the unsupported height of the column, d is the smallest dimension of the element
COLUMNS & WALLS TABLE 1.3 STEEL
(centre to centre distance 5 – 6 meters)

Usual
𝓵∗
Element Cross section height Critical factors Remarks
[mm] 𝒅

Hot rolled profile

- Buckling (ℓ/𝑑 > 14) Standard profiles
(open) ≤ 8000 20 – 25
- Failure under compression Connections are easier
- One story ≤ 4000 7 – 18
- Multiple stories
(ℓ/𝑑 < 14) than for closed profiles

Hot rolled profile - Buckling (ℓ/𝑑 > 20) Standard profiles

(tube) ≤ 8000 20 – 35
- Failure under compression Connections are harder
- One story ≤ 4000 7 – 28
- Multiple stories
(ℓ/𝑑 < 20) than for open profiles

Assembled Truss is applied for high

≤ 10 000 20 – 25 - Buckling
column columns

Concrete encasing
Composite - Buckling and failure under
≤ 4000 6 – 15 enlarges stiffness and
column compression (ℓ/𝑑 > 10)
fireproofing
Cold formed steel
Steel posts in metal-stud
posts ≤ 8000 15 – 50 - Buckling
walls
With steel panels

Massive bars or cables.

High strength Bars have less strength
≤ 40 000 N.A. - Axial stiffness
steel tie rods but larger strain
stiffness
*
ℓ is the unsupported height of the column, d is the smallest dimension of the element
COLUMNS & WALLS TABLE 1.4 TIMBER
(centre to centre distance 4 – 5 meters)

Usual
𝓵∗
Element Cross section height Critical factors Remarks
[mm] 𝒅

For multiple stories a

- Cleave and failure under
smaller value for ℓ/𝑑
compression (ℓ/𝑑 < 15)
Laminated column ≤ 4000 15 – 30 should be taken.
- Failure under compression
Height to width ratio
and buckling (ℓ/𝑑 > 15)
2 – 3.

- Buckling and compression Posts 400 mm centre to

Posts in panels ≤ 4000 20 – 35
- Thickness of isolation centre.

For multiple stories a

- Failure under compression
Massive columns ≤ 4000 15 – 30 smaller value for ℓ/𝑑
and buckling
should be taken.

*
ℓ is the unsupported height of the column, d is the smallest dimension of the element
FLOORS AND FLOOR BEAMS TABLE 2.1 CONCRETE

Usual Usual
𝓵∗
Element Cross section thickness span Critical factors / remarks
[mm] [mm] 𝒅

- Deflection
- Bending moments
Reinforced
concrete floor Application for high loads and concentrated
100 – 250 4–8 28 – 35
- Spanning two floor loads.
directions Lower value for ℓ/𝑑 is for end field
Higher value for ℓ/𝑑 is for middle field

- Punching shear
- Deflection
- Bending moments

Economic for high loads and small spans.

End fields preferred with a cantilever of 3/8
ℓ.
Mushroom floor
125 – 300 5 – 10 28 – 32 Column head:
- Reinforced
200 – 225 12 – 14 40 – 48
- Unreinforced

*
ℓ is the unsupported span of the beam / floor
FLOORS AND FLOOR BEAMS TABLE 2.1 (CONTINUATION) CONCRETE

Usual Usual
𝓵∗
Element Cross section thickness span Critical factors / remarks
[mm] [mm] 𝒅

- Punching shear
- Deflection
- Bending moments
Flat plate floor
150 – 300 4–8 26 Flat plate floors are favourable over beam
- Reinforced 240 – 350 7 – 10 29 floors due to lower construction costs.
- Unreinforced
Thicknesses are valid for the fields, for the
edge fields 15 – 20% larger values are to be
used.

- Deflection
- Bending moments
Waffle floor
350 – 650 8 – 15 20 – 25 Standard molds.
- Reinforced
Waffle-size: 900 x 900 or 1200 x 1200 mm.
Shell thickness c: 80 – 100 mm.

*
ℓ is the unsupported span of the beam / floor
FLOORS AND FLOOR BEAMS TABLE 2.1 (CONTINUATION) CONCRETE

Usual Usual
𝓵∗
Element Cross section thickness span Critical factors / remarks
[mm] [mm] 𝒅
ℓ𝑡
𝑑=
30
ℓ𝑡
𝑑1 =
100
ℓ𝑔 ℓ𝑡
𝑑2 = +
Beam floor 14 26
400 - 700 5 – 15
- Reinforced
ℓ𝑡 is about 4 – 7 meter.
ℓ ℓ𝑔
Bending not decisive for 𝑑1 > 15𝑡 and 𝑑2 > 15

Beam height to be determined according to

the rules given for a beam floor.
For reducing the thickness d with factor α,
increase rib width with factor α²

Strip floor
400 - 700 5 – 15
- Reinforced

*
ℓ is the unsupported span of the beam / floor
FLOORS AND FLOOR BEAMS TABLE 2.1 (CONTINUATION) CONCRETE

Usual Usual
𝓵∗
Element Cross section thickness span Critical factors / remarks
[mm] [mm] 𝒅

- Deflection
- Bending moments

24 Simply supported floor

Reinforced 28 End-field
concrete floor 100 – 250 2–7 32 Mid-field
- Spanning one
direction
L = theoretical span.
In pre-stressed floors a reduction of 10% on
the thickness can be achieved.
Minimum thickness: 80 mm.

- Deflection
- Bending moments
Wide slab
100 – 300 3–7 24 – 32
- Reinforced 100 – 225 4–9 35 – 45 Wide slabs width B = 2400 – 3000 mm.
- Pre-stressed
Maximum length 11 – 13 meters.
Slab thickness d’ = 50 – 200 mm.

*
ℓ is the unsupported span of the beam / floor
FLOORS AND FLOOR BEAMS TABLE 2.1 (CONTINUATION) CONCRETE

Usual
Usual 𝓵∗
Element Cross section thickness Critical factors / remarks
span [m] 𝒅
[mm]
Width: 1200 mm
Maximum length: ca 10 m.
Pre-stressed
150 4,5 – 7 In situ a reinforced compressive layer (50 –
prefabricated
200 6–9 70 mm) can be added to increase capacity.
plates
Joints between plates are filled.

Application: story floor (high sound isolation)

120 3,5 – 4,5 Width: 1200 mm
150 4,5 – 5,5 Maximum length: 8 - 16 m.
180
5,5 – 6,5
Pre stressed 200
6 – 7,5 30 - 38 In situ a reinforced compressive layer (50 –
hollow core slabs 260
7,5 – 9,5 70 mm) can be added to increase capacity.
320
400 9,5 – 12 Maximum pre-stress for ℓ/𝑑 = 38.
12 – 15 Joints between plates are filled.

Application:
290 (R) < 6,0 Ribbed floors (R) as ground floor for
Pre-stressed waffle
345 (R/W) < 7,5 20 dwellings
or ribbed slabs 365 (R/W) < 7,5 Waffle floors (W) as ground floors for utility
buildings.

Width: 1800 / 2400 / 2500 / 3000 mm

400 < 14 Shell thickness: 80 mm.
500 < 16
Double T-slabs 30
600 < 19 In situ a reinforced compressive layer (50 –
700 < 21 70 mm) is usually added to increase capacity.

*
ℓ is the unsupported span of the beam / floor
FLOORS AND FLOOR BEAMS TABLE 2.1 (CONTINUATION) CONCRETE

Usual
Usual 𝓵∗
Element Cross section thickness Critical factors / remarks
span [m] 𝒅
[mm]
Pre-stressed concrete beams and EPS-filling
elements with a reinforced compression
layer.
170 + 30 < 5,0
PS-isolation floor 25
170 +50 < 5,5
Beam height: 170 mm
Compression layer: 30 – 40 mm.
Centre to centre distance: 515 – 635 mm.
2–4 25 – 30 Deformation of steel plates during casting.
Props are necessary.
Concrete thickness for fire proofing.
Reinforcement in trenches to increase
Composite floor 100 – 150
capacity under fire conditions
Trench height h’: 40 – 80 mm.

6-8 21 - 28 Long span floor (trench height: 210 mm)

Max length: 6,75 m

Aerated slabs 100 - 300 < 6,0 22 – 26 Width: 750 – 600 mm
Maximum span of 4 meters due to creep.

IPE 160 < 4,5

IPE 180 < 5,4
IPE 240 < 7,2 Concrete floor thickness about 70 mm
Infra+ floor
IPE 330 < 9,6 (depending on steel profile).
IPE 400 < 12,6
IPE 450 < 14,4
*
ℓ is the unsupported span of the beam / floor
FLOORS AND FLOOR BEAMS TABLE 2.2 STEEL

Usual
Usual 𝓵∗
Element Cross section thickness Critical factors / remarks
span [m] 𝒅
[mm]

15 Supported at the corners.

Spatial truss 30 – 150
20 Supported at the edges.

*
ℓ is the unsupported span of the beam / floor
FLOORS AND FLOOR BEAMS TABLE 2.2 (CONTINUATION) STEEL

Usual
Usual 𝓵∗
Element Cross section thickness Critical factors / remarks
span [m] 𝒅
[mm]
- Deformation

Wide flange HE-A 100 → HE-A 1000

100 – 500 4 – 12 18 – 28
profile HE-B 100 → HE-B 1000
HE-M 100 → HE-M 1000
HD 210 x 210 → HD 400 x 4000

- Deformation
- Bending stiffness
IPE / UNP profile 200 – 500 6 – 30 15 – 20
IPE 80 → IPE 600
UNP 80 → UNP 400

- Buckling of compression bars

- Connections
- Deformations
Truss 1000 – 4000 12 – 50 8 – 15
IPE or HE-profiles are economical for
lengths up to 15 meters.
- Deformations
- Bending stiffness close to the supports
Vierendeel truss 1000 – 3000 6 – 18 4 – 12
High material use.

Composite beam 300 – 1000 7 – 15 20 – 25 About 25% reduction of material.

*
ℓ is the unsupported span of the beam / floor
FLOORS AND FLOOR BEAMS TABLE 2.3 TIMBER

Usual
Usual 𝓵∗
Element Cross section thickness Critical factors / remarks
span [m] 𝒅
[mm]

- Deformations
Triplex floor board 12 – 30 0,3 – 0,9 30 – 40 - Point loads
- Strength

- Deformation
Coniferous floor - Strength
16 – 25 0,6 – 0,8 25 – 35
planks
Planks equipped with tongue and groove.

- Deformation
Floor beams with
200 – 275 2–5 18 – 20 Maximum length about 5,5 m.
triplex
Centre to centre distance 450 – 600 mm.
Width 𝑏 ≈ ℎ/3.

- Deformation

Laminated beam 400 – 1000 6 – 15 14 – 18 Height-width ratio maximum 8 to prevent

lateral torsional buckling.
Centre to centre distance 4000 – 5000 mm.

*
ℓ is the unsupported span of the beam / floor
ROOFS AND RAFTERS TABLE 3.1 CONCRETE

Usual Usual
𝓵∗
Element Cross section thickness span Critical factors / remarks
[mm] [mm] 𝒅
Reinforced
concrete slab - Deflection
125 - 300 3–6 20 – 30
- Spanning one - Bending moments
direction
- Deflection
Reinforced ribbed - Bending moments
slab - Shear stresses
250 - 600 6 – 14 25 – 30
- Spanning one
direction Dimension 𝑎 = 100 − 150 mm
Dimension 𝑐 = 50 − 100 mm

- Deflection
- Bending moments
125 - 300 5 – 10 28 – 32
Waffle slab
200 - 225 12 – 14 40 – 48
Dimensions a and c see the reinforced ribbed
slab

- Bending moments
Aerated slabs 100 - 200 2-4 20 - 25
Plates connected by strips or by filled joints.

*
ℓ is the unsupported span of the roof or rafter
ROOFS AND RAFTERS TABLE 3.1 (CONTINUATION) CONCRETE

Usual Usual
𝓵∗
Element Cross section thickness span Critical factors / remarks
[mm] [mm] 𝒅

- Punching shear
Flat plate slab 150 - 300 4–8 30 - Deflection
- Bending moments

In situ a reinforced compressive layer (50 –

Pre stressed
150 - 320 6 - 10 34 70 mm) can be added to increase capacity.
hollow core slabs
Joints between slabs are filled.

- Bending moments
Double T-slabs 400 - 700 12 - 20 30 – 35 - Shear stresses
- Stresses caused by execution

*
ℓ is the unsupported span of the roof or rafter
ROOFS AND RAFTERS TABLE 3.2 STEEL

Usual
Usual 𝓵∗
Element Cross section thickness Critical factors / remarks
span [m] 𝒅
[mm]
- Bending for single field sructures
Roofing panel 25 - 160 2-7 40 - 70 - Moment and shear for multiple field
structures

Cohesion between steel plates and injected

Sandwich panels 95 2-3 25 - 30
isolation foam is important.

Cold formed - Deformation

120 - 300 3 - 12 25 - 35
profile - Torsion stability

Truss from cold - Deformation

300 - 1000 5 - 20 15 - 25
formed profiles - Torsion stability

Hot rolled profiles

200 - 100
- HE-profile 6 - 14 20 - 30 - Deformation
200 - 300
- Hollow profile

- Deformation
Welded plate
500 - 1500 9 - 35 18 - 26 - Bending strength
girder
- Lateral torsional buckling

*
ℓ is the unsupported span of the roof or rafter
ROOFS AND RAFTERS TABLE 3.2 (CONTINUATION) STEEL

Usual Usual
𝓵∗
Element Cross section thickness span Critical factors / remarks
[mm] [mm] 𝒅

- Local buckling of the web

Castellated girder 320 - 800 6 - 18 10 - 18
- Shear force

- Bending strength
- Deformation
Parallel truss 1000 - 2000 12 - 75 10 - 18
Centre to centre distance 6 – 12 m.

Triangular truss 1500 - 4000 8 - 20 5 - 10 Often assembled from angular profiles

Shells can be made with one or two layers.

Barrel vault 20 - 100 55 - 60 Ratio ℓ/h: 5 – 6

Spatial truss See floors (table 2.2)

*
ℓ is the unsupported span of the roof or rafter
ROOFS AND RAFTERS TABLE 3.3 TIMBER

Usual Usual
𝓵∗
Element Cross section thickness span Critical factors / remarks
[mm] [mm] 𝒅

- Deformation
Triplex board 10 – 30 0,3 – 1,2 50 – 70
Plates supported by girders (multiple fields)

- Deformation
Coniferous planks 25 0,6 – 1,2 45 – 60
Planks supported by girders (single field)

- Deformation
Stressed skin
100 - 250 3-7 30 - 35
panels Supported by girders.
Dimension a ≈ 300 – 500 mm.

Trapezium shaped
225 - 400 5 - 12 25 - 30 Supported by rafters or walls (single filed)
roof panels

- Deformation
Girders
(flat roof) 100 - 225 2-6 20 - 25 Dimensions depending on available
- Coniferous 100 - 250 3-8 30 - 35 commercial dimensions.
- Hardwood Centre to centre distance ≈ 600 mm (single
field)
Girders Dimensions depending on available
(pitched roof) 150 - 300 2-5 10 - 14 commercial dimensions.
- Coniferous 200 - 400 3-8 15 - 20 Centre to centre distance ≈ 2000 mm
- Hardwood (single field)
*
ℓ is the unsupported span of the roof or rafter
ROOFS AND RAFTERS TABLE 3.3 (CONTINUATION) TIMBER

Usual
Usual 𝓵∗
Element Cross section thickness Critical factors / remarks
span [m] 𝒅
[mm]
- Deformation
17 Centre to centre distance < 5 m
16 Center to center distcance < 8 m
Laminated beam 180 - 1400 6 - 30
16 – 18 With cantilever.
Ratio d/b ≈ 5 – 8 (single span)
Beam equipped with a slicht arch
- Deformation
- Bending moment
Triplex box girder 200 - 2000 6 - 20 10 - 15
- Shear force
- Local buckling

Steel-timber truss
- Steel Diagonals connected with dowel type
500 - 2000 9 - 30 10 - 15
diagonals connections.
- Timber chords

- Connections
Parallel truss 1500 - 3000 12 - 25 8 - 10
Centre to centre distance 4000 - 6000
mm.

- Connections
Triangular truss
- Bending in chords
- Without 1200 - 2000 6 - 10 4-6
rafters
Centre to centre distance ≈ 600 mm

- Connections
Triangular truss
1000 - 3000 6 - 20 5-7
- With rafters Centre to centre distance 2000 - 5000
mm.
*
ℓ is the unsupported span of the roof or rafter
PORTAL FRAMES TABLE 4.1 CONCRETE

c.t.c. Usual
𝓵∗
Element Cross section distance span Critical factors / remarks
[m] [m] 𝒅

Connections in the corners or about

Prefab concrete
12 - 14 22 - 30 1/4th in the beam for wide portal
portal frame
frames.

Arch portals usually combined in a

shell, clamped at the supports.
Arch 15 - 60 28 - 40
ℓ
≈ 4 − 12
ℎ

Using fixed connections the

Prefab beams and
structure has a maximum height of
columns with 6 - 12 14 - 16
two stories without extra provisions
floors
for stability.

*
ℓ is the span of the portal frame
PORTAL FRAMES TABLE 4.2 STEEL

c.t.c. Usual
𝓵∗
Element Cross section distance span Critical factors / remarks
[m] [m] 𝒅

1 1 Clamped in the foundation and fixed

Clamped portal ℓ − 6ℓ 9 - 60 35 - 40
4 column-girder connection.

- Buckling often decisive.

- Hinges at the supports and often
60 -
Arch 40 - 50 at the top.
150
ℓ
≈ 5 − 15
ℎ

Unstable outside its plane, so extra

Two hinged portal 6 - 40 12 - 20 provisions are to be taken to ensure
stability (in roof and walls).

Horizontal displacements at the top

Portal frame and relative displacement of the
- Multiple 6 - 20 20 - 35 floors over the story height.
stories Fixed connections by welding and/or
bolts.

*
ℓ is the span of the portal frame
PORTAL FRAMES TABLE 4.3 TIMBER

c.t.c. Usual
𝓵∗
Element Cross section distance span Critical factors / remarks
[m] [m] 𝒅

<5 17 Unstable outside its plane, so extra

Laminated timber
6 - 30 provisions are to be taken to ensure
beam and column 5-8 16 stability (in roof and walls).

Portal frame 4-8 10 - 40 15 - 23

4-5 𝐿+𝐺 ℎ𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡 ≈ 0,4 ∙ ℎ𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑛𝑒𝑟

Three hinged ℎ𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑛𝑒𝑟 ≈
portal frame 28
15 - 50 𝛼 ≈ 20°
- Kinked 𝐿+𝐺
corners Laminated timber can have a varying
5-9 ℎ𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑛𝑒𝑟 ≈
24 cross section.

𝐿+𝐺
4-5 ℎ𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑛𝑒𝑟 ≈ ℎ𝑡𝑜𝑝 ≈ 0,5 ∙ ℎ𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑛𝑒𝑟
Three hinged 31 ℎ𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡 ≈ 0,67 ∙ ℎ𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑛𝑒𝑟
portal frame 15 - 50
- Bent corners 𝐿+𝐺 𝛼 ≈ 20°
5-9 ℎ𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑛𝑒𝑟 ≈ Laminated timber can be bent.
26
ℓ
≈5−7
<5m 45 ℎ
20 - Max. length due to transport ≈ 25 m.
arch
100 Arch shape is determined by the
5-9 40
highest load (permanent or variable)
that can act on the frame.
*
ℓ is the span of the portal frame