Unit 3: Input / Output devices.

3D
graphics. Office hardware.
Computer networks
3.1 INPUT / OUTPUT DEVICES
The main input devices everyone uses nowadays are obviously mouse and keyboard.
Both devices can we connected via PS/2, USB or Bluetooth interface. The mice come

in many shapes and sizes. The number and shape of mouse buttons can also vary
depending on what the mouse is used for. Here is a basic optical mouse looks like:
The keyboard is also a very important device for any user. Keyboards also come in
many sizes and shapes but most of them have the general set of keys shown below:

There are special groups of keys on the keyboard:

1. Character Keys (Alphanumeric keys). Most of the keys that you use to type are
character keys. These are letters, numbers, and punctuation keys.

2. Backspace and Delete Keys. These 2 keys erase your text.

3. Navigational Keys. These keys help you move in your document. They include

Space, Enter, Tab, Directional Arrows, Home, End, Page Up/Page Down.

4. Modifier Keys. These keys - Ctrl, Shift, Caps - help you make capital letters and
keyboard shortcuts.

5. Function Keys. These keys do special things depending on your keyboard. You
will not use the Function Keys for typing text.

Output Devices is a device which allows the computer to communicate the results
of processing with the user. Here are examples of such devices:

3.2 THE COMPONENTS OF A PC VIDEO SYSTEM

A
hardware and software used to form and display visual information is called a video
system. The basic PC video system has three main components:
A video adapter or graphics card is a device that generates a feed of video
information by sending different signals to a monitor. It can be external (discrete /
dedicated) or internal (also called integrated graphics or onboard video). It has got its
own processor called a GPU (Graphics Processing Unit) and video memory. GPU
reads the video memory data and controls the monitor. Like RAM in a computer,
video memory temporarily stores data relating to graphics. As new graphics data
comes into the video card, it replaces graphics data no longer needed in the video
memory. When a computer is turned off, any graphics data in the video memory is
removed
To process those signals you need to install graphics card drivers or display
drivers that help with coding and decoding video signals, calculating coordinate
transformations, image compression and so on.
A monitor is a device that transforms the signals coming from graphics card into
images. The monitors come in different sizes, aspect ratio, maximum image
resolution and refreshing rate. They are usually connected to the graphics card via
VGA / DVI / HDMI / Display Port or Mini Display Port.
The monitor size is its diagonal in inches. The aspect ratio is basically the width of
your monitor. The image resolution is how many pixels can be shown on monitor
(image becomes bigger or smaller with decreasing or increasing amount of detail).
The resolution is measured in pixels (width and height).
The refreshing rate is how many times per second the image on your screen
refreshes or updates. The refreshing rate is measured in Hertz. The higher the
number, the smoother motion looks. Keep in mind, that refreshing rate and FPS
(Frames Per Second) are not the same.

3.3 ABOUT SOUND CARDS

A sound card is a device that produces all the audio you hear. There are three primary
types of sound cards:

Motherboard Sound Chips

Today any motherboard comes with a small sound chip,

especially in laptops and game consoles. If your computer has
audio ports on the back, it means your computer has an on-
board audio. The most common sound chip is Realtek High
Definition Audio (or Realtek AC 97, if your motherboard is very
old). The sound quality and performance is good enough for an average user, but if
you want a higher quality audio, you should consider installing a…

PCI Sound card

A standard or PCI sound card is an external expansion card that you put into a PCI
slot on your motherboard. PCI sound cards have their own processor chips, while a
motherboard sound chip relies on the computer processor to perform some of the
calculations required to produce sound. A standard sound card creates less of a load
on the main processor, which can result in improved performance when playing
games. Additionally, some standard sound cards have features that motherboard
sound chips do not, such as 24-bit recording or multiple channel surround sound.

External Sound

Adapters / External Sound Cards

An external sound adapter is a small box that contains all of the features of a
standard sound card, but connects to the computer via a USB or FireWire port rather
than a PCI slot. External sound adapters sometimes have features that standard sound
cards do not, such as extra inputs and outputs and physical volume control knobs. An
external sound adapter is much easier to move to a new computer than a standard
sound card, and is the only way to upgrade the sound of a laptop with nothing but
USB or FireWire expansion slots.

3.4 TYPES OF MICROPHONES

Nowadays microphones

DSLR cameras, at concert halls, in movie production, on radio and TV, for speech
recognition, voice chats and so on. As everything in this book, microphones also
come in all kinds, shapes and sizes. In this chapter, you will learn about common
types of microphones, their use and specifications.

First, a microphone (also called “mic” or “mike”) is a device that converts sounds
into an electrical signal. There are many types of microphones, which use different
methods to convert the air pressure variations of a sound wave to an electrical signal.

The most common types of microphones (based on their transducer type) are:

- Dynamic (uses a coil of wire suspended in a magnetic field)

- Condenser (uses the vibrating diaphragm as a capacitor plate)
- Ribbon (uses a thin metal ribbon suspended in a magnetic field)
- Electret (uses a permanently charged material called an “electret”)
- Piezoelectric / Contact (uses a crystal of piezoelectric material)
Microphones usually need to be connected to a preamplifier before the signal can be
recorded or reproduced. The batteries or external power source for a microphone is
called phantom power.

Dynamic Microphones convert sound into an electrical signal by

means of electromagnetism. They fall into two categories: moving
coil and ribbon (which are described
below). They can be used for recording
loud sounds, such as vocals, guitar amps or
drums. -
they do not require external power
- they can be relatively inexpensive
- they are robust and durable
- they can handle high sound pressure levels (loud sounds).
- they almost do not pick quiet or distant sounds
- they are less accurate when capturing sounds
- they have limited high frequency detail
- they usually have a resonant peak in the mid-frequency response
Condenser Microphones are usually used for high quality sound recording in
studios. A condenser capsule consists of a thin membrane that is very close to a solid
metal plate. The membrane or diaphragm must be electrically
conductive. When sound waves hit the diaphragm, it moves
back and forth relative to the solid backplate. In other words,
the distance between the two capacitor plates changes. As a
result, the capacitance changes to the
rhythm of the sound waves which
allows us to convert sound into an
electrical signal. Due to its extremely
low mass, the diaphragm of a condenser microphone can follow the sound waves
more accurately than that of a dynamic microphone with a (relatively) heavy moving
coil attached. Condenser microphones, therefore, offer superior sound quality. Of all
microphone types, condensers have the widest frequency response and the best
transient response (transients are fast bursts of energy, e.g. the attack of a drum or the
“pick” of an acoustic guitar). Also, condenser microphones usually offer much higher
sensitivity (i.e. output) and lower noise than dynamic microphones.

- ideal for recording vocals or acoustic guitars

- perfect for recording quiet and moderate sounds.
- they need phantom power (usually 48 Volts)
- very sensitive to breathing and “popping”
- they don’t handle high sound pressure very well
- they reproduce sounds more accurately.
They are extremely sensitive so they pick any background noise. If you record vocals,
you will need a pop filter to cut off blowing or popping sounds. In addition, these
microphones cannot handle very loud sounds.

Ribbon Microphones are commonly used

in studios and on talk show host desks.
Ribbon microphones typically have lower
sensitivity than a moving coil microphone.
They require a very low noise preamp
with lots of gain. A relatively new
development are so called active ribbon
microphones, which contain an amplifier
circuit for higher output. Active ribbon
mics require phantom power, just like
condenser microphones.

- they use a metal ribbon instead of a usual diaphragm

- they are usually bidirectional which means they can pick up sound from both
sides.
- older models do not require phantom power
- newer models come with a phantom power support and materials that are immune
to wind blasts
- they are very fragile.
- they have limited treble response
An Electret Microphone is a type of a condenser
microphone that comes with a permanently charged
element built into it. Cell phones, laptop computers,
mobile recorders and video cameras all work with
electret condenser capsules.

- they require a small voltage (4 to 10 Volts) to power a built-in preamplifier

- they are small in size
- they are okay for middle to high frequency range sounds
- they are bad for bass frequencies
- they are used for voice communications
The Piezoelectric Microphone or Contact
microphone (also known as a pickup or a piezo), is a
form of microphone that senses audio vibrations
through contact with solid objects.

- they are insensitive to air vibrations.

- they are used in musical instruments, such as
acoustic guitars to pick up sound through material
vibrations.
It is important to choose the right microphone for the job (vocals, instruments etc.)
Think of what the sound source you buy it for, as well as equipment it will connect
to. The microphone needs to be able to handle the loudness and frequency range of
the sound source. If it doesn’t, your audio might have noticeable hiss or distortion.
Also, the microphone should be compatible with the equipment, otherwise you might
have problems with noise, low level or no sound at all. Every microphone has a list of
the following characteristics:
- Type of microphone: dynamic, condenser, ribbon, etc.
- Sensitivity: output in dB. High sensitivity is usually better.
- Dynamic Range – the widest range that a mic is able to cover.
- Signal to Noise Ratio – The higher the ratio, the less obvious the background
noise will be.
Frequency Response: defines the range of sound a mic can reproduce, as well as
how sensitive it is within that range. A microphone with flat response is equally
sensitive to all frequencies, which is good for acoustic instruments, vocals and
orchestras. A microphone with shaped response is more sensitive to some frequency
ranges than others. A mic with increased mid-range adds clarity to vocals. Decreased
sensitivity to low frequencies reduces pickup of room noise and vibration, caused by
a proximity effect.

The proximity effect is a phenomenon that leads to an increase in low frequency

response as you move the mic closer to the source. The closer you get, the bigger the
bass boost is. This can create problems, but at the same time, it opens up ways to
shape the sound. Some microphones allow to switch between different frequency
response ranges.

Polar Pattern or Pickup Pattern defines how microphone responds to sound from
different directions. This is important when you choose a microphone for a specific
purpose. The most common patterns are:

Omnidirectional

A commonly used microphone design, able to pick up

sound from a 360 degree radius. Perfect for interviews,
moving subjects.

Bi-Directional

This polar pattern only picks up sound waves from the

front and the back of the microphone, all sounds coming
in from the sides won’t be heard or will be distorted. Perfect for podcasts, radio
interviews.

Cardioid

This polar pattern is used for live broadcasting or for singer’s performances on stage
because the sound waves can only be picked up from the front, so the audience’s
noise does not affect the quality of the sound coming from the microphone. Perfect
for documentary recording, weddings, events.

Hyper-Cardioid

Much like the cardioid but due to having the small back
sound pickup it produces a better sound because it has
the all-round frequency response. Perfect for on-camera
mics, documentary recording, and instrument recording.

Supercardioid (Shotgun)

Supercardioid mics are the most popular types of

microphones for indie filmmakers because they give
users the ability to isolate audio. Perfect for: reality
television, movie making.

Lobar (Unidirectional)

A lobar pattern is the most directional pickup pattern you

can use but it is hard to work with. Perfect for narrative
film, controlled sets.

Other microphone specifications are:

Output impedance: used to determine what transformer is necessary to transfer the

power efficiently from microphone.
Sampling rate: the more the better. The minimum standard sampling rate is 44.1
kHz. High sampling rate sounds crisp and rich while low sampling rate sounds
muffled and low quality.

Bit Depth: again, the more the number the more dynamic your sound will be. The
standard numbers are 16 bit or 24 bit.

Audio interface: USB, 3.5 mm or XLR

lavalier microphone (also known as a lav, lapel mic, clip mic, body mic, collar mic,
neck mic or personal mic) is a small microphone used for television, theatre, and
public speaking applications in order to allow for hands-free operation. They are most
commonly provided with small clips for attaching to collars, ties, or other clothing.
The cord may be hidden by clothes and either run to a radio frequency transmitter
kept in a pocket or clipped to a belt, or routed directly to the mixer or a recording
device

A binaural microphone is used for recording audio that sounds really close to what
we hear in real life. That kind of sound is currently used for ASMR (Autonomous
Sensory Meridian Response) recordings and video games to increase the immersion
and create a certain mood or atmosphere.

A headset microphone is usually used for voice communication services.

A mini mic is used as an alternative for ordinary microphones when you need
something portable. The sound quality is usually low. You can connect it to your
camera or laptop.

The last but not the

least, are some of the
microphone accessories:
 3.5 ABOUT 3D GRAPHICS

3D graphics is a very broad area and it’s really popular nowadays. It is used in
videogame industry, for visual effects in movies, in architecture, engineering, product
design, commercials, TV shows, for reconstruction and historical preservation,
cybernetics, medicine and so on. People use 3D to prototype and test their ideas
before putting them on Kickstarter, or for capturing real life environments. For
example, 3D scans are to be used for reconstruction of Notre-Dame de Paris that
caught fire on April 15 2019. People print different objects like houses, human
figures, mechanisms or tools using 3D models. We create robots by modeling and
printing them piece by piece. Prosthetic limbs are created using 3D programs.

In this chapter, you will learn how 3D graphics works and what its basic
elements are. You will also learn about different programs that are used nowadays for
3D modeling. Let’s begin.

To form a simple line you need to

connect two dots. The dots in 3D
are called vertices.

To form a basic flat surface you

need to connect a minimum of
three vertices. When you do that,
you get a triangle or a polygon –
the basic element of any 3D
surface. The lines of a polygon
are called edges. To see its
surface, we need to fill the
triangle with colored pixels using
a technology called shading.
Two triangles form a polygon called a
quad, because it has four vertices. In
modeling, you can use quads or
triangles only. You should avoid using
n-gons or polygons with more than
four vertices. Now the polygon is
shown in wireframe mode.
When you apply shading to a polygon,
it becomes colored. When you see
only a color with no shadow, it is
called flat shading. Different types of
shading are used to create light and
shadow effects on a 3D object to make
it look more realistic.
Every polygon has an invisible
perpendicular line called a normal. It
helps computer to calculate the angle
and position of a polygon to light it
correctly by making its color lighter or
darker.
By adding more polygons, you can
create complex shapes and objects.
Modeling usually starts with a
primitive shape or a simple object
such a line, a plane, a cube, a cylinder,
a sphere etc. Then you can add more
edges, vertices or polygons and
manipulate their position to create a
complex 3D object.
As a result, you get a model that is made of many polygons. The edges of those
polygons form a mesh. The more polygons are in the model, the denser is the mesh
and the more detailed your model looks. The number of polygons is called a
polycount. The models that are made of a small number of polygons are called
lowpoly models. They are used in game engines because they can be processed faster
and take less memory space.

The models that contain a big number of polygons are called highpoly models.
These are usually used in movies and commercials. They take up way more memory
space and cannot be used for videogames.

The process of generating a photorealistic or non-photorealistic image from a 2D or

3D model is called rendering. Today we use Physically Based Rendering or PBR. To
make your model look realistic, you need textures (or texture maps).

Textures

The texture is the digital representation of the surface of an object. It is an image or a

photograph that is wrapped around a model like a skin. There are many kinds of
textures in 3D called maps that are layered on top of each other. Let’s break down a
model to see the functions of some of the textures (texture maps).
 Here is a pure model with its
wireframe mesh shown. It has
no textures applied to it, so there
is not much detail for you to see.
Now let us apply a normal map
to it.

A normal map is used to create

an illusion of detail. It uses red
blue and green channels of an
image to represent changes in
height and angle on a surface.
Use it to make your lowpoly
model look like a highpoly.
An albedo map is an image of
the surface colors with no lights
or shadows. If you want your
shadows to be a part of an image,
you should use a diffuse map
instead. A photograph is a good
example of a diffuse map.
Here is the final result with
normal, albedo, and specular
maps applied to the same model.
Together those textures make up
a material, which represents all
the qualities for this object and
makes it look realistic.

Many more texture maps are used to create an illusion of metal surfaces, or to add
transparency, reflections, height, translucency, dents, shadows etc. They are standard
for many programs and game engines so knowing how to use them is the key to
beautiful visuals.

There are lots of 3D programs for various purposes. Software such as 3Ds Max,
Maya, Blender, Modo, Cinema 4D, 3D Coat, Houdini etc. are used for modeling,
animation, rigging, texturing and rendering.

CAD programs (ArchiCAD, Sketchup, AutoCAD) are used in architecture and

engineering because they can create very precise models and blueprints.

Programs like Mudbox and Zbrush (as well as sculpting tools in other programs like
Blender) are used for digital sculpting and creating highly detailed models.

Substance Painter, Substance Designer, Substance Alchemist, Quixel Suite,

Photoshop, Gimp and many other programs are used for texture creation allowing
you to paint over your models. Some programs can make a material from a photo
(Bitmap 2 Material, Materialize, PixPlant) by breaking it into separate maps that can
be tweaked until you get a result you want.

3D industry is really huge and diverse. You can visit sites like Artstation or Sketchfab
to see what people create. The sky is the limit when it comes to creating 3D worlds or
objects for printing. There are 3D communities and sites that you can visit to learn
about the latest news in the industry and workflows for various tasks and programs.

As technology is getting more and more powerful and accessible, we are getting
closer to creating virtual worlds that closely match the reality we live in. Techniques
like photogrammetry and laser scanning have become easier to use. They allow
people to take photos of almost anything and create a rough model within a few hours
which can be 3D printed afterwards or used for other purposes. Thus, 3D becomes a
part of everyday life for many people.

3.6 OFFICE EQUIPMENT

The laminator is a device that fuses two pieces of plastic together with paper in
between. The primary reason for laminating things is to preserve the quality of the
material being laminated. It provides a protective barrier against moisture, stains and
fingerprints. There are three types of laminators:

Cold laminators

These are used for materials which will get damaged when exposed to heat, such as
photos, old and frail documents, vinyl or plastics. This machine uses the energy
derived from pressure generated by its plates or rollers to make the laminating sheet
adhere to the material on either side.

Hot lamination machines / Pouch laminators

These make use of plates or rollers to do the job. Most hot laminators function with
the user inserting a material, usually paper, into a lamination pouch. The pouch is
then run through the machine to fasten the lamination to the material through heat
and pressure. The pouch has an optional laminating carrier which is useful in
protecting the document from being damaged by too much heat.

Roll Laminators

Also known as film laminators, these are the kinds of machines that you will find in
larger organizations such as schools. These machines use large rolls of film to
laminate documents that are of just about any size, and you can even laminate many
documents consecutively and trim them when you are finished. Items are placed at
the opening on one sheet of plastic (the plastic sheets that are lined with adhesive).
There is a roller on top that holds the top layer of laminate in place. As the machine
starts, the item is run though and the two sheets of adhesive-lined plastic are heated to
the extent that they will glue permanently together around the document.

A printer is an external hardware output device that takes the electronic data stored
on a computer or other device and prints it out on a paper or some other material.
Today, the most common printers used with a computer are Inkjet and laser printers.
Here is the full list of printer types:

- 3D printer – prints 3D objects using different materials.

- AIO (all-in-one) printer – a printer, fax, and scanner all in one device
- Dot matrix printer – old-fashioned printer used at banks
- Inkjet printer – prints images using ink
- Laser printer – prints out images using laser technology
- LED printer – uses an LED instead of a laser
- MFP (multifunction printer) – a printer and a scanner in one device
- Plotter - used for printing vector graphics. Plotters use a pen, pencil, marker, or
another writing tool to draw multiple, continuous lines onto paper rather than a series
of dots like a traditional printer.
Finally, there are two types of thermal printers:
- A thermal impact printer or electrothermal printer is a printer that uses heated
pins to "burn" images onto heat-sensitive paper. These printers are commonly
used in calculators and fax machines; and although they are inexpensive and print
relatively fast, they produce low resolution print jobs
- A thermal printer, thermal transfer printer, or thermal wax-transfer printer
uses thermal wax ribbon to melt colored wax on paper for a photo print
Scanner is device used to scan documents and images and convert them into digital
format.
Types of scanners:
1. Flatbed scanner – the most common desktop scanners.

2. Sheet-fed scanner - similar to flatbed scanners except that the document is moved
and the scan head is immobile

3. Handheld scanner - uses same basic technology as a flatbed scanner, but depends
on the user to move them. This type of scanner does not provide good image quality

4. Drum scanner – provides very high quality. It uses technology called a

photomultiplier tube (PMT). The document to be scanned is mounted on a glass
cylinder. At the center of the cylinder is a sensor that splits light bounced from the
document into three beams. Each beam is sent through a colour filter into PMT where
the light is changed into an electric signal.

A fax machine is a device that is used to send documents electronically over a

telephone network. The transmissions it sends are called “faxes”, and these can be
between two fax machines, or between a fax machine and computer or online fax
service that is equipped to send and receive faxes.

A photocopier (also known as copier, copy machine, Xerox machine) is a machine

that makes copies of documents and other visual images onto paper or plastic film
quickly and cheaply. Most modern photocopiers use a technology called xerography,
a dry process that uses electrostatic charges on a light-sensitive photoreceptor to first
attract and then transfer toner particles (a powder) onto paper in the form of an
image. Heat, pressure or a combination of both is then used to fuse the toner onto the
paper. Copiers can also use other technologies such as ink jet, but xerography is
standard for office copying.

A shredder, shredding machine or document shredder is a mechanical device for

cutting paper and other media, which contain information into fragments so small that
the information can no longer be retrieved.

A binding machine is a device that binds pages together into a book.

There are many types of binding machines:
Comb binding machine

Comb binding machines, which are perfect for small and

thin books, punch round holes on the left side of the pages,
and those pages are held together by a comb. The comb
opens and closes when the loose pages are to be inserted or
removed. This method is considered to be the least flexible
style of bookbinding due to the plastic spine that forms the
back of the binding.

Coil machines

Coil machines are also known as

spiral coil machines. Considered to
be better than comb binding
method, this machine punches
holes to bind the pages with a
continuous spiraling plastic coil. Usually, the coil is
made from PVC. Highly flexible and durable, coil machines are ideal for binding
notebooks and legal documents.
 Wire binding machines

Like other binding machines,

wire binding machines too
punch the holes in the pages
and then uses multiple wires
to bind the pages. The machine will bend and close
the wires together after the pages are holed and fed
into the wire ring. This method of binding is usually used for large books or
documents.

Thermal binding

Thermal binding is widely used for giving a

professional look to documents such as
manuscripts. Under this method, the edge of the
pages is inserted
into the pre-glued spine of the folder and then
the spine is heated until the glue melts.

Tape machines

These machines use a strip of

adhesive tape to bind the edge of
the pages together. Simple and
cost effective, this method gives
a tidy, finished appearance to the loose documents.

Strip binding machines

As the name suggests, strip binding machines run

binding strips through the punched holes of the paper.
The machine then secures the strips with heat.
 Saddle stitching

These machines are quite costly and complex, and hence, exclusively
used by dedicated printing companies.
Saddle stitching machines punch, wire and
staple through the folded edges of pages.

Velobind binding

Velobind binding machines are perfect for binding legal-sized documents out of the
box. These binding machines
come with different
functionalities to bind books
that are thick up to one inch.

Perfect binding

Perfect binding is an adhesive-based bookbinding

method that makes for a very professional-looking
final product. Most paperback novels and some
hardback novels are made using perfect bind. Perfect
bind is recommended for thicker documents because
the binding adhesive used is very strong. Binding glue
is added manually to the spine of the book using a
specialized brush before the book is put through the
binding machine, completing the process
In order for all this hardware to work with your PC, it is necessary to install drivers
that are compatible with your system. In most cases, every device comes with a small
disc containing all the software you need but sometimes, you might have to download
the drivers from the manufacturer’s website. Here are methods of installing device
drivers:

1. Running the Setup. Double click the setup program .exe file to begin
installation process, then follow the instructions of the program.
2. Scanning for new hardware. You can use Add/Remove Hardware Wizard to
detect hardware and install the drivers for it.
3. Manual installation. You can use the Add/Remove Hardware Wizard to
specify the device you want to install, or you can right-click the .INF file that
comes with the driver and choose Install.
Note: You must have administrative privileges to install device drivers.

3.7 NETWORKS. NETWORK PROTOCOLS.

A computer network is a set of devices, which communicate and share resources.
These devices are mostly computers, and sometimes standalone hard disks,
telephones, printers and terminals.

A computer network interaction is based on the client-server architecture. The server

is the computer which is offering its resource, usually programmed to wait until
someone asks for its resource. The client is the computer which uses the resource,
sending the request to a waiting server.

This means that there are Client-Server networks and Peer-to-Peer networks.

The Client-Server network:

- Every device is either a client or a server.

- A client establishes a connection with the server over the network.
- Servers can backup and store data centrally, though can be expensive and difficult
to run.
The Peer-to-Peer network:

- Has no central server.

- Each computer is equal in responsibility and each has the ability to work both as a
client and a server.
Every network performance is affected by latency (the delay or how fast signals
travel), bandwidth (or max rate of data transfer in bits per second) and error rate.
Wired connections are generally faster than wireless. Their bandwidth can vary (for
example, the Ethernet = 10 Mbps, Wireless = 10 Mbps to 1.3 Gbps). The bandwidth
is shared across the network so it can become congested. The wireless range is not
reliable – the signal degrades quickly and may be blocked. Signals at same frequency
often interfere, leading to data collisions.

Computer network types depend on how large they are and how much of an area they
cover. There are the following types of networks:

PAN – Personal Area Network

This type of network is used on a personal level. It is used for connecting devices
such as smartphones, tablets and laptops. The devices can be connected through
wireless technologies such as Bluetooth, NFC and Infrared connection or through
USB cable. PANs are generally used for transferring small files such as music,
photos, etc..

LAN – Local Area Network

It is a group of devices (such as computers, servers, switches or printers) that are

located in the same building. The most common type of LAN is an Ethernet LAN
where two or more computers are connected using an Ethernet cable through a
switch.

WLAN – Wireless Local Area Network

It uses wireless communication. A WLAN will typically have a Wi-Fi router or Wi-
Fi access point.

CAN – Campus Area Network

It is a network that joins two or more LANs together within a limited area. For
example, two buildings may join their LANs to form a bigger LAN.

MAN – Metropolitan Area Network

It spans over a several buildings in a city or town. MANs are typically connected
using a high-speed connection such as fiber optic cable, allowing users to share files
within the city limits.

SAN – Storage Area Network

It’s a special high-speed network that stores and provides access to large amounts of
data. It usually consists of multiple disk arrays, switches and servers. They are not
affected by network traffic.

WAN – Wide Area Network

It’s a huge network that spans over a large geographical area. The Internet is an
example of WAN.

VLAN – Virtual Local Area Network

In a VLAN, the computers, servers, and other network devices are logically
connected regardless of their physical location. It is necessary for improving security,
traffic management and making a network simpler.

VPN – Virtual Private Network

It is a way to recognize a computer outside the LAN as a trusted computer. The user
is identified with a password and his computer, even though connected to the
Internet, will be considered as part of the LAN until it disconnects from it. VPN is
typically required to identify portable computers via wireless connection.

Network Topologies

A topology is the layout of how a network communicates with different devices. It

can be wired or wireless.
 The Star Topology

In the star topology, all of computers are connected to

the central wiring point such as a hub or a switch. All
of data on a star network passes through the central
point before continuing to its destination. This means
if one of the computers breaks, the others will not be
affected, because each computer has its own cable
connection. However, if the central switch or hub fails, the entire network goes down.

The Ring Topology

Each computer is connected to each other in a shape of

a ring which means every computer has two neighbors
for communication. Each data packet is sent around the
ring until it reaches its final destination. This kind of
topology is very old and is rarely used today. It is easy
to install, but if there’s a break in the cable, all of the data flow will be disrupted.

The Bus Topology

This kind of topology is also very old and is

almost not used anymore. Each of the
computers and network devices are connected
to a single cable or “backbone”. The backbone
is usually a coaxial cable which must
terminated at both ends using terminators. The
computers and devices are connected to a backbone using T-shaped or BNC
connectors. There must not be any open connections in order for this setup to work so
if a computer or one of the terminators is missing, the signal will bounce back (it is
called signal reflection) and that will disrupt the data flow. The bus topology usually
has a bigger error rate.
 The Mesh Topology

All computers in the network are interconnected. This

kind of topology creates better protection, because if
one of connections fail, the computers will still be able
to communicate with each other. However, because of
the amount of cables and network cards that have to be
used, this kind of topology can be expensive, so it is used mainly on WANs. The
Internet is an example of mesh topology, because the Internet is made up of
numerous routers all over the world that are connected to each other to route data to
their intended destinations. So even if a few routers go down, the data will get
rerouted using a different path to reach its destination.

Now let’s talk about wireless topologies

Infrastructure Wireless Topology

This topology uses a combination of wired and wireless devices. It’s similar to a star
topology where you have wired devices connected to a switch. Besides, you have a
wireless point that is also connected by the cable to the same switch which allows
laptops, tablets or smartphones to connect to the same network. This means that a
wireless access point acts like a bridge between the wired network and the wireless
network.

Ad-hoc topology

It does not rely on cables, servers, routers or WAPs, which means all the devices, are
connected to each other in a simple peer-to-peer network (P2P). They directly
connect to each other without using a centralized device such as a Wi-Fi router or
access point. That also means that each device is responsible for its own security and
permissions.
 Wireless Mesh Topology

It is similar to wired mesh topology but devices are wirelessly interconnected. There
are many access points scattered across the building that are connected to each other.
When you try to access the Internet, you are connected to a nearest access point,
which relays the connection to the next point and then eventually finds its way back
to the modem. This kind of topology is very reliable.

Now moving to some terms and definitions

The Internet is the worldwide collection of networks that use the Internet Protocol
Suite or TCP/IP.

The World Wide Web or WWW, is the collection of web pages hosted on web
servers. The web runs using HTTP protocol.

That means that the Internet = Hardware, the Web = Resources hosted on the
Internet. Every Internet resource has a URL address for example:

http: // www. thesite.com / folder / file

Here http is the protocol prefix, www means you access the site as a web server,
thesite.com is the domain name and the rest is the directory path where the file is
located. The name of the site may contain its country code such as .us or .ua

So data travels around the Internet through routers that forward it in the form of
packets. There are normal routers that we use in everyday life and industrial size
routers that belong to ISP or Internet Service Provider companies. These routers
send huge amounts of data across all continents. The connections between ISPs are
called a backbone of the Internet. So, the purpose of routers is just to forward
packets between networks. On their way they stop at the gateways. An Internet
gateway is a network "node" that connects two different networks that use different
protocols (rules) for communicating. In the most basic terms, an Internet gateway is
where data stops on its way to or from other networks. Thanks to gateways, we can
communicate and send data back and forth with each other.
Gateways can take several different forms from hardware to software - including
routers and computers - and can perform a variety of tasks. These can range from
passing traffic to the next 'hop' on its path to filtering traffic, proxies, or protocol
translations. Because gateways are, by definition, at the edge of a network, they are
often combined with firewalls, which keep out unwanted traffic or 'foreign'
computers from a closed network.

A bridge is a type of computer network device that provides interconnection with

other bridge networks that use the same protocol. Nowadays they are replaced with
switches or switching hubs.

A switch is a device that allows us to connect more devices to the network using
Ethernet cables.

An IP address uniquely identifies a device on network, and defines where it is

located geographically. It needs to be unique enough for a router to find your
geographical location. The router uses the destination IP address of the packet to
identify where to send the packet, and routing algorithms determine the best route to
get there. This method of data transmission is called packet switching which means
no fixed path is created between the communicating devices. Each packet can take a
different route to reach its destination. Each packet consists of:

The checksum is necessary to check if data was corrupted during transmission.

Sender and receiver calculate a checksum and if the match – the data hasn’t been
corrupted, so the next packet can be sent over until the whole file is assembled at its
destination.

A website or Web site is a collection of related network web resources, such as web
pages, multimedia content, which are typically identified with a common domain
name, and published on at least one web server. Websites can be accessed via a
public Internet Protocol (IP) network, such as the Internet, or a private local area
network (LAN), by a uniform resource locator (URL) that identifies the site. Every
site has an IP address telling the network where to find it. All network adapters have
a unique identification number called MAC or Media Access Control address.

A network protocol is a set of rules for communication between network devices.

These rules need to be accepted so devices can be compatible and reliably
communicate. Protocols are usually developed in layers, with each being responsible
for a different part of the communication process. For example, TCP/IP protocol has
4 layers:

- Application Layer – includes HTTP/S, FTP, IMAP & POP, DNS

- Transport Layer – includes TCP, UDP
- Network Layer – IP
- Link Layer – Ethernet, Wi-Fi
Those layers make up the Internet Protocol Suite of TCP/IP protocols.
The network applications operate on an Application Layer (web browsers, email
clients)
The Transport Layer sets up communication between the two hosts, including agreed
rules (like packet size)
The Network Layer addresses and packages the data, then actually routes it.
The Link Layer is where the hardware and drivers operate.

So sending data works from the highest layer down to the lowest layer and receiving
data works backwards.

To send voice messages or multimedia a special protocol called VoIP or Voice over
Internet Protocol is used. Programs such as Skype and Discord are good examples of
what this protocol can do.
 There is also another type of connection
called ISDN (Integrated Services Digital
Network. Basically it combines
telephone and data exchange services. A
number of technologies called DSL is
used to transmit more digital data over telephone lines.

Business companies may use a thin client. It is a computer that runs from resources
stored on a central server instead of a localized hard drive. Thin clients work by
connecting remotely to a server-based computing environment where most
applications, sensitive data, and memory, are stored. Thin clients have a number of
benefits, including:

- Reduced cost
- Increased security
- More efficient manageability
- Scalability
Security can be improved through employing thin clients because the thin client itself
is restricted by the server. Thin clients cannot run unauthorized software, and data
can’t be copied or saved anywhere except for the server. System monitoring and
management is easier based on the centralized server location.

Thin clients can also be simpler to manage, since upgrades, security policies, and
more can be managed in the data center instead of on the endpoint machines. This
leads to less downtime, increasing productivity among IT staff as well as endpoint
machine users.

There is another network protocol called Telnet used for text messaging in terminals.
Modern message boards still use a network model called Usenet (user network).
Words like “nickname”, “emoticon”, “signature”, “moderator”, “trolling”, “flood”,
“flame”, “ban”, “FAQ” and “spam” came from that network. It was created in 1980
before Internet became popular and is still used in the form of user groups, image
boards and user communities.
All websites contain hyperlinks. A hyperlink, or simply a link, is a reference to data
that the reader can directly follow either by clicking or tapping. Also, all the pages
are written in HTML or HyperText Markup Language allowing to shape the
hypertext and pages as necessary. Every site has a certain structure called a site map.
It allows you to navigate it easily so you can always go back to the main page if
necessary.

3.8 BROWSERS. E-MAIL.

Web browser

A web browser is a client program you use to access the Internet. It runs directly on
user’s computer as a client and connects to external web servers, identified with a
prefix in the Internet name, to retrieve web pages.

The most popular browsers are Google Chrome, Opera and Mozilla Firefox. When
opening a browser, at the top of the window you will see an address bar. You can
type an address of the site you want to visit in it. If you’ve been to this website
before, you browser may suggest or autocomplete whatever you type in the address
bar. If you agree with that, press Enter on your keyboard, or click on the suggested
word.

Most of the time you will go between pages by clicking on links. To go back to the
previous page you can click the “Back” button. To return to the first page click the
“Forward” button. If you see a link you want to open but you don’t want to leave the
page you are on, you can open that link in a new tab. Just right click the link and
select “Open in new tab” option. This opens a new page behind current page so it
doesn’t take you away from the original site. You can also create a new tab by
clicking on a button to the right of the last open tab and then type in a new address or
search request. To close a tab, just click the “X” button.

If you are on a website you want to go back to later, you can bookmark it. Most
browsers have a button right next to the address bar that lets you bookmark the page.
You can check your bookmarks by clicking the user menu button, going to
“Bookmarks” section, and then selecting the site you want from the list.

Even if you don’t bookmark the sites, you can still find them in a feature called
History. All browsers keep track of sites you visited. Just click the main menu button
and select “History”.

To search any information, you can just type words into search bar or address bar. To
download files you will have to look for download links or download buttons. The
downloaded files can be found in the Main Menu – Downloads section.

Creating an email

To create a Gmail address, you'll first need to create a Google account. Gmail will
redirect you to the Google account signup page.

You'll need to provide some basic information like your name, birth date, gender, and
location. You will also need to choose a name for your new Gmail address. Once you
create an account, you'll be able to start adding contacts and adjusting your mail
settings.

To create an account:
1. Go to www.gmail.com. 3. The signup form will appear.
2. Click Create account Follow the directions and enter the
required information.

4. Review Google's Terms of

Service and Privacy Policy,
click the check box, then click
Next step.

5. Here, you'll have an opportunity to

set up recovery options. Recovery
options are helpful if you forget
your password or if someone tries
to access your account. If you
don't want to set up recovery
options at this time, click Done.
 6. Your account will be created, and the Google welcome page will appear

When you first create your account, you will be automatically signed in. Most of the
time, however, you'll need to sign in to your account and sign out when you're done
with it. Signing out is especially important if you're using a shared computer (for
example, at a library or office) because it prevents others from viewing your emails.

To sign in: To sign out:

In the top-right corner of the page,

1. Go to www.gmail.com. locate the circle that has your first

2. Type your user name (your initial (if you've already selected an
email address) and password, avatar image, it will show the image
then click Sign in. instead). To sign out, click the circle
and select Sign out.
3.9 MAIL PROGRAMS
One of the most popular mail programs is Microsoft Outlook. It is used primarily in
business companies where e-mail management is important. To use Outlook use must
register an account.

You’ll be asked for your name, email

address, and a password. That’s usually
enough, but if automatic setup fails,
Outlook will ask for a few more pieces
of information, such as your mail
server name. If you don’t have that
info, your email provider can give you
the details.
The quick access bar is an important
part of your Outlook experience. And
it's an easy way for you to move among
the top Outlook features—Mail,
Calendar, People, and Tasks
You can create a new message by
clicking New E-mail button. When
you’re done composing your email,
choose Send

You can add an electronic signature

and attachments to your email
messages.
To reply a message choose Reply,
Reply All, or Forward

To share a file, you can attach it to

your message. You can also attach
other Outlook items, such as
messages, contacts, or tasks
You can also save attachments.
On the Attachments tab, in the
Actions group, choose Save As.
You can also right-click the
attachment, and then choose Save
As

Appointments are activities that

you schedule in your calendar.
In a Calendar folder, choose New
Appointment. You can also right-
click a time block in your calendar
grid, and then choose New
Appointment

In Outlook, a meeting includes

other people and can include
resources such as conference
rooms. You’ll get responses to
your meeting requests in your
Inbox.
You can set or remove reminders
for almost anything in Outlook,
including email messages,
appointments, and contacts. Open
an Appointment or Meeting, and
then in the Reminder list box,
choose the amount of time before
the appointment or meeting when
you want the reminder to appear.
To turn off a reminder, choose
None.

A contact can be as simple as a

name and email addresses, or you
can include, for example, details
such as street addresses, multiple
phone numbers, a picture, and
birthdays. You'll find your
Contacts under the People option
in the shortcuts bar in the lower-
left corner of the Outlook window
 Saving a copy of contacts in your
address book is a good practice. In
Outlook 2013 or Outlook 2016 for
Windows, you can download a
comma-separated value (.csv) file
of your contacts to your device
and open it in Excel.

Many people keep to-do lists - on paper, in a spreadsheet, or with a combination of

paper and electronic methods. In Outlook, you can combine various lists into one, get
reminders, and track task progress
1. Open Outlook, and on the Home tab, in the New group, choose New Items.
2. Choose Task, fill in the task form as needed, and then choose Save & Close.
In Outlook, you can print items
such as email messages, contacts,
calendar items, or larger views,
such as calendars, address books,
or content lists for Mail folders.