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MODULE 6: HUMAN ACTIVITY AND THE  Aquifers - Porous water-saturated layers of

HYDROSPHERE rocks that can yield an economically
significant amount of water.
 Hydrosphere - a dynamic mass of liquid that is
 Natural recharge - Most aquifers are recharged
continually on the move, from the oceans to the
or replenished naturally by precipitation which
atmosphere, to the land and back again.
percolates downward through soil and rock.
 Earth's H₂O is about 97% and blanketing nearly
 Recharge area - Any area of land allowing water
71% of the Earth's surface.
to pass through it and into an aquifer (wells,
 More than 99% of Earth's water is unavailable or
springs, lakes, and oceans).
unsuitable for beneficial human use because of
its salinity (sea water) or form and location (ice Human Use of Water
caps and glaciers).
2 Common Measures of Human Water Use
 Water - the Earth's most abundant resource,
covering about 71% of the surface. 1. Water Withdrawal
 Precipitation - falling from a height. It includes  This involves taking water from a ground
all forms in which atmospheric moisture water or surface water source and
descends to Earth in the form of rain, snow, hail, transporting it to a place of use (home,
and sleet. business, industry, farm, etc.).
 Run off - refer to the flow back of the oceans of  It is the water that has been withdrawn but
the precipitation that falls on land. not consumed.
 Fresh water – comes from 2 sources:  Irrigation consumes the highest percentage
o Surface water - Precipitation that does not of its withdrawn water (an average of about
infiltrate into the ground or return to the 55 percent) because so much of it evaporates
atmosphere by evaporation or transpiration. or it is transpired through plant matter.
It is fresh water that is on the Earth's surface
2. Water Consumption
in streams, lakes, wet lands, and reservoirs.
o Ground water - Water that penetrates the  Occurs when water that has been withdrawn
soil and reaches the water table. is not available for reuse in the area from
 Zone of saturation - The area where which it is withdrawn mostly because
all available pores are filled by water. of evaporation or transpiration into the
 Ground water – the water in the atmosphere.
pores.  It is also the part of the withdrawn water that
 Water table - the upper surface of is not returned to the source of supply.
the zone of saturation.
Life supporting functions of water:
 Porosity - the pores in rocks, or the percentage
of the rock's volume that is not occupied by the  Human consumption- (drinking and
rock itself. cooking)
 Permeability – the degree to which  Food production (irrigation)
underground rock pores are interconnected
 Personal hygiene
with each other and thus is a measure of the
 Sanitation
degree to which water flows, freely from one
pore to another.  Industrial production
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 Energy generation can also cause surface water features such as

 Economic development springs, rivers and marshland to dry up.

 Environmental protection  Agriculture changes when plants are grown

and in what quantities.
Human Intervention in the Water Cycle
 Evapotranspiration from the crops may be
Roles of Forests in the Hydrological Cycle
reduced if the previous habitat was forest, or
 Forests play a very important role within the
it may be increased if an arid area was
global and local hydrological cycles. They
cultivated and irrigated.
transmit huge quantities of water into the
 Surface runoff an increase as post-harvest
atmosphere via the transpiration of plants (in
fields are bare of vegetation.
which plants release water from their leaves
 Farmed crops often intercept less
during photosynthesis) and from evaporation
precipitation than natural vegetation cover.
from their leaves.
 Subsequent precipitation can exceed
 In the Amazon, 50-80% of moisture remains in
infiltration capacities of the soil resulting in
the ecosystem’s water cycle.
increased overland flow.
Deforestation and the Hydrological Cycle
 Farmers intentionally dig drainage ditches
 When deforestation occurs, hydrological
within and around their fields to prevent after
cycle is interrupted.
logging of plants. This means that water
 Less plants means less evaporation.
moves initially via overland flow and then via
 Subsequently there is a decline in rainfall,
small channels into rivers, affecting both the
subjecting the area to drought.
hydrograph and annual regime of those
 Deforestation affects the global climate
rivers.
system.
 Agriculture often reduces vegetation cover
Agriculture
and soil compaction from machinery can
 Modern agriculture has a large impact upon
occur. Both of these can reduce the amount
the hydrological cycle.
of water that infiltrates into the soil and
 In many parts of the world, agriculture has
therefore increase run off.
replaced natural vegetation with crop cover
Water Abstraction
and pasture, drastically altering the way that
 Groundwater abstraction – the process of
water moves through altered drainage basin
taking water from a ground source. It is
systems.
pumped through boreholes and wells from
 Agriculture redistributes water away from its
underground aquifers, as a source of
natural pathways.
freshwater. A lot of this water is used for
 Precipitation is trapped and restored in
irrigation for crops or to produce drinking
surface reservoirs, groundwater and river
water.
water is extracted, then reused on fields to
 As water is abstracted, the water table (the
water crops during drier periods.
upper limit of water in the soil or roc beneath
 Groundwater stores are affected – wells are
the ground) is lowered around the borehole.
drilled into the ground and water pumped to
 Taking too much water, or over abstraction
the surface for use in irrigation. This can
can lead to surface rivers drying up or the
deplete groundwater levels under the
ground and damage aquifer resources, this
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level of groundwater aquifers and the water
table is reducing.
 Too much abstraction can lead to the
following:
o Wells can dry up – this can occur as
over abstraction lowers the water
table.
o Reduction of water in streams and
lakes.
o Deterioration of water quality – this
can occur in coastal regions where
saline water can migrate inland and
upward when freshwater is pumped
out of the ground in these locations.
This is known as saltwater intrusion
and can contaminate the water
supply.
o Land subsidence – this occurs as
water is part of the subsurface
support for the land above. When
water is taken out of the soil and rock,
the soil and rock collapses, compacts,
and drops.
What are the different water global issues?
 Water shortage – levels of available water do
not meet minimum requirements.
 Water scarcity – the relationship between
demand for water and its availability.
 Water stress – decline in water quality.
 Water security – access to adequate quantity
and safe quality.
Water crisis
 Water is facing crisis today.
 Water scarcity affects all social and economic
sectors.
 There are concerns that water will
increasingly be the cause of violence and
even war.
 Water is recognized as one of the key limiting
sources of this millennium.
IV. The Nature of Water Pollution
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 Water pollution – refers to degradation of
water quality as measured by biological,
chemical or physical criteria.
 Degradation of water is generally judged in
terms of the intended use of water departure
from norm, effects on public health or
ecologic impacts.
 Pollutant – any biological, physical, or
chemical substance in which an identifiable
excess is known to be harmful to the other
desirable living organisms.
 There are many different materials that may
pollute surface water or groundwater such as
biochemical oxygen demanding wasters,
fecal coliform bacteria, nutrients, hazardous
chemicals, oil, heavy metals, radioactive
materials, and sediment.
 It is also the contamination of bodies of
water by industrial wastes, sewage and silt.
 Polluted water also transmits typhoid,
cholera, dysentery, and other disease.
 It kills fish and other aquatic life.
 Water pollution have a detrimental effect on
the economy of community. It destroys the
fisherman’s livelihood, discourages
industries that use large amount of water for
their processes, and limits the income of
resort communities that depend on
recreational use of their water.
A. Sources of Water Pollutants
 Point Sources – a single definable source of
the pollution (e.g. factory, sewage plant, etc.);
pollution is easy to monitor and control.
 Non-point sources – wide range of sources
(e.g. runoff from urban areas or farmland ;
pollution is more difficult to monitor and
control.
B. Kinds of Water Pollution
1. Surface water pollution – pollution of lakes,
rivers and oceans.
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2. Groundwater pollution – pollution of
aquifers below soil.
3. Microbial pollution – pollution by bacteria,
viruses, protozoa and parasitic worms.
4. Oxygen depletion pollution – pollution by
biodegradable organics.
5. Nutrient pollution – pollution by plant
nutrients (nitrates, phosphates).
6. Suspended matter pollution – pollution by
soil, silt.
7. Chemical pollution – pollution
pesticides, fertilizers, industrial solvents, oil
8. Thermal pollution – pollution by warm
water, waste heat.
Kinds of Water Pollutants
Pathogens – bacteria, viruses, parasites
Oxygen demanding wastes – animal manure,
human wastes, plant residues
Water soluble inorganic chemicals – acids, salts,
toxic metal compounds like mercury and lead
Inorganic plant nutrients – water soluble
phosphates, nitrates, ammonium
Organic chemicals – petrochemicals, plastics,
pesticides, cleaning solvents, detergents
industrial wastes
Sediment and suspended matter – dirt, soil, silt
Radioactive materials – uranium, thorium, iodine
and radon
Thermal water – heat from power plants, industrial
cooling
Alien species – zebra mussels, Asiatic catfish, sea
lamprey, etc.
Disease-Causing Agents
 Disease-carrying microorganisms
important biological pollutants.
 Among these major water-born human
diseases are cholera, dysentery, and typhoid.
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
 Dead organic matter in streams decays.
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 Bacteria carrying out this decay require
oxygen.
 If there is enough bacterial activity, the
oxygen in the water can be reduced to levels
so low that fish and other organisms die.
 BOD means the amount of oxygen required
for such biochemical decomposition, a
commonly used measure in water quality
management.
Heavy Metals (Water Soluble Inorganic
by Chemicals)
 Heavy metals such as mercury, zinc and
calcium are dangerous pollutants and are
often deposited with natural sediment in the
bottoms of stream channels. If they are
dissolved and the water is withdrawn for
agriculture or human use, heavy metal
poisoning can result.
Nutrients
 These are released by human activity to lakes
and may cause eutrophication which is a
form of water pollution.
 Phosphorus and nitrogen – two important
and nutrients that can cause pollution which are
released from a variety of sources related to
land use.
Oils
 Oils discharged into surface water (usually
the ocean) has caused major pollution
problems.
Sediment and Sediment Products
 Sediment consist of rock and mineral
fragments ranging in size from sand particles
less than 2mm in diameter to silt, clay, and
are even finer colloidal particles.
 It is the greatest water pollutant.
 It depletes a land resource (oil) at its site of
origin, reduces the quality of the water
resource it enters, and may deposit sterile
material on productive croplands or other
useful land.
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Radioactive materials
 It may be dangerous pollutants
 There are possible effects to people, other
animals, plants of long-term exposure to low
doses of radioactivity.
Thermal Pollution
 Warmer water favours different species than
cooler water and may increase growth rates
of undesirable organisms, including certain
water plants and fish.
V. Effects of Water Pollution on Human Health
1. Cholera
 An illness caused by ingestion of bacterium
Vibrio Cholera and is characterized by
intense diarrhea which results rapidly in
massive fluid depletion and death in very
large percentage of untreated patients.
2. Schistosomiasis
 It is actually a group of disease caused by
infection with one of 3 related types of
worms.
 It is very difficult to control.
 Its main mode of transmission is water
supplies contaminated with the feces of
infected individuals.
 The infectious agent is a worm whose eggs
must find a certain type of snail to complete
life cycle. It may penetrate the human skin on
contact and enter the blood stream.
 Many people who bathe in contaminated
water, or who work barefoot in fields that are
irrigated with such water become infected
even if they have alternative sources of
drinking water.
3. Coliforms
 These are the class of bacteria present in the
intestines of human and other warm-
blooded animals.
 The concentration of coliforms in a water
supply is a measure of amount of fecal
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contamination, not a direct measure of the
disease-causing microorganisms.
4. Red Tide
 Occurs in both marine and fresh waters but
are mostly associated with marine water
where they case mass mortality of fish.
 The water discoloration from the abnormal
development of large population of a group
of organisms are called dinoflagellates.
 Dinoflagellates – group of the pigmented
photosynthetic plants called algae which
frequently live in aquatic habitats.
 Some have a rigid cell all divided into two
and are called “armored” dinoflagellates.
 Other have no wall and are termed
“unarmoured” dinoflagellates.
 Dinoflagellates associated with the red tide
belong to the first category.
 The typical coloration of water in the
presence of an outburst of dinoflagellate
population (algal bloom) is due to pigments.
 Red tide are associated with the
development of warm ocean waters
especially during hot weather.
 Certain dinoflagellates produce very high
toxin that kill fishes and certain shellfish.
 They are a threat to human lives, fish that eat
dinoflagellates accumulate toxins in the guts
and gills, the toxins are released during
cooing and is fatal to one who eats the
contaminated fish. This type of poisoning is
known as mussel poisoning, paralytic
shellfish poisoning, or saxitoxin
poisoning. Once the toxin is ingested, a
tingling sensation occurs in the mouth
spreading into the whole face, neck, and
eventually, the lower limbs. Paralysis results
30 mins after intake.
 Dinoflagellates tend to increase in water.
 Increasing fertilizing nutrients coming from
upwelled water also promote an algal bloom
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of dinoflagellates since more mineral wastewater in cities from sewer systems. The
nutrients for growth are supplied. conventional process of biological waste
 Wind, which is one of cause of upwelling, also treatment are divided into 3 stages:
aids dinoflagellates bloom by blowing them o Primary treatment – consists of
closer to the coast where the water is warmer mechanical processes of separating
and the right kinds of nutrients present in solid from liquids. It also involves the
favorable quantities. mechanical removal of solid material
Plastic waste in water in the water. It uses a mechanical
 The amount of plastic waste has been process that utilizes screens to filter
increasing about 10% each year for the out debris such as sticks, stones, and
past 20 years. rags and settling tanks to separate
 Over 1 million seabirds are killed by sludge.
plastic waste per year. o Secondary treatment – involves
 Over 100,000 sea mammals and biological oxidation of dissolved
countless fish are killed per year due to organic material.
pollution. o Tertiary or advanced treatment –
Effects of Water Pollution involve a series of specialized
 Toxicity (acute/chronic) – damages aquatic chemical and physical processes that
or human life. lower the quantity of specific
 Subtle that toxicity – endocrine disruption; pollutants still left after primary and
changes in biodiversity secondary treatments.
 Acidity/alkalinity – changes pH regime 2. Innovative Approaches
 Spread of microbial diseases  Land application of wastewater
 Deoxygenation – lack of O2 in water  Aquaculture – also known as fish or shellfish
 Altered water temperature farming. It refers to the breeding, rearing,
 Eutrophication and harvesting of plants and animals in all
 Changes in water chemistry types of water environments including
VI. Wastewater and Sewage Treatment Methods ponds, rivers, lakes and the ocean.
There are three types of wastewater or sewage:  Aquaculture + Hydroponics = Aquaponics
domestic sewage – carries used water from houses – combined production of fish and
and apartments, it is also called sanitary sewage; hydroponic plants in a recirculating
industrial sewage – used water from manufacturing aquaculture system. Aquaponics is a hybrid
or chemical processes; storm sewage/storm water system linking aquaculture, in this case the
– runoff from precipitation that is collected in a production of fish, with hydroponics which is
system of pipes or open channels. the production of plants in a soilless
1. Conventional Method environment. The concept of aquaponics is a
 Septic Tank Disposal System – includes relatively new science and came about
disposal and treatment of household because there has been pressure to improve
wastewater in suburban areas. freshwater use and decrease nutrient
 Wastewater Treatment Plants – centralized discharge to adjacent environments. The
water treatment plants that collect aquaponics system is a recirculating
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aquaculture system reusing the majority of
its water volume each day and the dissolved
wastes created by the fish are converted into
a marketable hydroponic crop. The plants
use the fish wastes as a nutrient source,
therefore cleaning the water and then the
water returns back to the fish in a form that
is not harmful for fish production.
 Water reuse
- Water recycling is reusing treated waste
water for beneficial purposes such as
agricultural and landscape irrigation,
industrial processes, toilet flushing, and
replenishing a ground water basin
(referred to as ground water recharge).
- Water is sometimes recycled and reused
on site.
- A common type of recycled water is
water that has been reclaimed from
municipal waste water or sewage. The
term water recycling is generally used
synonymously with water reclamation
and water reuse.
- Through the natural water cycle, the
earth has recycled and reused water for
millions of years. Water recycling,
though, generally refers to projects that
use technology to speed up these natural
processes.
 Desalination
- It is a process that takes away mineral
components from saline water. More
generally, it refers to the removal of salts
and minerals from a target substance.
- Saltwater (especially sea water) is
desalinated to produce water suitable for
human consumption or irrigation. The
by-product of desalination process is
brine.
- Desalination accounts for about 1% of
the world’s drinking water. Desalination
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is particularly prevalent in counties
located in the Middle East and North
Africa region (Saudi Arabia, UAE, Kuwait).
- Due to its energy consumption,
desalinating sea water is generally more
costly than fresh water from surface
water or groundwater, water recycling
and water conservation.
VII. Clean and Safe Water Strategies
 Improve sanitation facilities by providing
toilets and latrines that flush into a sewer or
safe enclosure.
 Implement rainwater harvesting systems to
collect and store rainwater for drinking or
recharging underground aquifers. Build wells
to extract groundwater from underground
aquifers.
 Provide home water-treatment capability
through the use of filters, solar disinfection,
or flocculants, to make drinking water safe.
 Promote low-cost solutions, such as chlorine
tablets or plastic bottles that can be exposed
to sunlight, to improve water quality.
 Multiple-Use Water Systems (MUS) – an
improved approach to water resource
management, which taps and stores water
and distributes it to households in small
communities to meet both domestic and
household agricultural needs.
MODULE 7: EXPLOITATION OF THE OCEANS
 The world’s oceans are home to an incredibly
array of life and are vital to human health,
livelihood, and culture.
 50-70% of our oxygen comes from the ocean
and it is the #1 source of protein for over 1 billion
people.
 Fishing - the main livelihood for over 200 million
people.
 In many parts of the world, the ocean is headed
for a collapse and climate change is worsening
this process.
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I. Human Activities and the Exploitation of the
Oceans
1. Overfishing
 occurs when fish are caught faster than they
can reproduce to replace themselves.
 It is the mismanagement of the world’s
fisheries and is to blame for the depletion of
fish species.
A. Environmental Effects
 Destroys marine life’s physical
environment.
 Puts marine animals at risk of extinction.
 Contributes to ocean pollution from boat
waste.
 There are negative consequences to
both wild and farmed fish.
 When commercial fisheries target
wild fish, other sea creatures not
intended to be caught (including
marine mammals, sea turtles, non-
targeted fish species, and even sea
birds) can become entangled in nets
and lines.
 Most of these non-targeted
creatures—called “bycatch”—die or
sustain disfiguring injuries.
 Fish farms often pollute the seas with
excess fish waste, parasites, disease,
antibiotics, and chemicals, which can
lead to the death of nearby sea
creatures, spreading disease to other
fish, impacting human health, and
forming harmful algal blooms.
B. How it Affects us
 Increased cost of seafood and decreased
variety.
 Loss of jobs in the fishing industry.
 Decreased tourism from loss of sea life
and recreation.
2. Plastic Pollution
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 Massive amounts of plastic we use end up in
the ocean.
 Plastic waste not only entangles and kills sea
life but it also makes its way up the food
chain until it ends up on our plate.
 Plastic debris is broken down into small
pieces that fish confuse for small plants and
animals and are later consumed by humans
when we eat fish.
 The Pacific Ocean is home to the “Great
Pacific Garbage Patch,” a mass of plastic
waste and other debris trapped in a
circulating ocean current called a "gyre" in
the Pacific Ocean.
A. Environment Effects
 Animals die each year from eating or
becoming tangled in plastic.
 73.9M lbs. of plastic are spread
throughout the world’s ocean gyres.
 400-1000 years is the time it can take for
plastic bags to decompose. The chemical
residues remain for years after.
B. How it Affects us
 Plastic toxins move up the food chain and
end up on our plate.
 Damages our water systems leading to
huge costs for taxpayers.
 Lost marine tourism from dirty beaches
and oceans.
3. Carbon dioxide pollution
 It causes ocean acidification.
 Rising ocean acidity is now considered to be
just as much of a formidable threat to the
health of Earth’s environment as the
atmospheric climate changes brought on by
pumping out greenhouse gases.
A. Environmental Effects
 The oceans absorb a third of humanity’s
carbon dioxide emissions and 90 percent
of the excess heat generated by
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increased greenhouse gas emissions; it’s
the largest carbon sink on the planet.
 When oceans absorb CO2, it decreases
the water's pH levels. The lower, or more
acidic, the pH of the world's oceans, the
more stress is put on marine organisms,
including sensitive-to-change coral reefs.
 The ocean - warmer and more acidic. The
average sea surface temperature has
increased over the past 50 years, as a
result of human activities such as the
burning of fossil fuels and deforestation.
B. How it Affects us
 The warming of the ocean is felt through
changes in weather patterns, and the
frequency of extreme events, as well as
sea level rise. More intense storm
systems are increasing the energy of
waves and winds in some regions, and
consequently the stress in coastal
ecosystems.
 Associated chemical reactions due to
acidification of ocean water can make it
difficult for marine calcifying organisms,
such as coral and some plankton, to form
shells and skeletons, and existing shells
become vulnerable to dissolution
4. Chemical Pollution
A. Environmental Effects
 Eutrophication - occurs after there have
been assorted nutrients from chemical
pollution added to the oceanic system. Algae
use up these nutrients and bloom so much
that they use up most or all of the ocean's
oxygen, killing fish and other organisms.
 When a toxic waste harms one organism, it
can end up destroying an entire food chain
of aquatic life.
B. How it Affects us
 Toxins and radiation biomagnify as they
move up the food chain—meaning bigger
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fish have the highest concentration of toxic
tissues in their bodies. Those highest on the
food chain are less healthy to consume (this
includes mammals and birds). Humans are at
the top of the food chain, thus toxins that we
ingest readily accumulate in our bodies,
which can cause illness and disease, such as
so-called Minimata Disease.
 In regard to fish, tunas’ bodies in particular
contain very high levels of mercury. Large
fish, in general, contain high amounts of
toxins. It is best to eat lower on the food
chain whenever possible; which means
incorporating flat white fish such as flounder
or fluke (which eat small crustaceans, shrimps
and fish whose bodies contain lower levels of
toxins) into your diet, and removing larger
carnivorous species like swordfish, which
feed on large fish like mackerel, herring, and
hake, in addition to large cephalopods
(octopi and squids).
5. Oil spills
 Oil spills from tankers and deep-sea wells
leak into our seas, oiling flora, fauna, and
our shores with toxic crude.
 Some spills, like the 1989 Exxon Valdez spill
off Alaska and the 2010 Deepwater Horizon
explosion and well blowout in the Gulf of
Mexico (the largest marine oil spill in history)
are well known and notorious for their
myriad negative environmental impacts.
A. Environmental Effects
 Oil destroys the insulating ability of fur-
bearing mammals, such as sea otters, and
the water repellency of a bird's feathers,
thus exposing these creatures to the
harsh elements. Without the ability to
repel water and insulate from the cold
water, birds and mammals will die from
hypothermia.
B. How it Affects us
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 Depending on the degree of exposure it
can produce respiratory problems,
irritations (eye, skin, etc.), neurological
effects (headache, dizziness, etc.) and
traumatic symptoms (pain) in man.
 Biomagnification
II. Managing the Oceans
1. Expanding ocean protected areas - It is crucial
that we begin protecting vulnerable ocean habitats.
Protection can come in the form of marine protected
areas (MPAs), national marine sanctuaries, and world
heritage marine sites.
2. Demand plastic-free alternatives - We must
urge companies to provide consumers with plastic-
free alternatives and say no to single use plastics
such as straws, plastic cutlery, coffee cups, water
bottles, plastic bags, balloons, plastic-wrapped
produce and take-out food containers.
3. Reduce your carbon footprint – carbon dioxide,
a known greenhouse gas, is making our oceans more
acidic. This is contributing to the loss of corals on a
global scale as their calcium skeletons are weakened
by the increasing acidity of the water. You can
reduce your carbon footprint by adopting some of
these simple measures:
o Ride a bike, walk or use public transportation
rather than driving a car.
o Turn off the light when you leave a room.
o Have some fun with your diet – buy
sustainably caught wild seafood. It is a
renewable resource that requires minimal
freshwater to produce and emits less carbon
dioxide than land-based proteins like beef.
4. Avoid ocean-harming products - avoid
cosmetics that contain shark squalene, jewelry made
of coral or sea turtle shell, souvenir shells of conchs,
nautiluses and other animals, and single-use plastics
like straws and water bottles that can end up in our
oceans. These products support unsustainable
fishing and threaten important species and
ecosystems.
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5. Eat sustainable seafood - Choose seafood that is
healthy for you and the oceans from well-managed,
wild fisheries.
6. Vote on ocean issues - Electing public officials
that support good ocean policies can help us protect
marine life and our oceans. Do your research on
candidates and make an informed decision, then
exercise your right (and responsibility) to vote. And
don’t let Election Day be the last time they hear from
you. Follow up with your candidates and elected
officials regularly to remind them of policies you care
about.
7. Contact your representatives and lawmaker -
Your representatives and lawmakers might not know
how important these issues are that face our oceans.
But they will if you tell them. It’s up to constituents
like you to make lawmakers aware of the crises
facing marine life and our oceans.
III. Major Concerns of Philippine Fisheries Sector
1. Resource Depletion in the Coastal Zone
 Coastal zone - considered to be the most
productive habitat in the marine ecosystem.
 There is an intense fishing pressure from
overfishing. This is aggravated by the dense
population along coastal areas.
2. Widespread Environmental Damage
 Illegal fishing activities destroy coral reefs
and sea grass beds; illegal logging causes
siltation and mangrove forest denudation;
and urbanization in coastal areas causes
pollution.
3. Poverty among Municipal Fishermen
 Increasing population especially along
coastal areas has contributed to the
depletion of the coastal resources.
4. Limited Utilization of Offshore and Exclusive
Economic Zone (EEZ) Waters
 In 1990, the Fisheries Sector Program (FSP)
was launched to address the problems of the
fisheries sector. The program has the
following objectives:
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o To regenerate coastal resources,  Invasive species and Crown of Thorns starfish

rehabilitate the coastal environment, and infestations
alleviate poverty along municipal 2. Sea grasses
fishermen, particularly through the  The Philippines has the second highest sea
diversification of their sources of income; grass diversity in the world.
o To intensify aquaculture production,  decline in coastal water quality
 degradation of environment and
particularly for the benefit of domestic
resources;
consumption but within the limits of  Human‐induced disturbances
ecological balance; and 3. Fisheries
o To induce commercial fishing away from  Pelagic fish production contributed 70% of
overfished near shore areas into offshore the country’s total marine capture fisheries
waters.  Fisheries production shows continuing
IV. Marine Biodiversity in the Philippines upward trend, with significant contribution of
The Philippines, being situated at the apex of the the aquaculture and mariculture sectors,
coral triangle, is considered to be the richest marine particularly seaweeds.
eco-region in the world.  Recent data on exploitation rates of
A. Major Threats to Marine Biodiversity in the selected fish species showed high extraction
Philippines patterns.
1. Human-induced and direct stresses on species 4. Mangroves

and ecosystem biodiversity  There is a significant decline in mangrove

 Overexploitation through unsustainable forest cover due to the conversion of

fishing mangrove forests to fishponds;

 Mangrove forest areas were issued with
 Use of destructive fishing methods
Fishpond Leasing Agreements causing a
 Deforestation
significant damage to the ecosystem.
 Aquarium and souvenir trade
C. Coastal & Marine Resources/Ecosystem in
 Expanding human settlements
the Philippines: Managing the Threats
 Coastal pollution
1. Integrated Coastal Management (ICM) -
 Dredging and land reclamation
national strategy for the sustainable development of
 Coastal development
the country’s coastal and marine environment and
2. Climate change
resources ‐ addresses the interlinkages among
 Coral bleaching
associated watersheds, estuaries and wetlands, and
 Sea acidification and sea level rise – can
coastal seas, and also among all relevant national
cause severe impacts on marine biodiversity.
and local agencies, civil society, and the private
B. Coastal & Marine Resources/Ecosystem in the
sectors. It involves action plans/strategies on the
Philippines: Status and Trends
following:
1. Issues on Coral Reefs
 Habitat management
 Philippines is considered to be one of the
 Fisheries management
highly threatened reef areas in the world.
 Shoreline management
 Philippine reefs may be in a steady state of
 Waste management
decline (from 5% to 3% to >1%)
 Enterprise and livelihood management
 Widespread coral bleaching
 Sustainable coastal tourism
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 Coastal zoning
 Legal and institutional development
 Risk/coastal hazard management
D. Current Conservation Status
1. Mangrove management
 282, 044 ha total mangrove forest cover as of
2009.
 Mangrove Nursery Establishment
Reforestation
 Identification of areas for rehabilitation in
priority municipalities.
2. Establishment of MPAs (marine protected
areas) to increase fish stocks
 Mandated by Republic Act 7586 or the NIPAs
Act through R.A. 8550 (Fisheries Code) via
local ordinance.
 Serve as an important strategy for the ICM in
the Philippines.
3. Conservation of coastal habitats and other
marine resources
 National Policy on Biological diversity is
being implemented throughout the country
 Seagrass Conservation Strategy
 Marine Turtles Conservation – DENR-PAWB
Pawikan Conservation Project
Developmental and foraging habitats of
marine turtles are being proposed for
declaration as Critical Habitats pursuant to
Republic Act 9147 or the Wildlife Resources
Conservation and Protection Act of 2001.
4. Adaptation strategies of the coastal and
marine sector to climate change
 Development of national framework strategies
for climate change.
5. Participation in different local/internationally-
funded projects and adherence to international
commitments
E. Future Plans/Recommendations
1. Harmonization of efforts, sustained management
interventions and stakeholder support are keys to
save the coastal ecosystem.
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2. Comprehensive monitoring and evaluation of
protected area management and other policies.
3. Integration of biodiversity conservation and
sustainable use in the school curricula at all levels.
4. Efficient and effective information dissemination.
5. Exploration of innovative financing options.
6. Reduction of coastal and marine emerging
and pressures through adaptive management.
MODULE 8: HUMAN ACTIVIY AND THE
ATMOSPHERE
 Emissions from the widespread burning of fossil
fuels since the start of the Industrial Revolution
have increased the concentration of greenhouse
gases in the atmosphere.
 Human activities have affected the land, oceans,
and atmosphere, and these changes have altered
global climate patterns.
 Burning fossil fuels, releasing chemicals into the
atmosphere, reducing the amount of forest
cover, and the rapid expansion of farming,
development, and industrial activities are
releasing carbon dioxide into the atmosphere
and changing the balance of the climate system.
The Layers of Atmosphere
Atmosphere - a collection of gases that gravity
(PCP)
holds in a thin envelope around the earth.
1. Troposphere
 The lowest layer
 Extends up to 10km and gets colder with
altitude.
 It is well mixed vertically; pollutants can reach
the top within a few days.
 This contains practically all the water vapour
and clouds; it is the source of weathering.
 Substances entering this layer go back to the
surface of the earth by precipitation.
 0-10km above the earth
2. Stratosphere
 A layer where the temperature increases with
altitude to about 40km.
 The warm air is above the cold air.
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 It is where the ozone is concentrated. Ozone
absorbs the high UV radiation from the sun.
 There is no mixing of warm and cold air.
Therefore, no precipitation occurs.
 Substances that enter this layer remain there
for a long time.
 10-40km above the earth
3. Mesosphere
 Coldest region of the atmosphere
 40-70km above the earth
4. Thermosphere
 The hottest region
 70-400km above the earth
5. Exosphere
 Outermost layer
 40km and beyond above the earth
Hydrogen – the chief constituent
I. Functions of the Atmosphere
 The atmosphere provides limitless sources of
oxygen, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen, which
are essential to animal and plant life.
 It also provides the water that is essential to
life.
 The atmosphere transmits the radiation from
the sun that is needed for photosynthesis, at
the same time it shields the earth from the
deadly UV radiation as well as from the
powerful cosmic rays and from meteors that
constantly shower down on the earth from
space.
 It acts as a blanket, maintaining a generally
high temperature on the earth than would
occur if it were absent.
 It also moderated the earth's climate,
warming the polar regions.
 The atmosphere is essential to
communications. It readily transmits sound
and electromagnetic (light and radio) radio
waves.
 Properties of the atmosphere permit flight by
aircraft except under special conditions.
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II. Constituents of the Atmosphere
 The atmosphere is a mixture of colorless
gases.
 Nitrogen – makes up 78% of the air
 Oxygen – makes up 20.22% of the air. It is
the element that almost all lives have.
 Carbon dioxide – occurs in very small
amounts, it is vital to life on Earth. Green
plants use this gas in manufacturing their
food.
 Helium & hydrogen – found in very small
amounts
 Ozone – special form of oxygen
 Among other gases are argon, krypton,
neon, and xenon.
 The water vapour in the air is water in a
gaseous form. Water vapour is found mostly
in the lower part of the atmosphere.
 The lower atmosphere is filled with the
countless specks of dust. Water vapour
condenses around dust particles, forming
clouds and fogs.
III. The Ozone Layer
 The formation of ozone in the upper-
atmosphere 600 million years ago provided
a protective screen against deadly ultraviolet
(UV) radiation, making life on land possible.
 90% of all ozone is in the stratosphere, 10%
of all ozone is in the troposphere.
 There are two types of ozone:
o Stratospheric zone - a naturally-
occurring gas that filters the sun's
ultraviolet (UV) radiation. This is
typically regarded as 'good' ozone
since it reduces the harmful effects of
ultraviolet (UV-B) radiation.
o Tropospheric or ground-level
ozone (O3) – a ‘bad ozone’ because it
is the major ingredient in smog and
continues to pose a health risk to
humans. It is a powerful greenhouse
gas and air pollutant that is harmful
People and the Earth’s Ecosystem (GE ELEC)
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to human health, agricultural crops
and ecosystems. It does not have any
direct emissions sources, rather it is
formed when sunlight interacts with
different pollutants. Reducing the
pollutants that form tropospheric
zone would generate rapid benefits
for the climate and human health.
 Impacts of Tropospheric Zone
Climate: contributes to global warming
Health: causes 1+ million pollution-related
deaths every year and millions more chronic
diseases.
Agriculture & Ecosystems: toxic to many
plants; causes up to 15% in annual yield losses of
soy, wheat, rice, and maize.
 The world’s land ecosystems capture and
store about 30% of CO2 emissions every year.
 Tropospheric zone damages plants and their
ability to sequester CO2 which doubles its
climate impact.
 Ground-level ozone – produced through a
reaction between sunlight and volatile
organic compounds and nitrogen oxides
(NOx), some of which are produced by
human activities. It is a component of urban
smog – a serious air quality issue.
 Smog – most common in the summer
months on calm, hot days over urban areas.
IV. Atmospheric Layers and Temperature
Inversions
 The trend in which cooling occurs with
increasing elevations persists through the
troposphere, but it does not carry over into
the stratosphere.
 The opposing trends in temperature are the
most destructive characteristics of the
troposphere and stratosphere, and they
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have great significance in the environment
of man.
 Because warm air is less dense than cold air,
warm air has the tendency to rise and cold
air to sink.
 In the troposphere, warm air near the
ground normally rises into the cold regions
above, and the cold air descends. As a
result, the troposphere is mixed by these
currents of air. This mixing is responsible for
clouds and precipitation because moisture-
laden warm air cannot hold its moisture as
it is carried aloft and cooled.
 In the stratosphere, the warm air is already
above the cold air. There is no tendency for
the two to mix, and therefore, vertical air
current and precipitation are absent. The
stratosphere is a vast, essentially stagnant
air encircling the earth.
 Because vertical air currents and
precipitation are absent in the stratosphere,
pollutants released there are swept by
neither winds nor rainfall.
 Any steady source of pollution would lead
to accumulation for several years to higher
and higher concentrations.
 The stratosphere, although vast in extent, is
vulnerable to man-made intruders like the
Supersonic transport (SST).
 Inversion layers – the calmness leads to
erratic feature of the atmosphere that
affects man. These are layers of stagnant air
that appear, from time to time in various
parts of the troposphere. They occur next to
the ground (ground temperature
inversions) and they can extend upward
from a few yards to a few miles.
 Ground temperature inversions - occurs
very frequently at night. The inversion lasts
as long as the temperature remains
“inverted” (cool air beneath warm air). This
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can last for a day or weeks forming man to 2. Direct injection of nitrous oxide (N₂O) from
inhale his own airborne garbage that makes exhaust of supersonic airplanes flying on the
him sick. stratosphere; and

A. Temperature Inversion and Photochemical 3. The movement from the troposphere to

Smog the stratosphere of chlorofluorocarbons

(Freon) such as CCl₃F₂ released from aerosol
1. Industrial smog – gray air that predominate in cans and from discarded or leaking
industrialized cities with cold, wet winters. refrigeration on air conditioning equipment
2. Photochemical smog – brown and smelly which when these chemicals come under the
characteristics of large cities. The main culprit is nitric influence of high energy UV radiation in the
oxide, which is produced mainly by cars and other stratosphere. These can be converted to
vehicles. Nitric oxide reacts with oxygen in the air highly reactive species capable of reacting
forming nitrogen oxide (reddish brown gas). Other with ozone and decreasing its concentration
substances that take part in photochemical smog at the ozone layer.
formation are: ozone and PAN (peroxyacyl nitrates). D. Consequences of Decreasing the
PANs are similar to tear gas; even traces can sting Concentration of Ozone in the Stratosphere
eyes and irritate lungs. 1. Increased number of skin cancer cases by 2 to 5%
for each 1% decrease in ozone concentration;
B. Environmental Effects to Tropospheric
2. Increased number of cases of severe sunburn in
Ozone/Ground ozone
unprotected light skinned people;
Ozone is a vigorous oxidizing agent and the
3. Damage of many species of land plants and some
following are its environmental effects:
aquatic species and possible decrease of the yields
1. It damage vegetation. Leaves show
discoloration patterns, often with bleached of some important food crops such as corn, rice, and
spotty areas. Some crops, particularly wheat; and
tomato, tobacco, and some beans are 4. Unpredictable changes in the world climatic
sensitive to level as low as 0.05 ppm. patterns.
2. It shortens the life of rubbers and textiles V. Air Pollution
due to cracking and fading.
Air pollution
3. It is an irritant gas to humans, producing
 It is the presence of atmospheric
eye, nose, and throat symptoms, as well as
contamination (dust, gases, fumes, and
alteration to normal lung function. Poor
performance of track athletes is correlated smoke) that may be injurious to life or
with high ozone levels. property.
4. High concentrations of ozone are  Some contamination is produced by natural
correlated with decreased life expectancy in processes such as volcanic eruptions.
animals.  It is the by-product of the vast
C. Decreasing the Ozone Layer in the industrialization and urbanization that has so
Stratosphere
markedly changed the face of the earth and
The ozone layer in the stratosphere may be
the lives of people living on it.
decreased by:
1. Large-scale nuclear war (which would Ambient air
destroy most of the ozone layer);  It is the outdoor air in which humans and
other organisms live and breathe.
People and the Earth’s Ecosystem (GE ELEC)
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 Its content and quality are directly affected
by the day-to-day activities of humans. In
turn, it has a direct effect on both public
health and the welfare of the Earth’s
ecosystem.
Air
 It normally has no color, odor, or taste.
 It is a mixture of gases, primarily nitrogen
(78%) and oxygen (21%), with the remaining
1% composed of carbon dioxide, methane,
hydrogen, argon, and helium.
Human activities
 Such as manufacturing and the burning of
fossil fuels, cause changes in the chemical
composition of ambient air through the
release of chemical and industrial pollutants
into the atmosphere.
A. Primary Air Pollutants, Sources and Effects
1. Carbon oxides
 Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colourless,
odourless, poisonous gas produced by the
incomplete combustion of carbon.
 It is the main constituent of coal and
petroleum’s.
 From vehicles and engines, industry, waste
combustion, residential wood burning.
 It prevents blood hemoglobin from binding
with oxygen so that when CO is inhaled, it
displaces O2 in the blood, decreasing the
amount of O2 that is carried to the tissues of
the body.
2. Nitrogen oxides
 Stands for nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen
oxides.
 It is a foul-smelling red-brown gas.
 Produced by combustion, NO is converted to
NO2.
 about 50% of NO and NO2 pollution comes
from electric generating plants, 40% from
cars, trucks, and buses, and the remainder
from forest fire and other open burning.
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 Ozone is highly reactive from oxygen that
can damage the lungs.
 The concentration of NO in polluted air is not
toxic to man but it reacts with other
pollutants to produce smog which is
becoming the number one pollution
problem in large cities.
3. Sulphur oxides
 These are gases produced when materials
containing Sulphur are heated and burned.
 The burning of coal produces 60% of the SO2
emissions, the burning of residual fuel oil
about 14% and 22% comes from smelting
metallic ores, refining petroleum and
producing steel and sulphuric acid.
4. Hydrocarbons
 These compounds are composed solely of
carbon and hydrogen which are the main
constituents of petroleum and petroleum
products such as gasoline, natural gas, and
coal tar.
 HCs are not poisonous at the concentrations
normally found in polluted air, they are
considered major pollutants because when
sunlight is present, they combine with
nitrogen oxides to form a complex variety of
secondary pollutants called photochemical
oxidants.
5. Particulate Matter
 This is the worst air problem which includes
smoke, soot, fly ash, dust, mists, and fumes.
 About a third of the total mass of polluting
particulates comes from electric power
generating plants; a third, from open burning
such as forest fires, agricultural burning,
refuse coal burning; a quarter, from industrial
processes; and the remainder, from vehicles,
cars, trucks, buses, railroad locomotives,
ships and airplanes.
 It is also the most dangerous air pollutants
because they increase the damage done by
other pollutants in the respiratory passages
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and are very difficult to remove completely
from atmosphere once they are in it.
B. Pollutants exert local and global effects
Residence time: the time a pollutant says in the
atmosphere.
 Pollutants with a brief residence times exert
localized impacts over short time periods.
 Particulate matter, automobile
exhaust
 Pollutants with long residence times exert
regional or global impacts
 Greenhouse gases
 Ozone destroyers
C. Strategies for Controlling Air Pollution
We can reduce smog through:
1. Pollution control technology
2. Vehicle inspection programs
3. Financial incentives to replaces aging
vehicles
4. Restricting driving
5. Cleaner burning fuels
 Use of non-leaded gasoline
 Use of natural gas and nuclear power
6. Cleaner industrial facilities
7. Pollution indicator boards
8. Introduction of chimneys and vents to
domestic stoves and heaters
9. Energy conservation measures
10. Use of less “smoky” fuel wood species
The Montreal Protocol
 Montreal Protocol (1987): 196 nations
agreed to cut CFC production in half by 1998.
 Later agreements deepened cuts, advanced
timetables, and addressed other zone-
depleting chemicals
 Industry shifted to safer alternative chemicals
 CFC will remain in the stratosphere for
decades
 It can serve as a model for international
environmental cooperation.
VI. Greenhouse Effect
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 It is identified by scientists as far back as 1896
 It is the natural warming of the earth that
results when gases in the atmosphere trap
heat from the sun that would otherwise
escape into space.
 It is a natural phenomenon and is beneficial
for us.
 Certain gases in the atmosphere retain part
of the thermal radiation emitted by the
Earth's surface after being heated by the sun,
this maintains the planet's temperature at a
level suitable for the development of life.
 Human action, however, has increased the
presence of these gases in the atmosphere
— mainly, carbon dioxide and methane —,
causing them to retain more heat and to
increase the temperature on the planet. This
is what we know as global warming.
What causes global warming?
 While 30% of the solar energy that reaches
the world is reflected back to space,
approximately 70% passes through the
atmosphere to the earth’s surface, where it is
absorbed by the land, oceans, and
atmosphere, and heats the planet.
 The heat is radiated back up in the form of
invisible infrared light.
 While some of the infrared light continues on
into space, the vast majority – indeed, some
90% - gets absorbed by atmospheric gases,
known as greenhouse gases, and redirected
back toward the earth, causing further
warming.
Greenhouse gas
 Sometimes abbreviated GHG
 It is a gas that absorbs and emits radiant
energy within the thermal infrared range,
causing the greenhouse effect.
 The primary greenhouse gases in Earth’s
atmosphere are water vapor (H2O), carbon
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dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide change is raising serious doubts about food
(N2O), and ozone (O3). availability: in its last biennial report on the state of
A. Consequences of the Greenhouse Effect world food and agriculture, it warns that a decline in
1. Thawing of glacial masses agricultural production would result in food
2. Flooding of islands and coastal cities shortages, most severely affecting sub-Saharan
3. Hurricanes will be more devastating - the Africa and South Asia.
intensification of the greenhouse effect does not 2. The spread of diseases and pandemics - In
cause these extreme climatic events, but it does addition to the problems derived directly from
increase their intensity. Hurricanes formations are
pollution, the World Health Organization (WHO)
connected with sea temperature — they only form
states that global warming will cause infectious
over waters that have a temperature of at least 26.51
ºC. diseases such as malaria, cholera or dengue to
4. Migration of species - Many animal species will spread to many more areas of the planet. On the
be forced to migrate in order to survive the changes other hand, extreme heat will increase and aggravate
in the main climatic patterns altered by the cardiovascular and respiratory problems.
progressive increase in temperatures. Human beings C. How to Solve the Consequences of the
will also have to move: according to the World Bank, Greenhouse Effect
by 2050 the number of people forced to flee their 1. Reducing emissions of the so-called greenhouse
homes due to extreme droughts or violent floods gases, such as CO2 or CH4.
could reach 140 million. 2. Use renewable energy.
5. Desertification of fertile areas - Global warming 3. Use public transport and other non-polluting
is having a profound impact on the processes of soil means, such as electric vehicles or bicycles.
degradation and is contributing to the 4. Promote ecological awareness among citizens and
desertification of areas on the planet, a phenomenon different administrations.
that destroys all the biological potential of affected
5. Commit to recycling and the circular economy.
regions, turning them into barren and unproductive
6. Reduce the consumption of meat and the food
land. As recognised by the UN on the occasion of the
waste.
World Day to Combat Desertification in 2018, 30%
of land has been degraded and lost its real value. 7. Consume organic products.
6. Impact on agriculture and livestock - Global
warming has already altered the length of the
growing season in large parts of the planet. Similarly,
changes in temperatures and seasons are
influencing the proliferation of insects, invasive
weeds and diseases that can affect crops. The same
is happening with livestock: climatic changes are
directly affecting important species in multiple ways:
reproduction, metabolism, diseases, etc.
B. Consequences of the Greenhouse Effect on
Human Health
1. Food shortages - The United Nation's Food and
Agriculture Organization (FAO) states that climate