Electronics Lab Assignment #5

Instructor: Hazem Daher

Course: Electronics I Lab – ELE 402
Tuesday – Section 31

97/100

Vanessa Hanna 202101114

Valerie Naufal 202100831
Hassan Tfaily 202105815
Date of Submission: 20/03/2023
Table of Contents
Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 5
Experiment 1: Voltage Doubler and Quadrupler................................................................. 6
Voltage Doubler .............................................................................................................. 6
Voltage Quadrupler ......................................................................................................... 8
Experiment 2: Full Wave Rectifier.................................................................................... 11
DC input ........................................................................................................................ 11
AC input ........................................................................................................................ 11
Adding a capacitor ......................................................................................................... 13
Analysis ......................................................................................................................... 13
Variable capacitance ...................................................................................................... 14
For C = 4.7 µF ........................................................................................................... 14
For C = 10 µF ............................................................................................................ 15
For C = 100 µF .......................................................................................................... 15
AC to DC converter ....................................................................................................... 16
Replacing the load with a capacitor ............................................................................... 17
Conclusion ......................................................................................................................... 18
Table of Figures
Figure 1: Voltage Doubler ................................................................................................... 6
Figure 2: Phase 1 - voltage doubler ..................................................................................... 7
Figure 3: Phase 2 - voltage doubler ..................................................................................... 7
Figure 4: Voltage Quadrupler .............................................................................................. 8
Figure 5: Phase 1 - voltage quadrupler ................................................................................ 8
Figure 6: Phase 2 - voltage quadrupler ................................................................................ 9
Figure 7: Phase 4 - voltage quadrupler .............................................................................. 10
Figure 8: Voltage quadrupler circuit ................................................................................. 10
Figure 9: Full wave rectifier circuit ................................................................................... 11
Figure 10: Input signal ....................................................................................................... 12
Figure 11: Output signal .................................................................................................... 12
Figure 12: Output signal after adding capacitor ................................................................ 13
Figure 13: Output voltage at C = 4.7 µF ........................................................................... 14
Figure 14: Output voltage for C = 10 µF........................................................................... 15
Figure 15: Output voltage for C = 100 µF......................................................................... 15
Figure 16: Input waveform ................................................................................................ 17
Figure 17: Output waveform ............................................................................................. 17
Table of Tables
Table 1: Table showing the currents at every diode. ......................................................... 11
Table 2: Table showing the variation of measurements with respect to capacitance. ...... 16
Introduction
This experiment covers multiple applications of diodes alongside capacitors. The
material used is the following:
- Resistors (1kΩ)
- Capacitors (1 µF, 4.7 µF, 10 µF, 100 µF)
- 1N4001 silicon diodes
- Waveform generator
- Oscilloscope
- CircuitLab virtual circuit builder (for provided diagrams)

First, the diodes are used with capacitors, to create voltage multipliers, that output
an amplified voltage. The diodes are connected to an AC voltage input and output a DC
voltage multiplied by a certain factor, depending on the number of diodes used. The
conversion from AC to DC occurs due to the charging and discharging of the capacitors.

Second, a full wave rectifier circuit is created, to study the effect of the polarity of
the voltage on the currents across the diodes. In addition to studying the output voltage
when a capacitor is introduced to the circuit. Finally, an AC-to-DC converted is designed
using a capacitor and diodes.
Experiment 1: Voltage Doubler and Quadrupler 25/25

Voltage multipliers are circuits that input an AC signal, and output a DC voltage,
multiplied by a certain factor. In this experiment, the voltage doubler and quadrupler
circuits will be studied. These circuits serve to amplify the input voltage by factors of two
and four, as the name implies.

Voltage Doubler

Figure 1: Voltage Doubler

The circuit above is assembled. Using a waveform generator, the input voltage is set to:
𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 5 sin(2𝜋𝑓𝑡 ) 𝑉
𝑓 = 2 𝑘𝐻𝑧
The measured output voltage is:
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 8.83 𝑉
Since the DC output voltage is being measured, the measurement will represent the max
voltage across Vout. We notice that the voltage is being amplified, with a factor of 2.
8.83
= 1.76
5
In the positive half-cycle of the AC signal, the diode D1 would be off since it is in
reverse-bias, and D2 will be on since it is in forward bias. The current direction would be
clockwise. This allows the capacitor C1 to charge. Applying KCL, the voltage across the
capacitor would be:
𝑉𝐶1 = 5 − 0.7 = 4.3 𝑉
 Figure 2: Phase 1 - voltage doubler

In the negative half cycle of the AC signal, D2 would be off since it is in reverse bias,
and D1 would be on since it is in forward bias, allowing the capacitor C2 to charge.
Applying KCL, the output voltage across C2 is:
𝑉𝐶2 = 5 + 4.3 − 0.7 = 8.6 𝑉

Figure 3: Phase 2 - voltage doubler

The signal of the output voltage is a DC signal at 8.83 V. The expected output voltage is
8.6, however, the experimental output was 8.83 V. This is because there exist errors. The
percentage error being:
8.83 − 8.6
× 100 = 2.6 %
8.6
Since the percent error is within an acceptable margin, then the acquired results are
reliable.
Voltage Quadrupler

Figure 4: Voltage Quadrupler

The circuit above is assembled. Using a waveform generator, the input voltage is set to:
𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 5 sin(2𝜋𝑓𝑡 ) 𝑉
𝑓 = 2 𝑘𝐻𝑧
The measured output voltage is:
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 17 𝑉
We notice that the voltage is being amplified, with a factor of around 4.
17
= 3.4
5
In the first positive half cycle of the AC signal, D1 and D3 are in forward bias and turned
on, while D2 and D4 are in reverse bias and turned off. This allows C1 to charge,
applying KCL the value would be:
𝑉𝐶1 = 5 − 0.7 = 4.3 𝑉

Figure 5: Phase 1 - voltage quadrupler

In the first negative half cycle of the AC signal, D1 and D3 would be in reverse bias and
turned off, while D2 and D4 will be in forward bias and tuned on. This allows C2 to
charge, applying KCL the value would be:
𝑉𝐶2 = 5 + 4.3 − 0.7 = 8.6 𝑉

Figure 6: Phase 2 - voltage quadrupler

In the second positive half cycle of the AC signal, similarly to the first, D1 and D3 are in
forward bias and turned on, while D2 and D4 are in reverse bias and turned off. This
allows C3 to charge with a value of:
𝑉𝐶3 = 8.6 − 0.7 + 0.7 = 8.6 𝑉

Lastly, in the second negative half cycle pf the AC signal, D1 and D3 would be in reverse
bias and turned off, while D2 and D4 will be in forward bias and tuned on. This allows
C4 to charge, applying KCL the value would be:
𝑉𝐶4 = 8.6 − 0.7 + 0.7 = 8.6 𝑉
 Figure 7: Phase 4 - voltage quadrupler

This leads to the final output voltage to be a DC signal with a value of:
𝑉𝐶2 + 𝑉𝐶4 = 8.6 + 8.6 = 17.2 𝑉

Figure 8: Voltage quadrupler circuit

The signal of the output voltage is a DC signal at 17 V. The expected output voltage is
17.2, however, the experimental output was 17 V. This is because there exist errors. The
percentage error being:
17 − 17.2
× 100 = 1.16 %
17.2
Since the percent error is within an acceptable margin, then the acquired results are
reliable.
Experiment 2: Full Wave Rectifier 57/60

Figure 9: Full wave rectifier circuit

DC input
After assembling the above circuit and setting V1 to +10VDC, the currents were
measured, and the following values were obtained:
V1 +10 VDC -10VDC
I1 0.002 uA 8.36 mA
I2 9.01 mA 0.004 uA
I3 9.02 mA 0.005 uA
I4 0.001 uA 8.21 mA
Table 1: Table showing the currents at every diode.

When V1 is at +10VDC, I1 and I4 have negligible values, whereas I2 and I3 have a

value of 9.01 mA. Conversely, when V1 is at -10VDC, I2 and I3 have negligible values
while I1 and I4 have values of 8.36 mA and 8.21 mA, respectively. This suggests that D1
and D4 are off when V1 is positive, and D2 and D3 are off when V1 is negative.

AC input
A waveform generator is connected at V1 and set to:
𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 5 sin(2𝜋𝑓𝑡 ) 𝑉
𝑓 = 200 𝐻𝑧
Vin is connected to channel 1, and the following waveform is obtained:

Figure 10: Input signal

Vout is connected to channel 2, and the following waveform is obtained:

Figure 11: Output signal

The output signals demonstrate a full-wave rectifier operation. This means that
Vout remains positive even when Vin is negative, which is made possible by the forward
biasing of diodes D2 and D3 when Vin is positive, allowing current to flow through.
Similarly, when Vin is negative, diodes D1 and D4 become forward biased, again allowing
current to flow through. Due to the inversion of negative peaks into positive ones, the
period of Vout is half that of Vin. Consequently, the output frequency is twice that of the
input frequency.
Adding a capacitor
A 1 µF capacitor is connected in parallel with the resistor R1. Vout is measured and the
following output waveform is obtained:

Figure 12: Output signal after adding capacitor

As shown, after the connection of the capacitor, we notice the capacitor is

charging on every peek and since C is low, the capacitor almost discharges completely.

Analysis
After adding the capacitor in parallel with the load resistance of the rectifier, the
ripples of the output waveform have been smoothened out. This effect is due to the
capacitor’s rate of charging and discharging. Theoretically, to eliminate the ripples of an
AC power supply while increasing the DC output voltage, RC>>>Toriginal signal , meaning
the charge and discharge of a capacitor should be slower than the input signal. When the
capacitor charges to its maximum value at the peak-to-peak voltage of the input, the
output voltage rises to a maximum value, however, when discharging, the capacitor does
not arrive at a full discharge, since the increasing phase of the input voltage has already
started.
In this case,
𝑅𝐶 = 1𝑘 × 1𝑢 = 1𝑚𝑠
1 1
𝑇= = = 2.5 𝑚𝑠
𝑓 400
The peak-to-peak voltage seen at the output is nothing but the ripple voltage remaining
from the rectifying process. A full rectification of the input needs a larger capacitance.
First, we need to calculate the voltage arriving at the load, applying KVL:
−𝑉1 − 𝑉𝑑 + 𝑉𝑝 − 𝑉𝑑 = 0
𝑉𝑝 = 𝑉1 − 2𝑉𝑑 = 5 − 1.4 = 3.6 𝑉
𝑇 2.5
𝑉𝑟−𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 𝑉𝑝 − 𝑉𝑝 𝑒 −𝑅𝐶 = 3.6 − 3.6𝑒 − 1 = 3.30𝑉
The obtained experimental result was Vr =2.65V, though the expected results were 3.3 V.
This is due to experimental errors, calculated to be:
|𝑉𝑟−𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 − 𝑉𝑟−𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 | |3.30 − 2.65|
𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100 = ×= 19.6%
𝑉𝑟−𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 3.30
There exists a large error in the results, this is due to the capacitor’s inaccuracy and
instrumentation flaws.

Variable capacitance
The capacitor connected to the load was switched out to have the values 4.7 µF, 10 µF,
and 100 µF. The output voltage was observed and recorded.

For C = 4.7 µF

Figure 13: Output voltage at C = 4.7 µF

For C = 10 µF

Figure 14: Output voltage for C = 10 µF

Vpp should be
less
For C = 100 µF

Figure 15: Output voltage for C = 100 µF

 Capacitance Frequency Peak-to-Peak Maximum voltage
(µF) (Hz) voltage (V) (V)
1 404.27 2.65 3.55

4.7 404.43 1.14 3.348

10 401.72 1.14 3.268

100 414.18 0.096 3.008

Table 2: Table showing the variation of measurements with respect to capacitance.

As observed in the table, the more we increase the capacitance, the smaller the peak-to-
peak voltage (ripple voltage) gets as predicted by the formula:
𝑇
𝑉𝑟 = 𝑉𝑝 ×
2𝑅𝐶
In addition, as we increase the capacitance, the frequency of the output signal will
decrease. This is consistent with the conversion from AC to DC, in which the frequency
is 0.
1
𝑉𝑟 = 𝑉𝑝 ×
2𝑓𝑅𝐶
1
𝑓 = 𝑉𝑝 ×
2𝑅𝐶𝑉𝑟
Thus, they are inversely proportional.
AC to DC converter
To build an AC to DC converter, we first need to adjust the magnitude of the input
voltage to be constantly positive at the output. This result is done using the bridge
rectifier circuit without the capacitor. Next, the ripples must be smoothened out using a
capacitor. In order to maintain a close-to-ideal DC signal, RC must be greater than the
period of the rectified signal (Trectified = Tinitial/2). The higher the capacitance, the higher
the accuracy of the DC voltage at the output. Therefore, the 100 µF capacitor is
considered the best candidate.
Replacing the load with a capacitor
The load R1 is replaced with a capacitor C=4.7 µF. The following input and output
signals are recorded:

Figure 16: Input waveform

Figure 17: Output waveform

After removing the resistor, insignificant ripples were seen at the output of the
circuit (around the capacitor), while the frequency was very low. The maximum value of
the output was increased to almost match the input peak-to-peak voltage value (10V). In
the bridge rectifier, the AC input voltage is converted to a pulsating DC signal by the
diodes. The resistor is placed to allow current to pass and smoothen the output signal
even more. However, when replacing this resistor with a capacitor, the charging and
discharging process of the capacitor will even out the voltage waveform even more.
Therefore, the result found was a pulsating DC signal with less ripples.

The capacitor has no load to discharge into so we observe a DC signal (-3)

Conclusion
Overall, this experiment covers the application of diodes and capacitors. Voltage
multipliers were designed to output a voltage that is multiplied by a factor of two, and
then four. A general formula can summarize the output voltage of each multiplier.

𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑛(𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 𝑉𝑑 )

n: number of diodes in the circuit

Vin: input voltage (amplitude, if voltage is AC)
Vd: forward voltage of the diode used.

Moreover, a rectifier circuit was assembled, and the effect of a connected

capacitance is observed. As the capacitance across the load increases, the amplitude of
the output voltage decreases. This is how an AC-to-DC converter was created. By
connecting the highest available capacitance (100 µF), a DC output signal was achieved
with an AC signal input.