Sports Med.

1996Jul; 22(l): 8· 18
LEADING ARTICLE 0112·1642/96/000HXJJ8/S05.50/0

© Adis International limited. All rights reseNed.

Physical and Physiological

Factors Associated with
Success in the Triathlon
Gordon G. Sleivert and David S. Rowlands
School of Physical Education, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand

Summary The physiological demands of sequential exercise in swimming, cycling and

running are unique and require the triathlete to develop physical and physiolog-
ical characteristics that are a blend ofthose seen in endurance swimming, cycling
and running specialists. Elite triathletes are generally tall, of average to light
weight and have low levels of body fat, a physique which provides the advantages
of large leverage and an optimal power to surface area or weight ratio.
Triathletes have high maximum oxygen uptake (V02max) values, but V02max
may be on average marginally lower than values previously observed in endur-
ance specialists. Although V02max is a predictor of performance in triathletes of
mixed abilities, it cannot be used to predict performance within homogenous
groups of elite performers. Nevertheless, elite triathletes have significantly higher
V02max values than sub-elite triathletes and high V02max levels are required for
success in triathlons. The ability of the triathlete to exercise at a lower percentage
of V02max for a given submaximal workload may be especially important to
triathlon success. This is influenced not only by V02max itself, but also by anaero-
bic threshold and economy of movement.
Anaerobic threshold, as indicated by either ventilatory threshold or lactate
threshold, improves with triathlon training and when measured in the appropriate
exercise mode has been related to swim, cycle and run performance in the
triathlon. Economy of movement in swimming, cycling and running is also re-
lated to triathlon performance, and swimming economy in particular appears to
be an area where triathletes could make large improvements.
Future research should utilise experimental methodologies to investigate
triathlon physiology, in particular, the influence of sequential exercise in different
exercise modes on physiological function and examine the influence of different
training interventions on triathlon physiology and performance.

Multisport endurance events requiring continu-
ous and sequential completion of various exercise
modalities are commonplace. The most popular form
of these events is the swim/cycle/run triathlon. Al-
though the physiological demands of the triathlon
and physiological profiles of triathletes have been
comprehensively reviewed,ll,2j those factors asso-
ciated with success in triathlons are less well un-
derstood.
This article examines the current understanding
of the physical and physiological determinants of
success in two classifications of triathlon. The first
is the 'endurance' or 'Olympic' distance triathlon
which is usually contested over distances of around
Factors in Triathlon Success 9

a I.Skm swim, 40km cycle and IOkm run. The sec-
ond triathlon classification is the ultra-endurance,
or 'Ironman' triathlon requiring competitors to
complete approximately 4km of swimming, 180km
of cycling, and 42.2km of running (full marathon).
Completion times are usually in the range of 2 to
4 hours for short-course, and 8 to 14 hours for ultra-
endurance triathlons.
Both the Olympic and Ironman events place sig-
nificant physiological demands on the triathlete
and these demands are often amplified by adverse
environmental conditions. The large range in event
distances certainly affects the physiological de-
mands and training requirements of such events.
However, the challenge of optimising performance
in sequential swimming, cycling and running, re-
mains central to both. The physiological demands
of endurance swimming, cycling and running have
been well researched and determinants of success
in the respective single sports are becoming estab-
lished. However, these findings cannot be directly
applied to successful triathlon performance due to
the differing physiological demands of competing
in prolonged sequential exercisep·61 This article
examines physical and physiological factors asso-
ciated with success in the triathlon.
1. Physical Characteristics
Both elite and sub-elite male triathletes are sim-
ilar in height to specialist cyclists, but tend to be
taller than specialist runners and shorter than spe-
cialist distance swimmers (fig. 1). There seems to
be little difference in height when comparing Iron-
man and Olympic triathlon competitors. Female
lronman triathletes tend to be taller than their
Olympic triathlete counterparts and both groups of
triathletes are taller than elite female endurance
runners but similar in height to elite cyclists and
swimmers.
Mean height values for each population were
generated by taking a mean of the means weighted

190 Population
o Average E Inalhlele
185 • Ellie E Inathlete
o Average UE Inalhlete
274 15 • Elite UE tnathlete
180 212 24 o Elite distance swimmer
o Ellie road cyclist
• Elite distance runner
175
E 102
~
1: 170
.2'
Q)
J:
165

160

155

150
Men Women

Fig. 1. Weighted mean height values for elite and average (all triathletes) endurance (E)14.'9) and ultra-endurance (UE) triathletesI3.7,13,20·24)
compared with that of elite 1500/000m swimmers.[7,25.30) road cyclistsI26,29,3l.33) and 5km-marathon runners.l25,3l,34·36) Weighted means
values were generated using equation 1. Numerical values attached to each bar are the N values used for the respective triathlete
sample population. Mean values for single sport athletes were obtained largely from text books and review articles in which sample
size values were not reported,

© Adis International Umited. All rights reseNed. Sports Med. 1996 Jut; 22 (1)
10 Steivert & Rowlands

85
Population
o Average E tnathlete
80 • Elite E triathlete
o Average UE triathlete
15 • Elite UE triathlete
75 o Elite distance SWimmer
o Elite road cyclist
70 • Elite distance runner

Ci 65
:.
lZ
ttl
::. 60

55

50

45

40
Men Women

Fig. 2. Weighted mean mass values (see figure 1) for elite and average (all triathletes) endurance (E)14-19] and ultra-endurance (UE)
triathletesI3,7,13,20-24] compared with elite 1500/800m swimmers,[7,25-30] road cyclistS[26,29,31-33] and 5km-marathon runners.[25.31,34-36]
Numerical values attached to each bar are the N values used for the respective triathlete sample population.

against the sample size of the athletes used in each
study, using the equation:
X= L P(nj ) N
where: X = mean of the means, LL
P = sum of sam-
P
ple size weighted means, nj = sarriple number in
each study Xj =mean value for each study, N =sum
of nj for all studies.
Taller triathletes may have an advantage over
shorter triathletes due to longer limbs and greater
leverage. Long limbs allow for a greater running
stride or longer swimming stroke and lower stride
or stroke frequencies for a given velocity. Longer
stride lengths have been shown to be more econom-
ical than a high stride frequency as determined by
oxygen uptake and blood lactate measurement.l 2S1
Conversely, too much height may be a disadvan-
tage. Increased height is associated with increased
body surface area, and the greater the surface area,
the greater resistance to movement the athlete has
to work againstPS.3 11 Air resistance is the major
form of resistance to movement during level cy-
cling[31] and is also a significant form of resistance
during runningP61
Male triathletes are similar in weight to elite cy-
(Eq. 1)
clists, but weigh less than swimmers and more than
runners (fig. 2). Elite Olympic distance triathletes
tend to weigh less than sub-elite and recreational
triathletes, probably due to less body fat.[7] Con-
versely, elite ultra-endurance male triathletes
weigh more than their Olympic distance counter-
parts. Similar patterns are evident in female tri-
athletes but the elite ultra-endurance female ath-
letes tend to be similar in weight to elite swimmers
and heavier than cyclists and runners (fig. 2). It is
not clear why elite ultra-endurance triathletes are
heavier than their sub-elite competitors but it may
be due to higher muscle mass. Additionally, the
small sample sizes studied to date may have influ-
enced these results.
Body composition may influence performance
in swimming, cycling and running differentially. In
swimming, extra body fat may improve buoyancy
and help to reduce hydrodynamic drag.l 27J In con-

© Adis International Limited. All rights reserved. Sports Med. 1996 Jul; 22 (1)
Factors in Triathlon Success 11

trast to swimming where hydrodynamic drag is the
greatest force to overcome,[25,27) gravity is the ma-
jor force to overcome during running. As a result,
excess weight is detrimental to running perfor-
mance.[8,37) Excess weight may not however be detri-
mental to weight supported cycling. In cyclists the
increase in frontal surface area with increased
body weight is counterbalanced by an increased ab-
solute power output, as long as the extra weight is
muscle mass.[3I) Nonetheless, the influence of body

a o Average triathlete
85 • Sub·ellte trlathlete
o Elite tMathlete
• Elite distance runners
Elite road cyclists

75

'2
E
0,
~
g 65

0
l
.>
c o Average lriathlete
55 70 o Elite swimmers
r- r-

45 60
C
b E 24 39
80 a, r- r-
~
2 E- 50

0
l
.>
C 70
'E 40
~
::,
g 19 15
~

0
l 60
.> Ultra-endurance Endurance

50

40
Ultra·endurance Endurance

Fig. 3. Weighted mean maximum oxygen uptake (lf0 2max) values (see figure 1) for men. (a) Average (all triathletes). sub-elite and
elite endurance[4-6·8.11.12.15·17,41] and ultra-endurance triathletes[3,13,20,21 ,42,43] and elite 5km-marathon runners[25,26,29,30,34,39] during
treadmill running . (b) Average and sub-elite endurance triathletes[3,14,16,37,40,43[ average. sub-elite and elite ultra-endurance
triathletes[12,27,42,44,45] and elite road cyclists[19,25,29,38,39,46] during cycle ergometry. (c) Average endurance[5,11 ,12] and ultra-endur-
ance[13,42] triathlete and elite distance swimmers[25,28·30] during tethered swimming. Numerical values attached to each bar are the
N values used for the respective triathlete sample population.

© Adis International limited. All rights reselVed. Sports Med. 1996 Jul; 22 (1)
12
weight on cycling perfonnance will depend some-
what on the topography of the cycling course. A
hilly cycle course will substantially increase the
effect of gravity on the cyclist,[31] which may dis-
advantage the heavy triathlete.[8] Elite male endur-
ance and ultra-endurance triathletes are typically
between 6 to 11 % body fat.[3,6,7j while elite female
triathletes are 12 to 18% body fat.[9,1O.20]
Deitrick[8] found that 'heavy weight' triathletes
(90,9kg) compared with 'typical' triathletes (66.6kg)
were taller, had higher body fat levels, lower running
economy and maximum oxygen uptake CV0 2max )
values, shorter treadmill performance times in an
incremental run to exhaustion and lower power/
weight ratios on the bicycle ergometer. The heavier
triathletes also trained less than their typical coun-
terparts. Thus excess weight, particularly excess
fat, is probably not beneficial to triathlon perfor-
mance. The buoyancy advantages that fat can offer
in the swim phase may be largely off-set by the use
of a wetsuit, thereby eliminating the possible ad-
vantage that fatter individuals may have while
swimming.
It would appear then that successful triathletes
should be characterised by a blend of physical traits
observed in specialist endurance swimmers, cy-
clists and runners. This does not imply that all suc-
cessful triathletes will be the same shape and size
but it indicates that an individuals' physical attri-
butes can help predict in which exercise mode a
triathlete is most likely to be successful, or in which
mode they can improve. Similarly, triathletes with
different physical attributes may excel on one type
of course (e.g. flat) but not be suited to another (e.g.
hills), or excel in one exercise mode at the expense
of the other two.
2. Physiological Characteristics
2.1 Aerobic Power
High levels of aerobic power (V0 2max ) gener-
ally characterise successful endurance specialists
in swimming,[27,28] cycling[26,32,38,39] and run-
ning[29,34,35,40] and the same is true for triath-
letes. [2,3,6,9-11 ,20] With the exception of a very small
© Adis International Limited . All rights reserved.
Sleivert & Rowlands
sample of elite ultra-endurance triathletesP] most
generally have slightly lower weight corrected
V0 2max values than single sport endurance special-
ists in their respective exercise modalities (figs 3 and
4). Mean V0 2max values for treadmill running in
elite runners have been reported to be on average
8 to 23% higher than values reported for triathletes
during treadmill running,[2,6,14,20,29,34-36,40,46] Simi-
larly, V0 2max values in elite single sport athletes are
15 to 23% greater in cycling and 18 to 20% greater
in swimming than most values reported for tri-
athletes)2,3,8,IO.12-14,21,42,44j Lower V0 2max values in
triathletes may be partially attributed to the carry-
ing of extra muscle mass required in one exercise
mode, e.g. swimming, that is not required in the
other exercise modes, e.g. cycling or running. This
could act to decrease V0 2max in any given mode of
exercise. That triathlete V0 2max values are lower than
endurance specialists may also be due to differ-
ences in training volumes, since the triathlete
necessarily spreads training between 3 exercise
modes.f 49 ] The greater V0 2max values generally ob-
tained by single sport specialists reinforces the
specificity of training response and highlights the
limitations of training in one exercise mode for per-
ceived benefits in another (cross-training). How-
ever, some studies have shown V0 2max improve-
ments in both cycling and running after training in
only one exercise mode, with the magnitude of
V0 2max improvements being largest in the trained
exercise mode.[50,51]
Although few data exist, it appears that elite tri-
athletes have greater V0 2max values than sub-elite
and recreational triathletes (figs 3 and 4). For ex-
ample, treadmill V0 2max values for elite male
triathletes have been reported to be between 70
to 85 mllkg/min[2,3,6,20] while recreational triath-
letes have V0 2max values between 55 to 67 mIlkg/
min.f5,12.15-17,43] Similarly, elite and recreational fe-
male triathletes have reported treadmill V0 2max
values between 54 to 73[9,10] and 44 to 65[9,12,21]
mllkg/min respectively. These results suggest a re-
lationship between V0 2max and triathlon perfor-
mance.
Sports Med. 1996 Jul; 22 (1)
Factors in Triathlon Success 13

o Average lriathlele
• Sub·elile lnathlete
o Elite tnathlete
• Elite distance runner
a o Elite road cyclist
70
'2

i"" 14

S 60
~
0'"
.> c
50 • Recreational triathletes
o Elite swimmers

b
70

c 7
E r-- 10 r--
0, 60
~
.J!.. ~

S ....!L
~
0'" Endurance
.>

50

40
Ultra-endurance Endurance

Fig. 4. Weighted mean maximum oxygen uptake (V02max) values (see figure 1) for women. (a) average (all triathletes) ultra-endurance
triathletes,114.21,47) average, sub-elite and elite endurance triathletesI9.10.12) and elite distance runnersI25.26.29.35.36.40) during treadmill
running. (b) Average ultra-endurance triathlete,114.21.471average and elite endurance triathletesll0.12) and elite road clyclistsI25.26.32.33.38.48)
during cycle ergometry. (c) Recreational female endurance triathietes l12J and elite distance swimmersI25.28-30J during tethered swim-
ming. Numerical values attached to each bar are the N values used for the respective triathlete sample population.

In some cases, swim, cycle and run performance
has been reported to be related to event specific
V0 2max . In a mixed gender sample group, Butts et
aU I8 l found swim time to correlate with absolute
(Llmin) tethered swim V02max (r = -0.49), cycle
time to correlate with both absolute (r =0.57) and
relative V0 2max (r = -0.78) (ml/kg/min) and run
time to correlate with relative V0 2max (r =-0.84).
These relationships must be interpreted with care
since a mixed gender sample may have elevated
these correlations by increasing the range of
V0 2max and performance scores. In recreational
triathletes of low fitness, Loftin et aU41J reported
significant relationships between cycle and run

© Adis International Limited. All rights reserved. Sports Med. 1996 Jul; 22 (1)
14
V0 2max and cycling and running performance in
the triathlon (r =-0.56, -0.58 respectively) but no
relationship between arm crank V0 2max and swim-
ming performance.
Sleivert and Wenger[12] reported sex specific cor-
relations. They found that swim time was related
to relative tethered swim V0 2max in women (r =
-0.93) and men (r =-0.48), cycle time was not re-
lated to cycle V0 2max in either sex, and run time
was related to treadmill V0 2max in women (r =-0.88)
but not men. The small sample of women in this
study (n =7) exhibited greater variance in abilities
than the men (n = 18) which probably inflated the
observed correlations in the female sample. Dengel
et aU l3 ] reported weak correlations between event
specific V0 2max and half-Ironman triathlon perfor-
mance in male participants with only cycle ergom-
eter V0 2max related to cycling time (r =-0.70).
In another group of half-Ironman triathletes of
varying abilities Kohrt et al)42] reported that event
specific V0 2max was related to performance in cy-
cling and running (r = -0.68 and -0.78 respectively),
but not to swim time. At Ironman distance, one study
has reported no relationship between event specific
V0 2max and triathlon performance pOI This may be
because of the lower relative intensity that Ironman
events are raced at and because nutrition, fluid,
electrolyte balance and psychological factors are
likely to be major determinants of success in these
ultra-endurance events)2]
Cumulative fatigue experienced over the course
of a triathlon could decrease the magnitude of the
relationship between V0 2max and triathlon perfor-
mance)12,13,52] De Vito et aU 6] addressed this ques-
tion by measuring treadmill V0 2max in a rested state
and after completion of the first 2 segments of a
triathlon (1.5km swim, 32km bike). They found
that V0 2max dropped from 69 to 64 mllkg/min.
V0 2max measured from basal conditions was a bet-
ter predictor of run performance in the triathlon (r =
-0.86) than when measured in the fatigued state
(r =-0.77). These results suggest that cumulative
fatigue may play little role in attenuating the rela-
tionship between V0 2max and triathlon performance
and the weak correlations found between event
© Adis International Limited. All rights reserved.
Sleivert & Rowlands
specific V0 2max and triathlon performance in tri-
athletes of similar abilities are likely to be genuine.
In triathlete groups of mixed abilities, V0 2max ap-
pears to be an important predictor of success, a
point clearly illustrated in figures 3 and 4 which
show that elite performers have higher V0 2max val-
ues on average than sub-elite and recreational per-
formers. Suggested minimal elite V0 2max values
are 62 to 65 and 70 to 73 ml/kg/min for women and
men respectively)2,3,6,7,9,IO,13,20,42 1 Once this level
is reached, other factors may become more impor-
tant determinants of success.
2.2 Fractional Utilisation of V02max
Performance in the triathlon has been signifi-
cantly related to the ability of the triathlete to ex-
ercise at a lower percentage of V0 2max for a given
submaximal workload)13] This is influenced by a
combination of factors including aerobic power,
economy of movement and anaerobic threshold.
2.3 Anaerobic Threshold
The ability to exercise at a high fraction of
V0 2max is largely influenced by anaerobic thresh-
old, expressed as either ventilatory threshold (VT)
or lactate threshold (LT). A nonlinear increase in
either minute ventilation or blood lactate concen-
tration when plotted against oxygen consumption
(V0 2) or velocity is commonly used for the deter-
mination of anaerobic threshold)53] Exercise at an
intensity above anaerobic threshold reduces endur-
ance time due to metabolic acidosis and accelerated
glycogen depletion,[54] therefore the successful en-
durance athlete is often characterised by the ability
to perform high amounts of work at or just below
anaerobic threshold.[33,55]
In endurance triathletes VT has been reported to
occur at 72 to 75% of swim V0 2max , 63 to 82% of
cycle V0 2max , and 74 to 85% of run V0 2max .[6,IO,12]
Likewise, LT has been reported to occur at 72 to
88% of bike V0 2max and 80 to 85% of treadmill
V02max.J22,56] These percentages are similar to or
slightly lower than those reported in endurance
specialists)57.59] It has been suggested that the
amount of muscle mass involved in a movement
Sports Med. 1996 Jul; 22 (1)
Factors in Triathlon Success
partially determines the percentage of V02max at
which anaerobic threshold occurs, since the aver-
age metabolic rate per unit of contracting muscle
is greater in exercise modes such as cycling versus
running where less mu'scle mass is recruited. llO ,60]
Training history may alter this relationship.
Kohrt et al. [22] reported that over the course of
a triathlon season, cycling LT increased by 6% and
running LT by 10%, without improvements in
V0 2max . Withers et aLl57] found cyclists could use
higher fractions of V0 2max than runners when tested
on a cycle ergometer whereas runners had higher
fractional utilisation on a treadmill. Hoffman et
al. 150] reported that VT improved on the treadmill
but not the cycle ergometer with run training, how-
ever cycle ergometer training improved VT in both
cycling and treadmill running. Others have also re-
ported LT improvements in cycling through run
training.[51] These data therefore indicate that train-
ing may specifically improve VT and LT measures
to allow triathletes to compete at higher percent-
ages of V0 2max and provide some support for the
benefit of cross-training.
Sleivert and Wenger[12] reported running veloc-
ity at VT to be related to run time in women (r =
-0.88) and men (r = -0.73) and resistance pulled at
VT during tethered swimming to be related to
swim time (r = -0.81) for women in a short course
triathlon. Overall triathlon time was related to ve-
locity at run VT in both sexes (r = -0.78). The
sample of recreational triathletes used in this study
was heterogenous in terms of performance ability,
particularly in the women triathletes, which may
have inflated the magnitude of the correlations.
Yet, VT measures have also been related to perfor-
=
mance in a small group (n 6) of well-trained male
triathletes. 161
In the study of De Vito et al.,1 61 V0 2 at running
VT was measured starting from resting conditions
and after completion of a partial triathlon (1.51an
swim, 321an cycle). After completion of the partial
triathlon, VT occurred at a lower percentage of
V02max (74.3 VS 84.6%) demonstrating that the abil-
ity to sustain a high percentage of V0 2max in run-
ning is impaired after the swimming and cycling
© Adis International Umited. All rights reserved.
15
sections of a triathlon. In addition, heart rate at VT
was lower after previous exercise which has impli-
cations for setting training and competition pace.
De Vito's group also found that V0 2 at running VT
was related to running performance in an Olympic
=
triathlon (r -0.79), and this relationship was even
stronger when VT was tested after completion of
the partial triathlon (r = -0.85). LT has also been
related to performance in running and cycling dur-
=
ing a half-Ironman event (r -0.73, -0.72 respec-
tively),l221 Thus, the ability to perform high rates
of work at or below VT or LT and minimise muscle
acidosis is probably a particularly important deter-
minant of success in short course triathlons. The
one study that has reported no relationship between
VT and triathlon performance studied a homoge-
nous group of triathletes competing in an ultra-
endurance triathlon.l 611 It may be that other factors
such as energy, fluid, electrolyte balance aDd econ-
omy of movement may be more important in ultra-
endurance triathlons. [21
2.4 Economy of Movement
Economy has been defined by numerous re-
searchers as the oxygen cost of exercising at a
standard, pre-determined velocity.123,45,62 1 A more
economic triathlete uses less oxygen than their less
economic counterpart at a standard velocity and
theoretically is able to move faster or conserve en-
ergy for the later stages of an event. Economy has
been shown to account for the large variation in
10km race performance times of highly experi-
enced runners with similar V0 2max values.[361
Other studies have also shown significant relation-
ships between economy and cycling[33] and swim-
ming[ 63 1performances.
In triathletes, economy is also important to per-
formance. Laurenson et aLl91 reported that elite fe-
male triathletes were significantly more economi-
cal during treadmill running at 15 kmIh than club
level triathletes (51.2 vs 53.8 mllkg/min respec-
tively). The elite women were also exercising at a
lower percentage of their V0 2max (78.2 VS 89.2%)
and had lower lactate and heart rate values at sub-
maximal running velocities. The percentage of
Sports Med. 1996 Jul; 22 (1)
16
V0 2max at 15 kmIh was a significant predictor of
Olympic distance triathlon performance. Dengel et
al.[13] also reported that V0 2 values at submaximal
speeds during running, cycling and swimming
were strong predictors of corresponding perfor-
mance times in a half-Ironman triathlon, with the
strongest predictors being the ability to use a lower
percentage of V0 2max at a submaximal workload in
each exercise mode (r = 0.91, 0.78 and 0.87 for
swimming, cycling and running performance times
respectively). In addition, O'Toole et al.[24] have
reported that percentage V0 2max during submaxi-
mal cycling was significantly related to cycle finish
time in an Ironman distance triathlon.
Economy of movement may be especially im-
portant in swimming where a large emphasis is
placed on technique. Touissant[44] compared propel-
ling efficiency (energy used to overcome drag/total
energy used) between elite swim specialists and elite
triathletes. At an equal power output the 2 groups
did not differ in gross efficiency, stroke frequency
or work per stroke, but the elite swimmers had a
greater distance per stroke (1.23 vs 0.92m) and mean
swimming velocity 0.17 vs 0.95 m/sec). The elite
swimmers used a higher proportion of their power
output to overcome drag and expended less power
moving water backwards. Overall mean propelling
efficiency for swimmers was 61 % but only 44% for
the triathletes. It was concluded that triathletes
should focus their attention on improving swim-
ming technique rather than improving their ability
to generate power. Distance per stroke may be a
simple criterion that can be used with triathletes to
evaluate swimming skill.
A number of extrinsic factors may influence ex-
ercise economy. The use of a wetsuit in the swim
section can reduce drag by up to 14%.[64] Cycling
economy can be affected by factors such as seat
position, crank length, body position and shoe/
pedal interface.!48,65] A triathletes' cycling perfor-
mance is also affected by the quality of the bicycle,
wheels, tyres and handlebars they are able to ac-
cess[66] and an argument could be made for the use
of standardised triathlon bikes.
© Adis International Limited. All rights reseNed.
Sleivert & Rowlands
Economy may also change throughout the course
of an event. Kreider et al.l4] observed that compared
to a control run, triathlon running at an identical pace
was performed at a higher core temperature with
significantly lower stroke volume and mean arte-
rial pressure. The triathlon run also required signif-
icantly higher V02, ventilation, and heart rate, thus
thermoregulatory, haemodynamic and cardiovas-
cular adjustments may contribute to decreased
economy of movement as a triathlon progresses. A
proper hydration strategy during competition is es-
sential to minimise these homeostatic disturbances
and it has been suggested that proper pacing strat-
egies utilising progressively increasing intensi-
ties as the race progresses can minimise detrimental
changes in economy. [2,5] Regular exposure to sequen-
tial exercise in training as a means of simulating the
physiological responses experienced in a triathlon
may also be important in this respect.
3. Conclusions
The physiological demands of sequential exer-
cise in swimming, cycling and running are unique
and require the triathlete to develop physical and
physiological characteristics that are a blend of
those seen in endurance swimming, cycling and
running specialists. Elite triathletes are generally
tall, of average to light weight and have low levels
of body fat - a physique which provides the advan-
tages of large leverage and an optimal power to
surface area or weight ratio.
Triathletes have high V0 2max values, but may be
marginally lower on average than values pre-
viously observed in endurance specialists, possibly
due to lower training volumes in each exercise
mode or extra non-exercising muscle mass. Cross-
training effects do not compensate for these lower
training volumes. Although VO Zmax is a predictor
of performance in triathletes of mixed abilities, it
cannot be used to predict performance within ho-
mogenous groups of elite performers. Neverthe-
less, elite triathletes have significantly higher
V0 2max values than sub-elite triathletes and high
V0 2max levels are required for success in triathlons.
Once V02max is developed to a criterion level, other
Sports Med. 1996 Jul; 22 (1)
Factors in Triathlon Success
factors are probably more important determinants
of triathlon success. The ability of the triathlete to
exercise at a lower percentage of ~02max for a
given sub maximal workload may be especially
important to triathlon success. This is influenced
not only by ~02max itself, but also by anaerobic
threshold and economy of movement. Anaerobic
threshold, as indicated by either VT or LT, im-
proves with triathlon training and when measured
in the appropriate exercise mode has been related
to swim, cycle and run performance in the triathlon.
Economy of movement in swimming, cycling and
running is also related to triathlon performance, and
swimming economy in particular appears to be an
area where triathletes could make large improve-
ments.
In summary, the successful triathlete will have
a high ~02max and an ability to sustain exercise at
a high percentage of ~02max due to good economy
of movement and a high anaerobic threshold in
swimming, cycling and running. Future research
should utilise experimental methodologies to in-
vestigate triathlon physiology, in particular, the
influence of sequential exercise in different exer-
cise modes on physiological function and examine
the influence of different training interventions on
triathlon physiology and performance.
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Correspondence and reprints: Dr Gordon G. Sleivert, School
of Physical Education, University of Otago, PO Box 56,
Dunedin, New Zealand.
e-mail: gsleivert@pooka.otago.ac.nz
Sports Med, 1996 Jul; 22 (1)