JAINISM

Namo Arihantanam, Namo siddhanam, Namo ayariyanam,

Namo Uvajjhayanam, Namo loye savvasahunam;
Eso pancha namokkaro savva pavapanasano,
Mangalanam cha savvesin, padamam havai manhgalam

“Salutations to the prophets; salutations to the perfected beings; salutations to the teachers;
salutations to the expoents of scriptures; salutations to all saints. This fivefold salutation destroys all
sins and is pre-eminent as the most auspicious of all auspicious.”
This renowned, sublime and one of the holiest namaskara-mantra is chanted every day by millions
of followers of Jain religion. Jainism is one of the oldest living religions of the world which is purely
indigenously Indian in origin and represents that current of ancient Indian culture the ‘Sramana
Samskriti’, which is distinct and independent of the Vedic or Brahmanical culture. It is a monastic-
oriented religion having a fully developed system with limbs and accessories, sects and sub-sects,
more than two millennia long history of growth and spread, decline and reform, rich cultural heritage
and a vast canonical literature.

Origin

According to Jain belief the Jain religion is eternal having been revealed again and again in every
one of the endless succeeding progressive and retrogressive cycles called utsarpini and avasarpini, by
innumerable prophets, the tirthankaras. In the present avasarpani Risabha was the first and Mahavira
the last of a series of twenty-four tirthankaras. Each of the twenty-four tirthankaras has a specific sign
and colour. Although all are worshipped, Risabha and the last three, Neminatha, Parsvanatha and
Mahavir are the most favorite. The last two are historical. Parsva was born 250 years before Mahavir
and his sect was prevalent when Mahavir was born. Mahavir was contemporary of Buddha but in
spite of apparent similarities Jainism and Buddhism are distinct from each other. Though the
tirthankaras are accorded worship as to God, Jainism does not believe in a God who is the creator or
ruler of the universe.
Mahavir was born in the latter part of the sixth century B. C. of Ksatriya parents near Vaishali
about twenty miles north of Patna. He was married and had a daughter, though the Digambaras
maintain that he remained unmarried. After the death of his parents he renounced the world and
practiced rigorous austerities and meditations for twelve years, at the end of which he attained perfect
knowledge, “Kevala-jnana”. During the period of sadhana he bore with equanimity all kinds of
hardships. After attaining perfection, he preached his doctrine for thirty-two years and died at Pavapuri
at the age of 72. He had twelve apostles called ganadharas and a large following which he organized
into four classes: monks, nuns, men lay-devotees and women lay-devotees. He opened the door of
religion to all, irrespective of caste, creed and sex.
At the beginning of the Christian Era, the Jains divided into two sects : the Shvetambaras, the
white robed and the Digambaras, the sky-robed. It is believed that during the twelve year long famine
in North India, a group of monks headed by Bhadrabahu migrated to South India. After several years it
was found that although the main percepts were the same, differences regarding regulations of life and
conduct had grown between the two communities, which were difficult to reconcile. Most important
of these is that Digambara monks are allowed no garments, whereas Shvetambaras wear white robes.
There have arisen further sub-sects in each of these major sects.

Canonical Literature

Jain scriputers are called sruta, sutra or agama. They are claimed to be the sermons delivered
by Mahavir at the enquiries made by Indrabhuti Gautama the foremost of the apostles. The narrator is
Sudharma Swami, another apostle, who was present during the dialogue and who later told it to his
disciple Jambu Swami. The canonical literature consists of some sixty texts classified variously. The
principal scriptures, the angas, are twelve in number of which Acharanga sutra is the foremost.
Besides angas, Uttaradhyayana, believed to be Mahavir’s last sermon, and Dashavaitalika of a later
date are highly noted. Kalpa Sutra, the life of Mahavir is also widely read.
Since the works belonging to the canon are of different age and origin, they differ greatly in
content and character. Most of the earlier scriptures are in ardhamagadhi, but Sanskrit works of later
date have also been added. A large literature of gloss and commentaries has grown around more
important works. Besides source books, there are separate works in close agreement with the former,
but containing systematic exposition and having the advantage of clearness and accuracy. One of the
oldest such work is Umasvati’s Tattwartha Sutra. In recent years a sort of concordance of the Jain
scriptures with the title Samana Sutra, with original Prakrit texts, Sanskrit rendering and Hindi or
English translation has been published.
It may be mentioned that Jains also possess a secular literature which attempts to illustrate
moral and religious problems and their solutions with the help of tales and allegories. There are even
Jain Puranas and Jain Ramayana.

Philosophy

Jainism asserts that nothing can be created out of something which does not exist in one form
or the other, and that the universe is uncreated, without beginning and without end. Its main
constituents are two: animate objects and inanimate objects. The former comprise of infinite number
of independent souls in varying degrees of physical and spiritual development. The latter consist of
space, time, dharma- the principle of motion, adharma, the principle of rest, and matter in different
forms. Spirit and matter both are real, pluralistic, eternal and not liable to lose or interchange their
nature.
Four groups of souls dwell in the cosmos: gods living in heaven, human beings, and tiryaks or
lower animals living on the earth, and narakiya the inhabitant of hells or nether worlds. There is
another classification which groups souls according to the number of sense organs they possess. The
highest possess all the five sense organs (panchendriya) while the lowest have only one sense of touch
(ekendriya). This classification is of great practical importance because the highest duty of a Jain is
ahimsa, not to cause injury to any living creature.
There is yet another classification according to the degree of advancement towards the final
goal of liberation. He who has attained freedom from good and evil and has reached perfection by
realizing his divine nature ranks the highest and is called siddha paramesthin. This state, can in fact,
be described only as an absolutely unconditional passionless peace, free from action and desire. Next
in scale is arhat who although illuminated, has not attained final liberation from physical body.
Having a desire to serve his fellow beings, such a soul becomes the revealer of eternal truths of
religion. The next three gradations viz. Acharya, Upadhyaya and Sadhu, are of human teachers and
spiritual aspirants. These five are collectively called “ Panch-parameshtin” to whom the “Namaskar
Mantra” is addressed.
The jiva, by its very nature, is pure consciousness and the goal is to manifest its divinity by
removing the karmic impurities which conceal it. To do this one must have the clear concept of seven
tattvas or principles; (1) jiva, spirit; (2) ajiva, matter; (3) ashrava, the manner in which karmic
impurities flow into the soul; (4) bandha, the bondage of karma; (5) samvara, checking fresh karmas
to accumulate; (6) nirjara, the shedding away of accumulated karma, (7) moksha, state of liberation. If
we add punya, merit and papa, demerit to the above list, we obtain the nine categories or padarthas of
Jain metaphysics.
There are five conditions of bondage: perversity of attitude or ignorance, mithyatva; non-
abstinence from sense pleasures and violence, avirati; spiritual inertia or carelessness, pramada;
passions or evil tendencies, kasaya; and the three fold activities of body, speech and mind, yoga.
Kashayas are four in number: anger, egoism, deceit and greed. Each of these has four degrees: intense
or deep rooted; voluntary and uncontrollable; voluntary and controllable; and mild, in seed form. All
these conditions have corresponding karmas responsible for them. The spiritual advancement is
determined by the extent of the removal of these karmic impurities. This ladder of spiritual ascent has
fourteen steps called gunasthanas.

The Path to Liberation:

The necessary conditions for reaching the final goal of Moksha are : (1) Right attitude or faith,
samyak darshana; (2) Right knowledge, samyak jnana; and (3) Right conduct, samyak charitra,
collectively called triratna.
The righteous life of a Jain begins with samyak darshana or samyakatva, when the individual
gives up his erroneous beliefs and gains right attitude, samyakdristi towards one’s own nature, world,
and the aim of life. This amounts to the first spiritual awakening and is given great importance in
Jainism. The psychological advantages, purity and insight obtained in this stage are elaborately
described in Jain literature. In reality, however, it amounts to having faith in, and acceptance of, Jain
prophets, scriptures and teachers as the only true ones. This dispels the first condition of bondage,
mithyatva.
To acquire right knowledge and right conduct and to overcome other conditions of bondage,
rules of conduct must be followed. The foremost amount these are the five vows or vratas: (1) not to
kill, ahimsa; (2) not to lie, satya; (3) not to steal, asteya; (4) abstain from sex, brahmacharya; (5) not
to keep property, aparigraha. These are to be strictly followed by a monk in thought, word and deed
(mahavrata). Lay devotees however observe these so far as their conditions permit (anuvrata). Jains,
both lay and monastic do not eat after sunset. So great a stress is land to this rule that it is given the
rank of the sixth vow.

The Path of the Layman

Although Jainism is a monastic oriented religion, the role of lay devotees is not
underestimated. While the vows of layman are only weaker versions of the mahavratas, meant only to
curb evil behaviour and cannot lead to final liberation, in practice, however, this point is not stressed.
The Jain acharyas have realized that no institution can survive without the strong involvement of the
laity. Hence they have shown high regard to this path by producing numerous texts elaborating the lay
conduct. Despite this trend, the ascetic orientation if Jainism is not lost and even lay discipline is far
more stricter than in any other religious community.
The vows prescribed for the layman include the five anuvratas, refraining from meat, alcohol,
honey and certain items of food, and certain vows called gunavratas. These take the form of
restricting ones area of activity, objects of enjoyment, food, clothing etc. and giving up such
unwholesome activities like gambling, hunting etc. To this are added daily meditation, fasting on
certain days each month and charity specially towards monks. The Sravakachara texts dealing with
the conduct of a sravaka or lay devotee also set up an eleven st4epped ladder, the sravaka pratima for
the guidance of the devotees. Beginning with the stage of right views, the devotee goes on adding in
succeeding higher stages, the vows, daily meditations, fasting, continence, and relinquishes worldly
activities till he reaches the eleventh and the final rung of the ladder called sramanabhuta pratima, or
the stage of similarity to a monk. He can now take the monastic vows if he so desires.

Rituals and Ceremonies

The rules enumerated above are severe enough and even the clerics of many religions do not
live so strictly. The actuality, however, is that the path so laid down constitutes an ideal followed only
by a rare few. To comprehend therefore the religious life of Jain laity in real terms, we must observe
the prevalent rituals, customs, and periodic ceremonies in which the Jain faith is centred and through
which it is reflected. The layman performs them unbound by vows. These also provide a sense of
group identity.
The canonical texts prescribe six obligatory duties for monks which are highly recommended
for lay devotees. They are (1) Samayika- practice of equanimity through meditation, (2) Caturvishati
stava- praise of the tirthankaras, (3) Vandana- veneration of the elders, teachers and monks. (4)
Pratikramana- expiation of sins, (5) Kayotsarga- standing or sitting in one posture for a length of time
(6) Pratyakyana – renunciation of certain foods and activities etc. Digambaras moving more towards
the secular aspect of the ritual developed the following: (1) Devapuja- worship of tirthankaras, (2)
Guru-upasti- veneration of the teacher, (3) Svadhyaya- study of scriptures, (4) Samyama- restraint (5)
Tapas- austerities, (6) Dana- charity. Some of these which have become incorporated into the life of
Jain followers most may be described in greater details.
Although ancient Jain texts do not mention temples or images, the construction of temples,
installation of images and their ritualistic worship is very popular except in the sthanakvasi sect. The
images worshipped are those of tirthankaras in standing or sitting meditative poses. Jains have not
developed a priest class and the lay devotees carry out the ritual themselves with the help of an
employed Brahmin priest. In temples there are also images of snake god Dharmendra and his consort
Padmavati who are supposed to have helped Parshvanath. These are called sasana devatas, inferior
deities and are supposed to fulfill mundane desires.
The actual worship consists of making symbolic figure of a crescent with a dot above and three
dots below, and a figure of swastika with rice grains on a wooden plank. These represent respectively
the state of the siddha, the triratna and the four types of destinies of jives. This is followed by
abhisheka- the ritual bath of the image. Next, eight substances, viz. water, sandal paste, uncooked rice,
flowers, sweets, incense, fruits and a lamp are offered. Next step is singing of praises or staves. The
worship ends with waving of lamps; arati. The Digambaras of South India have developed a relatively
more elaborate form of ritual.
The building ot temples and installation of images are considered acts of great merit. Similarly
Jains attach great value to pilgrimage to various shrines scattered all over India. The most famous
spots are, Parsvanath Hills, Champapuri, Pavapuri in Bihar, Girnar in Sautashtra, Shatrunjaya in
Gujarat, Mount Abu in Rajasthan and Shravanbelgola in Karnataka. Jains generally travel to these
places in a group called Yatra, paid and sponsored by some wealthy member of the community who
earns great merit thereby and commands great respect.
As stated above, a close relationship has always existed between the ascetic and the
householders in Jain tradition. Monks and nuns are revered to the point of adoration. The procedure of
approaching and bowing to the monks is called vandana and includes an exchange of ritual formula in
prakrit. The lay devotees take this opportunity to confess (pratikramana) their transgressions and to
accept further restrictions. Such confessions may be done daily, fortnightly or yearly. The annual rite
of collective confession observed by all sects of Jains takes place during rainy season and is called
samvatsari. For a period of eight or ten days known as paryusana-parva the devotees undertake
various types of restrictions like eating one meal a day or fasting etc. On the last day, they assemble
for collective prayers. The admission of sins, and pleas for forgiveness (ksama) are directed not only
to monks and teachers, devotees, relations, and friends, but towards all creatures. The devotee also
extends his forgiveness to all beings. The spirit is well expressed in the following verse:
“ I pardon all living creatures; may all of them pardon me. May I have friendly relationship
with all beings, and unfriendly with none.”
The most important and highly regarded ritual, however, is the solitary meditation called
samayika. The term has various connotations: restraint, renunciation, attainment of equanimity and
self awareness. In practice it amounts to renunciation of worldly thought and activity for a fixed
period. Generally practiced daily at sunset, it consists of recitation of sacred texts, meditation,
observance of silence and kayotsarga i.e not moving the limbs. The texts recited are preliminary
resolve formula, the Namaskar Mantra, praise of twenty-four tirthankaras and texts expressive of
feeling of goodwill towards all.
Great stress is laid not only on the way one lives but also on how one dies. A devout Jain wants
to keep his vows till the last day of his life untarnished by old age and infirmity. A rather extra-
ordinary aspiration of every Jain is to attain ‘samadhtimaran’ or death while in mediation. This is
carried out by gradual fasting, sallekhana, done in strict accord with the scriptural prescription. It can
be done during great famine or an unavoidable calamity that may make keeping of vows impossible.
Under normal conditions it is undertaken if there is terminal or incurable illness or old age. Although
sallekhana is most often undertaken by monks, it has been common enough among lay devotees.
 All Jains, lay and monastics, engage in one or more of the twelve anupreksha or bhavanas.
These are mental reflections on the transitory nature of the world; on the relentless cycles of; birth and
death and attended misery; on the alone-ness and utter helplessness of human situation; on the impure
nature of the physical body; on the way karmas accumulate, can be prevented and removed; on the
rarity of human birth, and on true insight etc. Their aim is to strengthen and intensify the spirit of
dispassion and renunciation.

The Conduct of a Monk

The difference between a lay devotee and monk lies not only in the range of applicability of
the great vows but also in the degree of effort required to avoid transgressions and the internal
attainment of a state of equanimity which is possible only by taking formal monastic vows.
The formal assumption of the mahavratas takes place in a ceremony called diksha (initiation)
or pravrajya (renunciation). It is an occasion of great importance for the whole community which
celebrates it with pomp, and religious acts like Jina-worship, charities etc. are undertaken by the lay
members and in honour of the new monk. During the ceremony proper scriptural texts are recited and
after total renunciation by the candidate, he is given ( in Swetambara sect ) three large pieces of cloth,
a broom called rajoharana made of woolen tufts ( or peacock feathers in Digambaras) for gently
removing insects, a begging bowl, a blanket, a staff, a cloth to cover the mouth in some sects, and few
books. A totally unique feature of Diksha in Jainism is kesa-loca i.e removing hair from one’s own
head by pulling them out. It is said to have been performed by Mahavira and signifies the monk’s
determination to successfully meet with the severe demands of the ascetic life.
Of the mahavratas ahimsa or non-violence, of course, is the most important. Jainism
recognizes not only living beings having one to five senses, but also elemental bodies. Sthavaras in
air, water, earth and fire. Acharanga sutra states that these bodies suffer as other living beings but can
not express their suffering like a mute person. And a monk is expected to observe ahimsa towards
even these categories of life. Hence apart from refraining from causing overt injury by thought, word
and deed to all living beings, a Jain monk also refrains from such acts as digging, bathing, swimming,
wading through rain or water, lighting or extinguishing fire, fanning oneself, walking on greenery or
touching a living plant.
According to Uttaradhyayana sutra a monk is supposed to sleep for only three hours at night.
His duties consist of meditation, study of scriptures, repentance for sins, begging, careful inspection of
clothes and other articles to avoid insects being harmed. Traditionally Jain monks lead a wandering
life except during four months of rainy season. Separate buildings called upashrayas are constructed
by devotees where monks can stay for longer or shorter periods.
Subsidiary to the mahavrats, there are certain restrictions (guptis) and rules of conduct
(samitis) which are aimed at avoiding pitfalls in observance of mahavratas. Guptis refer to progressive
curbing of the activities of body, speech and mind. These take the form of observance of long hours of
silence, remaining motionless for hours at a stretch, and the practice of the concentration of mind.
Samitis consist in carefulness while walking, speaking, accepting alms, handling objects and attending
the calls of nature.
The life of a monk is one of troubles and hardships. He must depend on others for his basic
needs. Not being a part of ordinary society he may not be acceptable to many. He must therefore have
a clear knowledge of all these difficulties which he has voluntarily accepted as part of his life, and
must bear them with equanimity and patience. These hardships are called parishaha and a list of
twenty-two items like heat and cold, hunger and thirst, insect bites, lack of comfortable lodging place,
illness, refusal of alms, insults and temptations is given in the scriptures.
Tapas or austerities form a very important part of the life of not only the monastic but also the
lay Jain devotes. So great a stress is laid on tapas that it is included with the triratana as the fourth
pillar of Jainism. While vratas, guptis and samitis effectively prevent further influx of karmic
impurities (samvara), tapas is the most effective positive means for the rapid elimination of already
accumulated karmas (nirjara). In all there are twelve austerities, six being external and six internal.
External austerities mainly consist of fasting and rules regarding food, control of palate, begging,
mortification of flesh and living in unfrequented places. Of greater importance, however, are the
internal austerities. They are repentance, humility, service, study, meditation and relinquishing the
body to fate without moving the limbs.

The Jain Society

It is remarkable that of the various non-Vedic traditions, Jainism alone has been able to survive
and prosper in India upto the present day. Jains have managed to keep both their tradition and
community intact. The survival of Jainism under heavy odds had been possible due to royal patronage
during the early part of its history, due to the ability of its Acharyas to constructively compromise with
Hindu influence and due to internal reform movements.
One of the saving factors in Jainism had been the active role played by its lay community. In
spite of difference in rules, regulations and life-style, the monastic and lay devotees are socially
closely interlinked and effectively influence each other. In some sects the lay devotees assemble at the
place where the acharya with his subordinate monks stay for chaturmasa, not only for spiritual
instructions but also to discuss the questions facing the community at large. The learned among the
householders, well versed in the scriptures, are even free to point out the imperfections in the conduct
of the monks. This watchfulness of the laity has, to a large extent, prevented the decline of the moral
conduct of the monastics.
The total number of Jains of all sects in India according to 1981 census is around 3.2 millions.
But on account of their wealth and education Jains are of greater importance than their numbers.
Mostly Jains belong to the merchant class or to the sedentary professions. Digambaras are chiefly
found in South India while the headquarters of Swetambara sect is Gujarat. Splendid temples, some of
which rank among the architectural wonders of India, bear testimony to their wealth and religious zeal.

Conclusion:

Jains as a class are peace-loving, committed to non-violence and strong advocates of

vegetarianism. Their metaphysical theory of reality as multi-faced called anekantvada and the
consequent logical doctrine of syadvad which states that every judgment is limited and relative, has
made them tolerant and respectful towards the opinion of others. And these traits have not remained
without influencing Indian scene at large. In this connection it may be mentioned that Mahatma
Gandhi, the greatest modern champion of non-violence, was deeply influenced by Jainism through the
renowned Jain lay-saint Srimad Rajchandra.
Each religion of the world has something unique to contribute to the grand orchestra of world
Religions. And non-violence is the special contribution of Jainism.

Jaina pratika; symbol of the Jaina faith, officially adopted during the 2,500th anniversary of
Mahavira’s nirvana (1975). The palm of the hand bears the work ahimsa; the svastika topped by three
dots and the crescent represent the four destinies, the threefold path, and the abode of the liberated
souls, respectively; the slogan below the figure of lokakasa calls for the mutual assistance of all
beings. parasparopagraho jivanam