Metallic Materials. Topic 3. Metal Forming II Metal Forming Processes

Metallic Materials.
Topic 3: Metal Forming II

CIENCIA E INGENIERÍA DE MATERIALES
AEROSPACE MATERIALS II
METALLIC MATERIALS. TOPIC 3. Metal
Forming II
Metal Forming Processes
1. Metal Forming Processes

2. Rolling
• Cold Rolling
• Hot Rolling
3. Forging
4. Extrusion
5. Drawing
6. Sheet forming processes
7. Formability
Dpt. Materials Sci. and Eng. and Chemical Eng. UC3M Aerospace Materials II
Metallic Materials. Topic 3: Metal Forming II
1. Metal Forming Processes
▪ Bulk forming processes F

◼ Rolling (• •) Compressive v
◼ Forging (•) forces
◼ Extrusion (• •)
◼ Drawing (•) speed of deformation [1-50] m/s F forging
wire or rod
rolling
RAM
Compression F
extrusion drawing Tension
▪ Sheet forming processes
◼ Deep drawing
◼ Bending
◼ Shearing (punching, cutting, blanking, bending shearing
slitting)
◼ Other sheet forming operations
(stretch forming, rubber forming,
superplastic forming, spinning etc.)
deep drawing
2. Rolling
Thickness reduction (or cross-section change) by passing a profile of constant cross section
(bloom/billet/slab) through a set of rollers. In addition, there is an increase of the projected
area of the initial preform. Rolling of materials arising from continuous casting
Dpt. Materials Sci. and Eng. and Chemical Eng. UC3M 3 Aerospace Materials II
2. Rolling
Semi-finished
casting products
2. Rolling
Different configurations of the rollers
Hot rolling (primary) Cold rolling– Sheets
 [0.6-1.4] m
Roller design:
• They must ensure a uniform deformation of the cross-section. When pressure is applied,
rollers will tend to bend or comb → NON uniform deformation→ slab thicker at the center than
at the sides → Rollers are usually milled with a larger central diameter.
• Smaller diameter rollers provide a better contact with the metal. ⇒ Problem: the rollers are
more easily bent (need to use extra rollers to support).
2. Rolling
Advantage: No material losses; high strength components; compressive stresses

(that increase fatigue life).
Process of rolling screw threads
2. Rolling
Defects in Rolling
Roll Bending Spreading of a Strip
Bending of straight cylindrical

rolls, caused by the roll force,
causing non-uniform strip
thickness (Defect known as
crown).
Bending of rolls, and ground at Increase in the width (spreading) of a strip in

the edges (camber), producing a flat rolling
strip with uniform thickness
2. Rolling: Defects in Rolling
Rollers with insufficient camber (crown)

Central part ends with a larger thickness →
Large plastic deformation in the
edges.Consequences of thicker centre (a):
▪ Compressive stresses at the edges and tensile

in the central part (a).
▪ Cracks in the centre of the strip (c)
▪ buckling-twisting of the strip (d)
▪ wavy edges (e)
Rollers with excessive camber

Edges end with larger thickness than central
part → Large plastic deformation of the central
part-. Consequences of thicker edges (a):
▪ Compressive stresses in the central part and

tensile in the edges (b).
▪ Edge cracks (c)
▪ Central cracks (d)
▪ Wavy centre (wrinkling) (e)
2. Rolling
Cold Rolling
• Good surface finish and

dimensional tolerance.
• Good mechanical properties. Work
hardening.
• Higher compressive forces than in
hot rolling required: Rolling mills.
More complex roller mix.
2. Rolling
Cold Rolling
Cold Rolling of Bi-metallic strip of Al-1.0Si/ Al-Fe-Mn
After cold rolling

(generation of bimetallic Al-Si/Al-Fe
band by rolling)
After annealing at 600ºC for 30min
Rolled state Rolling + Annealing

2. Rolling: Residual Stresses
Cold Rolling
Deformation of the material → not homogeneous and residual stresses are developed
Residual stresses: Necessary to eliminate or reduce them. Surface residual stresses → detrimental for
fatigue life
To reduce residual stresses: annealing or introduce mechanical stresses that are opposite to the residual
stresses (surface shot peening of surfaces with residual tensile stresses).
Deformation of the surface (small rolls or Deformation of the whole volume (large
at small reductions in thickness per pass) rolls or at high reductions per pass)
The rest of the cross-section remains undeformed. The → the slab nucleus is left under compression and
external surfaces tend to expand but the internal material pulls the surfaces, that are left under tension.
impedes their deformation → surface compressive → Very detrimental for fatigue
residual stresses. → Improved fatigue life
2. Rolling: Residual Stresses
Cold Rolling Ex. Mechanical properties of cold-worked Al alloys
3003: Aluminium with manganese H1x: The second digit indicates hardening
-O: Annealed as follows:
H1: Means strain hardened only 2 1/4 hard
4 I/2 hard
6 3/4 hard
8 full hard
9 extra hard
https://www.aircraftspruce.com/catalog/mepages/aluminfo.php
2. Rolling: Microstructure
Cold Rolling
Grain-flow lines in machined and rolled threads
machined-thread
rolled- thread
Machined threads: Rolled threads: Grains become

denser at the critical parts of
Material removed is cut the thread →stronger, because
through the grains of the of the cold working involved.
metal → Weakening
Compressive stresses in the
surface → Improving fatigue life
2. Rolling
Hot Rolling
• Recrystallization simultaneous
with deformation.
• High amount of deformation
without embrittlement.
• Higher toughness, strength
and ductility.
• Less stresses required than in
cold rolling.
• Smaller equipment but more
energy required to heat the
piece
2. Rolling
Hot Rolling
Transformation of cast products (initially blooms, billets, slabs or other

geometrical forms)
• The ingot structure is eliminated (recrystallization), porosity (casting
blowouts),
• impurities and inclusions are homogeneously dispersed and refined.
• The final product usually requires finishing operations –due to surface
oxidation-.
2. Rolling
Hot Rolling
Warm Thread Rolling of

Aerospace Fastener
https://www.youtube.com
/watch?v=lzKJv9-jQ-o
3. Forging
It is the oldest method to work metals (year 8000 b.C.),
Forged in Fire
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B4EHlMgT54k
Season 5 Launch Promo
Samurai sword making https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VE_4zHNcieM
Hand forged KATANA Forged Medieval Sword Custom Hand made forged
Japanese samurai sword Damascus Steel knife
Heat Treatment
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6jQ4y0LK1kY
The science of Forging
3.Forging
Deformation process (almost always hot). Compressive force is applied by

The material is pressed: hammer blows using a power
- between two dies hammer or a press.
- applying impacts
- continuous and gradual pressure Forging has the capacity to refine
Metals with very simple geometry → products the grain structure and improve the
of complex configuration. physical properties of the metal.
Parts with excellent properties and with

minimal wastage.
Forging products:
Consistent, without the defects of
porosity, inclusion or voids.
Finishing operations: Machining and
coating operations like painting or plating
can also be done very easily.
FORGABILITY: Capacity to sustain plastic

deformation without cracking.
3. Forging
Open forging (upsetting): a solid workpiece is placed between two

flat dies and the height is reduced by compression. Scarce accuracy.
Hot Upsetting Test: Upsetting test in which the height reduction is

measured down to the point of cracking.
Impression-die forging: two dies are brought together. The work piece is subjected to
plastic deformation till its enlarged sides touch the die side walls. Materials then begins to flow
outside the die (flash). Workpiece acquires the shape of die cavities (closing dies)
• Control of the volume to fill the dies. Flashes  control metal flow in the dies
• Higher forces than open forging.
3. Forging
Precision or Closed-die forging: Material is deformed in a cavity that allows little or

no escape of excess material, thus placing greater demands on die design. The dies has
the final shape of the part: Near-net shape.
Greater control of the volume to fill the dies .
More powerful of equipment.
3. Forging
(c)
Die forging process

(open and close die)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YobXFODkp50
5·104 t press
3. Forging: Microstructure
Material flow takes place under the effect of P Flow lines: Patterns that reveal
and T, leaving grain flow lines in the how the grain structure follows the
microstructure of the part direction of working in a forging
Grain flow lines in upsetting a solid

steel cylinder:
Barrelling and inhomogeneous
deformation, as a result of the contact
with the cooled die at the bottom of the A pierced round billet, showing grain
part→less deformation but higher strength, flow pattern.
3. Forging: Microstructure
Grain Flow Comparison
casting machining forging
No grain flow or Unidirectional grain Alignment oriented

directional strength flow. in a direction
requiring maximum
strength
A part made by three different processes, showing grain flow.
3. Forging: Defects in forged parts
Defects in Forged Parts

Upsetting: solid material
compressed between to flat-
dies (open-die forging)
Uniform ideal deformation of a

solid cylindrical billet without
friction.
Deformation with friction at the

die-workpiece interfaces
(barreling of the billet)
3. Forging: Defects in forged parts
Insufficient material Laps formed by web buckling during forging; web

thickness should be increased to avoid this problem.
Rib: Flow parallel to die
motion Not enough material Pressure produces bucking
to fill the cavity of thin sections
Web: Horizontal flow
Excess of material
Internal defects caused by oversized billet; die cavities are filled prematurely,
and the material at the centre flows past the filled regions as the dies close.
3. Forging
Example: Connecting rod
3. Forging
Alloy forgeability
Most of the metals and alloys

can be forged at elevated
temperatures and
forgeability is the term used
to measure this behavior.
Forgeability refers to the

ease with which the metal
deforms plastically.
5. Forging
Forging Applications
Automotive connecting rods
Landing gear parts for aircrafts

Rail road wheels
4. Extrusion
Extrusion process: A round billet is forced through a

die opening of the desired shape by a ram or hydraulic
press. It is used for manufacturing long and straight
metal parts with uniform cross-section.
Features :
✓ Can be hot or cold
✓ Cost effective: Minimizes the need for secondary machining process.
✓ As tensile force is not applied (compressive forces), this makes high deformation without
actually tearing the metal a possibility.
✓ Cross-section: Wide variety of cross-sections can be made: solid round, rectangular, to T
shapes, L shapes and Tubes etc
Limitations:
 Constant cross-section
 Risk of surface cracks or central fracture due to excessive pressure
Cold Hot
• Hardening  Mechanical • Oxidation
properties • Solid lubricant:
• Good surface finish graphite, Mo
• Good dimensional control • Complex shapes
4. Extrusion
Direct Extrusion: Extruded product in the same direction that applied force
▪ Billet slides relative to the container wall.
▪ Wall friction increases the ram force.
Indirect Extrusion: Extruded product in the opposite direction of applied force

▪Die moves toward the unextruded billet
▪ No relative motion at the billet-/container interface
▪ Less friction (and force)
4. Extrusion
4. Extrusion
E.g.: Microstructure of Extruded Parts
Production steps for a Cold Extruded Spark

Plug
Cross-section of cold extruded spark plug,

showing the grain flow pattern
4. Extrusion
Defects in Extruded Parts: Cracks
Chevron cracking (or central burst or arrowhead

Typical extrusion defects:
fracture) in extruded round steel bars. • Surface cracking
• Pipe
(a) • Internal cracking (chevron
cracking)
(b)
Attributed to tensile stress at the centre line in

the deformation zone
This defect can also develop in the drawing of
rod, of wire, and of tubes.
5. Drawing
Cross-sectional area reduced by

pulling through a hole of a die
Features Pulling (instead of Pushing)

▪ Rod, wire and tube drawing
▪ Cold →  Strength, good surface finish, dimensional control
▪ Material’s strength imposes restrictions:
▪ intermediate annealings are required between reduction stages.
▪ Usually both amount of reduction (0-45%) and deformation rate (1-50 m/s)
are limited
Intermediate Annealing
Shearing
• Shearing: Sheet metal is cut by subjecting it to
shear stresses using a punch and a die
(shearing operations: punching, blanking,
perforating, slitting, notching)
• Bending
• Deep drawing: punch forces a sheet metal
blank into a die cavity forming a cup
Deep drawing
Bending
• Rubber forming: One of the dies is made of a

flexible material (polyurethane membrane)
• Hydroforming: one of the dies is a rubber
membrane filled with a fluid (oil)
• Explosive forming: sheet metal blank is
clamped over a die and placed into a water tank.
An explosive charge is detonated
Rubber forming
Hydroforming
Explosive forming
• Superplastic forming/diffusion bonding:

– Some metals (Al-Zn alloys, Ti alloys) exhibit superplasticity: they can experience tensile
elongation of 2000% in certain temperature ranges
– Superplastic alloys can by formed into complex shapes by superplastic forming
(employment of metal working techniques as well as polymer processing techniques)
Flat sheets are diffusion

bonded at high T. “Stop off”s
are used to prevent bonding in
selected locations
Structure is expanded using

pressurized gas (Ar)
• Complex shapes, fine detail and

close tolerance, no residual stresses;
forming times are long, hence
production rates are low
Methods of manufacturing honeycomb structures
(a) Expansion process

(b) Corrugation process
(c) Assembling a honeycomb structure into a laminate.
Honeycomb structures:
• Lightweight to allow optimal
aerodynamics
• Strong to ensure safety
• Withstand the physical forces of
flying
• Heat resistant to ensure
structural changes are kept to a
minimum.
Wing skin Honeycomb panel
Bending of sheet metals: Effect of elongated inclusions
The effect of elongated inclusions (stringers) on cracking as a function of the

direction of bending with respect to the original rolling direction of the sheet.
This example shows the importance of the direction of cutting from large
sheets in workpieces that are subsequently bent to make a product.
Cracks on the outer radius of

an aluminum strip bent to an
angle of 90˚. Note the
narrowing of the tope surface
due to the Poisson effect.
7. Formability of a metal
Formability depends on:

▪ Load required for yielding
▪ Reduced by increasing temperature
▪ Material ductility
▪ Ability to stand tensile stress without cracking
▪ Stress system imposed by forming
▪ Some processes more suitable than others for less ductile materials
• Formability decreases with increasing melting temperature

– Low formability - tungsten
– Good formability - tin, lead, zinc
• Ductility increases with number of slip planes
– fcc - large number of slip planes with low tcrss, Al, Cu
– bcc - large number of slip planes but high tcrss, Fe, Cr
– hcp - limited slip planes with low tcrss, Mg, Zn
7. Formability of a metal
Alloying effect on Formability

Temperature
Melting temperature
Tm
▪ Increasing alloying level and
complexity
◼ Usually lowers melting point
Hot working
◼ Raises work hardening rate
range
▪ Generally higher alloy levels
and more complex alloys are
more difficult to form
Alloy content %
Recommended lectures
Helpful readings for this lecture :

– Kalpakjian, Schmid. “Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials” (5th ed).
Pearson Education, 2008.
– M.P. Groover. “Fundamentals of modern manufacturing: materials, processes, and
systems”. Prentice Hall, 1996
– M.F. Ashby, et al. “Materials: engineering, science, processing and design”. Elsevier,
2007.
– http://www-materials.eng.cam.ac.uk/mpsite/
– http://manufacturing.stanford.edu/

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Metallic Materials.

Topic 3: Metal Forming II

1. Metal Forming Processes

▪ Bulk forming processes F

Different configurations of the rollers

Hot rolling (primary) Cold rolling– Sheets

Advantage: No material losses; high strength components; compressive stresses

Roll Bending Spreading of a Strip

Bending of straight cylindrical

Bending of rolls, and ground at Increase in the width (spreading) of a strip in

Rollers with insufficient camber (crown)

▪ Compressive stresses at the edges and tensile

Rollers with excessive camber

▪ Compressive stresses in the central part and

• Good surface finish and

After cold rolling

Rolled state Rolling + Annealing

Cold Rolling Ex. Mechanical properties of cold-worked Al alloys

Grain-flow lines in machined and rolled threads

Machined threads: Rolled threads: Grains become

Transformation of cast products (initially blooms, billets, slabs or other

Warm Thread Rolling of

It is the oldest method to work metals (year 8000 b.C.),

Samurai sword making https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VE_4zHNcieM

Deformation process (almost always hot). Compressive force is applied by

Parts with excellent properties and with

FORGABILITY: Capacity to sustain plastic

Open forging (upsetting): a solid workpiece is placed between two

Hot Upsetting Test: Upsetting test in which the height reduction is

Precision or Closed-die forging: Material is deformed in a cavity that allows little or

Die forging process

Grain flow lines in upsetting a solid

Grain Flow Comparison

casting machining forging

No grain flow or Unidirectional grain Alignment oriented

A part made by three different processes, showing grain flow.

Defects in Forged Parts

Uniform ideal deformation of a

Deformation with friction at the

Insufficient material Laps formed by web buckling during forging; web

Web: Horizontal flow

Example: Connecting rod

Most of the metals and alloys

Forgeability refers to the

Automotive connecting rods

Landing gear parts for aircrafts

Extrusion process: A round billet is forced through a

Indirect Extrusion: Extruded product in the opposite direction of applied force

E.g.: Microstructure of Extruded Parts

Production steps for a Cold Extruded Spark

Cross-section of cold extruded spark plug,

Defects in Extruded Parts: Cracks

Chevron cracking (or central burst or arrowhead

Attributed to tensile stress at the centre line in

Cross-sectional area reduced by

Features Pulling (instead of Pushing)

• Rubber forming: One of the dies is made of a

• Superplastic forming/diffusion bonding:

Flat sheets are diffusion

Structure is expanded using

• Complex shapes, fine detail and

Methods of manufacturing honeycomb structures

(a) Expansion process