Metallic Materials TOPIC 2. Metal Casting

Universidad
Carlos III de Madrid AEROSPACE MATERIALS II

www.uc3m.es CIENCIA E INGENIERÍA DE MATERIALES
METALLIC MATERIALS
TOPIC 2. Metal Casting
1. Important factors
2. Classification
3. Expendable-Mould
4. Permanent Moulds
5. Directional solidification
6. Process comparison
7. Problems
Dpt. Materials Sci. and Eng. and Chemical Eng. UC3M Aerospace Materials II
Metallic Materials. Topic 2: Casting
Casting
Casting a Fire Ant Colony with Molten Aluminum

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8Xvsxarw-J0
1. Casting: Important factors
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
• Produces complex shapes • Generally inferior properties than
(internal cavities or hollow wrought products
sections) • Anisotropic
• Can Produce range of sizes • Dimensional precision may be affected
(small to big) by metal shrinkage during solidification
• Can be used in many materials • Prone to defects (micro/macro
that cannot be shaped by any segregation, shrinkage porosity, gas
other means entrapment)
• Can be used for mass production • Surface finish depends on mold quality
• Inexpensive • High initial cost
1. Casting: stages of alloy processing
MINERAL OR SCRAP
METAL EXTRACTION (METALLURGY)
PURE METALS
Fe, Al, Cu, Ti
METAL ALLOYS
MELTING AND CASTING

SOLIDIFICATION
FINAL SHAPE PREFORM

PLASTIC
DEFORMATION
FINAL SHAPE
FINISHING
Thermal Treatment
Themomechanical Treatments
Surface Treatment
2. Casting Processes: classification
Mold type
Expendable molds Permanents molds Single Crystals
•Sand •Die (gravity /pressure)

• Directional solidification (DS)
•Shell/plaster •Centrifugal
•Singles Crystals
•Investment (Lost wax) •Squeeze
•Continuous casting
Parameters that determine the casting process:

▪ Size, weight, volume of material
▪ Number of pieces manufactured
▪ Metal (steel has Tm= 1600ºC and Al has Tm=
700ºC)
▪ Required surface finish
▪ Cost!!!
2. Casting Processes: classification
Sand casting Centrifugal casting
Die casting Squeeze casting
investment casting
3. Casting Processes: Expendable-Mold. Sand Casting
Sand Casting Composition: SiO2 + (binders) Clay (7%) + Water (3%)
Properties of mold material:

1. Good refractory properties and thermal stability when the melt is poured
2. Grain size and distribution: small grain provides good finish, but restricts the
permeability o gases
3. Erosion resistance
4. Retractable – capacity of mold to let casting contract without cracking
5. Recyclable
8
Pouring basin: Where molten metal is

poured
Sprue: Tapered vertical channel through

which the molten metal flows downwards in
the mold.
Gating system: Runners and gates.
Cope and Drag: Top and bottom parts of Runners: Channels to carry the molten metal
a two part casting flask. from the sprue in to the mold cavity. Connect the
sprue to the gate.
Core print: Region added to the pattern,
core or mold which is used to locate and Gates: Portion of the runner through which the
support the core within the mold. molten metal enters the mold cavity.
Core: Sand body that is inserted into the Riser: Serve as reservoirs of molten metal to
mold to produce the internal features of supply any molten metal necessary to prvent
casting. (example: holes) porosity due to shrinkage during solidification.
VIDEO https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pwaXCko_Tkw
Dpt. Materials Sci. and Eng. and Chemical Eng. UC3M Aerospace Materials11
II
Transmission valve body

Examples:
Castings of gray iron used in automobile applications
Materials:
Almost all materials can be sand cast.
Ferrous and non-ferrous metals, most commonly
using cast iron, carbon steel, alloy steel, stainless
steel, aluminum alloys, and copper alloys.
Size:
From very small to extremely large
3. Casting Processes: Expendable-Mold. Shell Casting
Similar to sand casting but the mold is a thin-walled shell created from applying a sand-resin
mixture around a pattern.
Size: small to medium

3. Casting Processes: Expendable-Mold. Investment Casting
Investment Casting ▪ Complicated geometry

(lost wax) ▪ Narrow dimensional accuracy
▪ Good surface finish
▪ Recovery of wax
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UrUsaGussfc
Moulds for wax patterns wax patterns Molds, after wax removal and sintering
Pouring Cast with sprues and

feeding channels Propeller
Investment Casting (lost wax) examples
Wax pattern Cut-away of Cut-away Finished

of turbine rotor ceramic mold showing turbine rotor,
applied over wax melted near-net shape
wax pattern out of mold.
(Metal then
poured into mold.)
II
• Mould characteristics: Material and geometry

▪ Material with high temperature resistance: thermal stability
▪ Chemically inert: chemical stability
▪ Capable of producing a cavity with the component final shape, does not
impede metal contraction during solidification
▪ Good distribution of pouring cup, feeders and sprue, risers, vent channels...
▪ Grain size: determined surface finish and gas removal capability
• Heat dissipation. Mold wall thickness

▪ Determines cooling rate and hence SDAS
and mechanical properties
▪ Removal of gases
SDAS (Secondary Dendrite Arm Spacing)
Depends on:
Cross-section and microstructure of two
Solidification time and cooling rate rotors: (top) investment-cast; (bottom)
Dpt. Materials Sci. and Eng. and Chemical Eng. UC3M
conventionally cast. Aerospace Materials II
4. Casting Processes: Permanent Molds
Type of mould
Permanent moulds
• Die casting (pressure or gravity)

• Centrifugal casting
• Squeeze casting
• Continuos casting
▪ Automatic processes, high production

rate for simple parts.
▪ Expensive for short productions due to ▪ Molds can be used several
initial investment in mold times.
▪ Normally applied to low meting point ▪ Good surface finish
alloys:Al, Mg, Cu ▪ Good tolerances
▪ Good mechanical properties
(high cooling rate)
4. Casting Processes: Permanent Molds. Die casting
Gravity die casting

Molten metal is poured by gravity (e.g. without pressure)
Mold materials: Cast Iron, steel, bronze, graphite or refractory metals
Cores (inner parts of the mould) are generally made of bonded sand.
Suitable for castings requiring complex intricate coring
Gravity casting (pressureless) ~30% of the total production of

permament mold castings
4. Casting Processes: Permanent Molds. Pressure Die casting
Pressure Die casting

Molten metal is forced into a metallic die cavity using pressure.
▪ A hydraulic cylinder is used to inject liquid metal in the mould
▪ Pressure is usually maintained until metal is solidified
▪ Dies can be water-cooled
▪ Pressure can be applied in vertical or horizontal configuration
▪ Two types: Hot chamber / Cold chamber
P hot chamber <P cold chamber
Examples of pressure die cast components: motors, valve

bodies, appliance components, hand tools, toys
VIDEO https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Pj_mjjUQad8
Hot chamber
Hot chamber or Gooseneck machines

• Metal is forced into the die through a
gooseneck and nozzle which is heated
• Also called low pressure casting
• Low melting point alloys (Zn, Sn, Pb)
• Lower pressure than cold chamber
• Suited to the production of axisymmetric
components (i.e. automotive wheels)
• ~ 20 % of the total production of permanent
mold castings
Cold chamber
Cold chamber
• Injection cylinder not heated
• Also called high pressure
casting
• Metal is poured into the shot
sleeve (which is not heated) and
then introduced into the mold
cavity using a hydraulically-
driven piston.
• Larger pressure required to
maintain the chamber closed
• Higher melting point alloys (Al,
Mg, Cu)
• ~ 50 % of the total production of
permanent mold castings
• High volume at high speed

• Duplicates intricate design details
• No pattern
• Long mold life: ~100,000 cycles
Chassis of
a
motorcycle
II
• High volume at high speed

• Duplicates intricate design details
• No pattern
• Long mold life: ~100,000 cycles
Chassis of
a
motorcycle
II
4. Casting Processes: Permanent Molds. Centrifugal casting
Utilizes inertial forces caused by rotation to distribute molten metal into the
mold cavities
Mold
Roller
motor
Horizontal Horizontal in sand
Examples: pipes, cylinder liners, and similarly VIDEO

shaped parts can be cast by this process. The
process is used for long pipelines for the chemical https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=
industry and jet engine compressor cases. o4vkUHb91H0
4. Casting Processes: Permanent Molds. Centrifugal casting
27
4. Casting Processes: Permanent Molds. Squeeze casting
Solidification of molten metal under high pressure  combination of casting and

forging. (Pressure: > die casting, < cold forging) P 50-150 MPa
Examples: car wheels https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LCMs-7K8nLk
•Fine microstructure  Good mechanical •Complex shapes. Near net-shape

properties, larger elongation and toughness processing (finishing operations not required)
(properties close to wrought parts) •Good surface finish
•Limited microporosity, shrinkage cavities •Good dimensional accuracy
and porosity •Ferrous and non-ferous alloys (with high
•Without turbulence and without gas solidification range: fluidity problems
entrapment overcome by pressure)
4. Casting Processes: Permanent Molds. Continuous casting
Solidification speed  Casting speed
Essential to control the pouring rate!!!
Dpt. Materials Sci. and Eng. and Chemical Eng. UC3M 30 Aerospace Materials II
31
5. Casting Processes: Directional solidification/single crystals
DEVELOPMENTS IN CASTINGS OF GAS TURBINE BLADES
Nickel-base super-alloys 182
From Investment casting to

Single crystal casting
Investment
casting
(lost wax) Directional
solidification
DIRECTIONAL SOLIDIFICATION
The blade is directionally Consequently the blade is

solidified, with longitudinal stronger in the direction of the
but no transverse grain centrifugal forces developed in
boundaries. the gas turbine.
Turbine blades progressed (left to right) from equiaxed, to

directional solidified, to single crystal. (Photo courtesy of
Howmet Corp.)
If directional solidification
proceeds via a corkscrew
bottleneck, a single crystal
is produced
5. Casting Processes: Directional solidification
▪ Mold is usually prepared by the investment casting method

▪ Columnar grain structure. No transverse grain boundaries.
Textured structure in the <100> direction
▪ Solidification occurs in a temperature gradient with slow controlled
movement of the liquid/solid interface.
▪ Grains grow parallel to the heat flow direction.
Advantages :
1. Greater creep resistance due to the disappearance of grain
boundaries perpendicular to the stress direction (where crack
nucleation occurs)
2. Greater thermal fatigue properties, due to lower elastic modulus
in one direction
Refrigerated turbine blades: directionally solidified Ni suoperalloys with Hf

to improve oxidation resistance and to avoid intergranular cracking during
solidification
5. Casting Processes: Turbine Blades made of Ni superalloys
Blades are manufactured in Ni superalloys:

1. Creep life is limited by grain boundaries
because they tend to fail in these areas
under P and T.
2. Columnar structure better than equiaxed.
3. Single-crystal better than columnar structure
Sand casting Vs die casting alloy AC43100 (Al-10%Si-0.4%Mg)
Gravity die casting Sand casting
Locations from the top (T),

• Gravity die casting: microstructure is middle (M) and bottom have
finer due to higher cooling rate variations in local solidification
• Secondary phases are shorter and times which are related to
better dispersed for shorter SDAS variations in thickness
• Finer microstructure: better
mechanical properties T M B
Timesolidif ication (s) 260 470 610
Thickness (mm) 12 20 28
Seifeddine et al. Metallurgical Sciebce and Technology, vol.25, nº1, 2007
Permanent molds: AC43100 Al alloy (Al-10%Si-0.4%Mg)

influence of pressure
Application of pressure causes:

- Increase in melting point of metal
- Increase in cooling rate (better contact
between the metal and the die surface
causes better heat transfer) No pressure
- Reduction of cavities and shrinkage
porosity
- Improved surface finish
With pressure
Permanent molds: influence of pressure
LM13 (Al-12%Si) alloy
As-cast microstructures of: As-cast surface quality of:

(a) squeeze cast (a) squeeze cast as-cast structure of LM24 (Al-8%Si-3.5%Cu) alloy :
(b) gravity cast. (b) gravity cast specimen. (a) squeeze cast (b) conventional.
M.R. Ghomashchi, A. Vikhrov. J. Mater. Process. Tech.

Ashiri et al. J alloys and compounds, vol.425, 2009 101 , 2000

2024 wrought Al alloy (4 %Cu-1%Mg)
Gravity casting Squeeze casting: (a) 30 MPa, (b) 50 MPa and (c) 70 MPa (Tpouring =750ºC, Tdie=250ºC)
E. Hajjari & M. Divandari, Mater. & Design, 29, 2008
Effect of external pressure on the SDAS of

primary phase of squeeze cast LM13 alloy
Effect of external pressure on the microstructure of squeeze

cast LM13 (Al-12%Si) alloy: (a) 0 (atmospheric pressure), (b)
20MPa, (c) 53MPa, (d) 106MPa, (e) 171MPa, (f) 211MPa (Tm
= 730 ◦C and Tdie = 200 ◦C).
Malek i et al. Materials Science and Engineering A, 428, 2006 Effect of external pressure on the hardness of
squeeze cast LM13 alloy (Tm = 730 ◦C and Tdie =
Malek i et al. J. Mater. Process. Tech,, 209, 2009
200 ◦C).
SDAS in different casting methods
A356 alloy (Al-7%Si-0-3%Mg)
Bogdanoff and Dahlström. Univ de Jönköping, 2009
Magnesium alloy AZ91(Mg–9%Al-1%Zn)
Al alloys
Hu J. Mater. Science, 33, 1988
6. Casting processes: Process comparison
Costs Comparison for Different Casting Processes
•Economic comparison of making a part by different casting processes.

•Note that because of the high cost of equipment, die casting is
economical for large production runs.
•Source: The North American Die Casting Association.
Section /
Material Weight (kg) Surface Shape thickness
Porosity Dimensional
Process (to be roughness complexity (mm)
(*) accuracy (*)
cast) (μm, Ra) (*)
Mín. Máx. Mín. Máx.
No No
Sand All 0,05 5-25 4 1-2 3 3
limit limit
Investment All 0,005 100+ 1-3 3 1 1 1 75
Non
Die casting <0,05 50 1-2 1-2 3-4 1 0,5 12
ferrous
Centrifugal All - 5000+ 2-10 1-2 3-4 3 2 100
(*) 1: the best, 5: the worst.
Dpt. Materials Sci. and Eng. and Chemical Eng. UC3M Aerospace
48 Materials II
Costs Production rate

Process Mould (components /
Equipment Labor hour)
(die)
Sand L L L-M <20

Investment M-H B-M H <1000
Die casting H H L-M <200
Centrifugal M H L-M <50
L  Low
M  Medium
H  High
49
Process Advantages Limitations

Sand Almost any metal cast; no limit Some finishing required;
to size, shape or weight; low somewhat coarse finish; wide
tooling cost. tolerances.
Expendable pattern Most metals cast with no limit Patterns have low strength and
to size; complex shapes can be costly for low quantities
Ceramic mold Intricate shapes; close Limited size.
tolerance parts; good surface
finish.
Summary of Investment Intricate shapes; excellent Part size limited; expensive
surface finish and accuracy; patterns, molds, and labor.
Casting
almost any metal cast.
Processes Permanent mold Good surface finish and High mold cost; limited shape
dimensional accuracy; low and intricacy; not suitable for
porosity; high production rate. high-melting-point metals.
Die Excellent dimensional accuracy Die cost is high; part size
and surface finish; high limited; usually limited to
production rate. nonferrous metals; long lead
time.
Centrifugal Large cylindrical parts with Equipment is expensive; part
good quality; high production shape limited.
rate.
50
Tsarsky Kolokol (Tsar Bell) Made of bronze by metal casting

between 1733 and 1735. The bell was broken in 1737 and has
never been rung. The bell is currently the largest bell in the world
( more than 200 tons)
51
Examples / Applications
Transmission box
Cylinder head (BMW)
Aluminum piston for an internal combustion

Cylinder block (VW Lupo) engine. (a) As cast; (b) after machining. 52
Examples / Applications
A cast transmission housing.
Compressor Case for a jet engine:

• Originally: multi-component weldment.
•Now: 2-part cast component Company
converted all of its formerly welded cases
to castings; this reduced by 27,000 the
number of parts in one single engine.
Example: Casting
Solidification time  Volume 

2
Solidifica tion time = C  
 Surface area 
Chvorinov rule: Describes solidification
time as a function of size and shape
C: constant depending on mould material (density, thermal conductivity, calorific

capacity), cast metal properties (density, calorific capacity, latent heat of fusion),
overheating and mould thickness. It is an empirical constant.
II
Casting: Problems
Solidification times for various shapes
Three pieces being cast have the same

volume but different shapes. One is a
sphere, one is a cube, and other a cylinder
with a height equal to its diameter. If each
cast is using a cylindrical riser, will each part
require the same size riser to ensure proper
feeding?
55
Review of previous concepts
▪ Explain the difference between short and long freezing ranges.

How are they determined? Why are they important?
▪ Foundry men observed that low pouring temperature i.e. low

superheat, promote equiaxed grains over columnar grains. Also,
equiaxed grains become finer as the pouring temperature
decreases. Explain
58
A cooling curve is shown in figure below. Determine:
a) the pouring temperature e) the total solidification time

b) the solidification temperature f) the local solidification time
c) the superheat g) if the cooling curve was obtained at the
d) the cooling rate, just before centre of a casting cube casting
solidification begins (50mmX50mmX50mm), determine the
mold constant, assuming the n=2
61
TO BE CONTINUED….
AEROSPACE MATERIALS II – NEXT CLASS
METALLIC MATERIALS. TOPIC 3. Metal

Forming I
• Metal Forming Fundamentals
• Introduction
• Parameters that affect plastic deformation
• Effects of plastic deformation
• Work hardening
• Cold working
• Recrystallization annealing
• Hot working
• Warm working/ Isothermal forming
• Superplasticity

Metallic Materials TOPIC 2. Metal Casting

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Universidad

Carlos III de Madrid AEROSPACE MATERIALS II

Casting a Fire Ant Colony with Molten Aluminum

METAL EXTRACTION (METALLURGY)

MELTING AND CASTING

FINAL SHAPE PREFORM

Expendable molds Permanents molds Single Crystals

•Sand •Die (gravity /pressure)

Parameters that determine the casting process:

Sand casting Centrifugal casting

Die casting Squeeze casting

Properties of mold material:

Pouring basin: Where molten metal is

Sprue: Tapered vertical channel through

Gating system: Runners and gates.

Transmission valve body

Castings of gray iron used in automobile applications

Size: small to medium

Investment Casting ▪ Complicated geometry

Pouring Cast with sprues and

Investment Casting (lost wax) examples

Wax pattern Cut-away of Cut-away Finished

• Mould characteristics: Material and geometry

• Heat dissipation. Mold wall thickness

• Die casting (pressure or gravity)

▪ Automatic processes, high production

Gravity die casting

Gravity casting (pressureless) ~30% of the total production of

Pressure Die casting

P hot chamber <P cold chamber

Examples of pressure die cast components: motors, valve

Hot chamber or Gooseneck machines

• High volume at high speed

• High volume at high speed

Horizontal Horizontal in sand

Examples: pipes, cylinder liners, and similarly VIDEO

Solidification of molten metal under high pressure  combination of casting and

Examples: car wheels https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LCMs-7K8nLk

•Fine microstructure  Good mechanical •Complex shapes. Near net-shape

Solidification speed  Casting speed

Essential to control the pouring rate!!!

DEVELOPMENTS IN CASTINGS OF GAS TURBINE BLADES

Nickel-base super-alloys 182

From Investment casting to

The blade is directionally Consequently the blade is

Turbine blades progressed (left to right) from equiaxed, to

▪ Mold is usually prepared by the investment casting method

Refrigerated turbine blades: directionally solidified Ni suoperalloys with Hf

Blades are manufactured in Ni superalloys:

Locations from the top (T),

Timesolidif ication (s) 260 470 610

Permanent molds: AC43100 Al alloy (Al-10%Si-0.4%Mg)

Application of pressure causes:

Permanent molds: influence of pressure

LM13 (Al-12%Si) alloy

As-cast microstructures of: As-cast surface quality of:

M.R. Ghomashchi, A. Vikhrov. J. Mater. Process. Tech.

Permanent molds: influence of pressure

E. Hajjari & M. Divandari, Mater. & Design, 29, 2008

Effect of external pressure on the SDAS of

Effect of external pressure on the microstructure of squeeze

SDAS in different casting methods

A356 alloy (Al-7%Si-0-3%Mg)