BMP - Other Welding Processes

BASIC MANUFACTURING
PROCESSES
ME-2010
Credits [3-0-0]
Lesson Plan for the Subject- Basic Manufacturing Processes, 4th Semester,
B.Tech, 2019
No of Cumulative
Modules Topic/Course Content
Classes (Hrs) Classes (Hrs)
Pattern making, pattern materials, allowances , types of
2 1-2
pattern,
Sand casting types, sand cast, moulding procedure, types
2 3,4
of sand, gates and riser (basic design considerations)
Essential properties of moulding sand, core making, types
Module-1 of cores, Essential qualities, core mixtures and binder sand
Foundry Process testing, Mould and core hardness test, fineness test, clay 4 5-8
content test, permeability test, moisture content test, sand
conditioning.
Cleaning of casting and defects in casting 3 9-11
Die casting, precision investment casting, shell moulds,

3 12,13,14
centrifugal casting processes, permanent moulds casting.
Preparation of powder, properties of powder, 2 15,16

Module-3
Powder Metallurgy Fabrication methods & procedure, applications,
2 17,18
advantages.
Lesson Plan for the Subject- Basic Manufacturing Processes, 4th
Semester, B.Tech, 2019, cont.
MID SEMESTER 2019
Hot and cold working of Metals: Basic Principles of hot and cold working of metals. 1 19
Rolling: Types of Rolling, Rolling equipments hot and cold rolling, General deformation
pattern, Pressure and forces in rolling, Distribution of roll pressure, angle of bite, effect of
rolling on microstructure, Rolling defects, Numericals on rolling load and power
4 20-23
Module-2 required for reduction.
Forgings: Smith forging, Drop forging, press forging & Machine forging, Description of
Metal Working Process Presses and hammers,forging defects. 2 24,25
Extrusion: Direct, Indirect and impact extrusion and their applications, Extrusion defects,
Determination of extrusion force.
1 26
Drawing: Wire and rod drawing, Tube drawing, Process variables in drawing process,
Deep drawing, Determination of drawing force.
1 27
Fabrication Processes: Classification, types of welding joints, 1 28
Gas welding principles, types of flames, quipment,techniques of gas cutting. 2 29,30
Electric Arc Welding: Principles of electric welding equipments and electrodes (in brief), 1 31
Module-4 Principles of Inert Gas Welding. TIG, MIG, sub-merged arc welding. Atomic hydrogen
2 32,33
Fabrication Processes: welding, plasma are welding.
Resistance Welding: Principle of forge welding, spot-seam, Projection, Upset-butt
welding, flash welding. Thermit -Welding
2 34,35
Electro-slag welding, friction welding Brazing, Soldering., Welding defects and
inspection
1 36
END SEMESTER 2019-20
Text Book:
1: Manufacturing Technology, P.N.Rao (Tata Mc-Graw Hill, Publication, Co. Ltd.)
2: Manufacturing Processes, J.Kausish, PHI (2 nd Edition)
Reference Books:
1: Manufacturing Technology: Materials, Processes and Equipment: Helmi A. Youssef, Hassan A. El. Hofy and
M.H. Ahmed, CRC Press, 2015
2: Principles of Manufacturing materials and Processes, J.S Campbell, TMH
3: Welding and Welding Technology, R.Little, TMH, 43 rd reprint, 2014
4: Manufacturing Science, A. Ghosh & A.K.Mallick, EWP
5: Elements of Manufacturing Processes, B.S.N. Parasar, R.K. Mittal, PHI
Welding processes cont.
The main difference between TIG (GTAW) welding and AHW is that: in AHW,
the arc is obtained between two Tungsten electrodes in stead of between the
tungsten electrode and workpiece.
Atomic Hydrogen Welding (AHW) cont.
Atomic Hydrogen Welding (AHW) is an inert gas shielded arc-welding process
where: (a) the electrode is non-consumable, (b) shielding gas is H2 (a reactive
gas), (c) converted to H+ during operation, (d) combines with O– (oxide) to form
H2O and (i) clean weld and (ii) supply heat for welding.
Power supply: 50 to 75 V, 15 to 150 A, electrode size: 1 to 5 mm. The path of

electron (arc) is like a fan (because the H atoms make a downward force).
The weld is extremely clean and of excellent quality. Application: Tool steels
containing W, Ni, Mo), for hard surfacing and repairing of moulds, dies and
tools. It can be used for any job, however, it is costly.
Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)
Plasma Arc Welding (PAW) is

another inert gas shielded arc-
welding process where: (a) the
electrode is non-consumable, (b)
shielding gas (through outer gas
nozzle) is Ar, (c) plasma gas: Ar
(through inner nozzle), (d) plasma
contains ions and gives very high
temperature (~ 110000C).
Power supply: DCEN (ampere

rating is higher than GTAW),
The welding technique is called
‘key hole’.
Plasma Arc Welding (PAW) cont.
Plasma Arc Welding (PAW): It is similar to TIG, the main difference is the
torch with narrow constricted flow of Ar for plasma which gives a very
concentrated and straight arc.
Plasma Arc Welding (PAW): Greater length between the electrode tip and the
workpiece facilitate easy application of the filler without any contamination
of electrode. The metal deposit rates are higher than GTAW, heat affected-zone
is small. The disadvantages are: welding equipment is expensive, frequency of
replacement of nozzle surrounding the electrode is high.
Stud Arc Welding (SW) cont.
Stud Arc Welding (SW) is a process for faster joining of the studs to the
workpieces such as machine assemblies. The gun is similar to that of GMAW
and the operation runs in sequence.
Fire-cracker Welding
Fire-cracker Welding is a
variation of manual metal-arc
welding (SMAW) process. The
joining to be welded is filled with
a stick electrode, which is kept in
place with a glass fibre tape or
copper retaining bar. Once the arc
is initiated, it is an automatic
process. The flux can be provided
by the coating on the electrode as
well as the shielding gas.
This method is applicable to flat

position only. Because of its
automatic nature, very little skill
is needed in its operation. It has
found application in ship-
building industry.
Resistance Welding (RW) – Principle
Resistance Welding (RW) is also a ‘fusion-welding process’ where both heat
and pressure are applied on the joint but no filler material or flux is added. The
heat necessary for the melting of the joint is obtained by the heating effect of
the electrical resistance of the joint and hence, the name ‘resistance welding’.
Principle: In RW, a low voltage (~ 1 V), very high current (~ 15000 A) is passed
through the joint for a very short time (~ 0.25 s); this high amperage heats the
joint due to the contact resistance at the joint and melts it. The pressure on the
joint is continuously maintained and the metal fuses together under this
pressure (forge welding).
The heat generated:
H = kI2Rt
Here, H: total heat generated, J,
I: electric current, A,
t: current passing time, s,
R: resistance of the joint, ohms,
k: a constant (the heat losses)
When I = 10000A, R = 100 micro ohm, t = 0.1 s, H = 1000 J. This is typical for
the welding of 1 mm thick sheet. Actual is 339 J, rest is lost at other points.
Resistance Welding (RW) – Principle cont.
The resistance is composed of:
Resistance:
- of the electrodes,
- between the electrode
and work-piece,
- between the two
work-piece plates,
- of the work-piece plates.
Most of the heat should be

generated at (c) for effective
fusion, the rest should
be made as small as possible.
Resistance between the two work-piece plates is affected by (i) surface finish of
the plates (rougher surface has higher resistance) and (ii) cleanliness of surface
(oxides should be removed).
The welding force used has the effect of decreasing the contact resistance and
consequently, an increase in the welding current for the proper fusion.
Resistance Welding (RW) – Set up and Electrode
The set-up: A rocker arm, or
A step-down transformer a pneumatic or hydraulic
with different tapings in cylinder provides the force.
the primary side
(for different metals)
is needed to give
low A and high V.
Secondary side is
Connected to electrodes
(Cu – low resistance).
Time is to be controlled
properly.
Electrodes: should carry high current and transmit mechanical force.
Electrode Electrical Conductivity Strength Application
Cu-Cd(0.5-1.0%) Highest Moderate Non-Fe: Al, Mg, and alloys
Cu-Cr(0.5-0.8%) Higher High Mild S, Low-alloy S
Cu-Co-Be Decreases considerably Very high Heat-resistant alloys, SS,HSS
Resistance Welding (RW) – Set up and Electrode cont.
Electrodes: The electrode tips are available in a number of different
configurations to allow for different welding situations. Since high heat is
generated the electrodes are cooled through water circulation.
Similar situation is for two metal pieces of the

same composition but different thickness, to be
joined in a lap joint.
Resistance Welding (RW) – Advantages and limitaions
Advantages: Some of the advantages of the resistance welding are:
1. Most machines are either automatic or semi-automatic; hence, not very
skilled operators are needed. Some one with little training is enough.
2. It gives high production rate; hence, suitable for mass production.
3. There are no consumables used except electric power, and electrode wear is
very less; hence, it is economical.
4. Heating of the work-piece is confined to a small part; hence, less distortion.
5. It is possible to weld dissimilar metals as well as metal plates of different
thickness.
Disadvantages: there are some limitations of resistance welding process:
6. Resistance welding needs machines, electrodes with complexities, which
makes the process expensive unless it is used for large scale production.
7. Certain resistance welding processes are limited only to lap joints limited
to sheet metals of thickness less than 3 mm. The lap joints have an inherent
crevice between the sheets, which is responsible for stress concentration and
a loss of fatigue life. Also, for materials that are prone to corrosion, the lap
joint may be a source of trouble.
Resistance Welding (RW) – Processes
The various RW processes of interest are: (a) resistance spot welding,
(b) resistance seam welding, (c) projection welding, (d) upset welding, and
(e) flash welding.
Resistance spot welding (RSW):
This is the most common RW process where two sheet metals are joined in a
lap joint forming a nugget at the interface of the two plates.
Resistance Welding (RW) – Processes cont.
Resistance spot welding (RSW) cont.:
Resistance spot welding (RSW) cont.:
A RSW schedule is the sequence of events that normally take place in each
weld: (a) the squeeze time, (b) the weld time, (c) the hold time, (d) the off time.
Resistance seam welding (RSEW):
This is a specialized process of spot welding where two disc electrodes replace
the cylindrical electrodes. The disc electrodes are continuously rotated so that
the work-piece gets advanced underneath them while the pressure on the joint
is on. The current is applied in a series of pulses, the time is so adjusted that the
pulses overlap to for a continuous seam joint.
Resistance projection welding (RPW):
This is another variation of spot welding where one of the sheets to be joined is
provided with a number of small projections (~ 0.8 mm and obtained by means
of embossing) to help localize the current at a pre-determined spot.
Though circular projections are easier to make and provide uniform strength,
other shapes like elongated circle in one direction, rounded top, or annular
projection round a hole are possible.
Resistance projection welding (RPW) cont.:
Advantages:
(1) Possible to weld more than one spot at a given time (number of projections
under the tip of the electrode ~ 6 per cycle); cost of manufacture is reduced.
(2) The welds may be placed closer than that in RSW.
(3) Because of larger-sized electrodes, their life is longer than that of RSW.
(4) The larger contact area makes very limited deformation of the welding tip.
(5) The electrodes can be made to take up the shape of the assembly fixtures
which can help in holding the work-pieces together in proper alignment
during the welding process.
(6) Proper heat balance is easy by making projections in thicker plates (welding
of dissimilar thicknesses) and in the material with higher electrical
conductivity (welding of dissimilar metals).
(7) The uniformity and appearance of the weld is much better compared to spot
welding.
Disadvantages:
(8) A prior operation of embossing is required.
(2) Electrodes are often to be specially made for particular operation. Thus, high
production rate and large production makes the process economical.
Resistance projection welding (RPW) cont.:
Joining of wires is a natural welding method. The side of a wire has a limited contact
with wire, therefore welding can be easily carried out without any pre-operations.
(d) Upset welding (UW):
The pieces are brought
together to mate with
each other in a butt
joint.
The two pieces are held
tightly together and
current is applied, so
that the heat is
generated through the
contact area between
the two plates.
Because of the joint
being under pressure,
the ends of the two
pieces get slightly upset
and hence the name.
This is useful for joining the two ends of rods or similar pieces.
(d) Upset welding (UW) cont.: A variant of UW is electric resistance welding
(ERW), where a continuous seam weld is obtained for making pipes starting
from plates of suitable thickness. The plate is first formed into the shape of a
pipe and then ends will be forming the butt joint to be welded.
The ends of the pieces to be upset welded must be parallel; any high spots present on
the ends would get melted first before the two ends and would interfere in the process
Resistance Welding (RW) – Processes
(e) Flash welding: It is similar to upset welding except that the heat is
generated by an arc (not by resistance). The set-up contains two platens (one
fixed and the other movable) to which the two pieces to be joined are clamped,
connected to power supply. The two ends are separated to start the arc to melt
the ends. Then, the pieces are brought together and the power switched off
while the two ends are fused under force. Most of the metal melted would flash
out through the joint to form a fin around the joint.
It is a faster operation compared to UW and can
be automatically controlled by a cam arrangement.
Welding design – heat input
The main function of the heat put into the welding joint is to melt the (i) base
metal and (ii) filler metal (if used). In the case of arc welding, the heat input,
P in watts, is by the direct conversion of the electrical energy and is given by:
P = VI (V: potential of power source, volts; I: current, ampere)
The actual amount of heat available for melting the joint, H, is given by:
H = (P/v) = (VI/v), J/s (v: travel speed of the electrode, mm/s)
In actual case, part of H is lost and two other parameters, factor of heat
transfer efficiency, f1, and net heat available at the weld joint, Hnet, are
brought into the equation: Hnet = (f1VI/v)
Usually, the value of f1 is: electric arc: 0.8 → 1,
GTAW: 0.21 to 0.48, SMAW and GMAW: 0.66 to 0.85, SAW: 0.90 to 0.99.
Further, besides being utilized in melting, part of H gets conducted away
from the joint by the base metal. Hence, f2, melting efficiency is defined:
f2 = (Heat required to melt the joint) / (Net heat supplied)
Example 1: Calculate the melting efficiency in the case of arc welding of steel
with a potential of 20 V and a current of 200 A. The travel speed is 5 mm/s
and the c-s area of the joint is 20 mm2. Heat needed to melt steel: 10 J/mm3
Welding design – heat input cont.
Example 1: Calculate the melting efficiency in the case of arc welding of steel
with a potential of 20 V and a current of 200 A. The travel speed is 5 mm/s
and the c-s area of the joint is 20 mm2. Heat needed to melt steel: 10 J/mm3
and f1: 0.85.
Solution 1:
net heat supplied: (f1VI) = (0.85x20x200) = 3400 W
volume of base metal melted: 20 x 5 = 100 mm3/s
heat required for melting: 100 x 10 = 1000 J/s
melting efficiency, f2: 1000/3400 = 0.2941
In case of resistance welding, the heat input is given by:
H = I2Rt (R: resistance of the joint, ohms, t: time of flow of
current in sec.)
Example 2: Two steel sheets of 1.0 mm thickness are resistance welded in a
lap joint with a current of 10 000 A for 0.1 second. The effective resistance of
the joint can be taken 100 micro ohms. The joint can be considered as a
cylinder of 5 mm diameter and 1.5 mm height. The density of steel is 0.00786
g/mm3 and heat required for melting steel is 10 J/mm3.
Example 2: Two steel sheets of 1.0 mm thickness are resistance welded in a lap
joint with a current of 10 000 A for 0.1 second. The effective resistance of the
joint can be taken 100 micro ohms. The joint can be considered as a cylinder of 5
mm diameter and 1.5 mm height. The density of steel is 0.00786 g/mm3 and heat
required for melting steel is 10 J/mm3.
Solution 2:
Heat supplied = 10 0002 x 100 x 10-6 x 0.1 = 1000 J
Volume of the joint = [( x 52 x 1.5)/4] = 29.452 mm3
heat required for melting = 29.452 x 10 = 294.52 = 295 J
Heat lost to surroundings = 1000 – 295 = 705 J
which is 705/1000 x 100 = 70.5 %

projection welding with a current of 30 000 A for 0.005 second. The effective
resistance of the joint can be taken 100 micro ohms. The joint can be considered
as a cylinder of 5 mm diameter and 1.5 mm height. The density of steel is
0.00786 g/mm3 and heat required for melting steel is 10 J/mm3.
projection welding with a current of 30 000 A for 0.005 second. The effective
resistance of the joint can be taken 100 micro ohms. The joint can be considered
as a cylinder of 5 mm diameter and 1.5 mm height. The density of steel is 0.00786
g/mm3 and heat required for melting steel is 10 J/mm3.
Solution 3:
Heat supplied = 30 0002 x 100 x 10-6 x 0.005 = 450 J
Volume of the joint = [( x 52 x 1.5)/4] = 29.452 mm3
heat required for melting = 29.452 x 10 = 294.52 = 295 J
Heat lost to surroundings = 450 – 295 = 155 J
which is 155/450 x 100 = 34.5 %
Comment: In comparison to spot welding, projection welding with a short cycle

time is more efficient, because heat losses are less in small time.
Thermit Welding (TW)
Thermit welding (TW) is a process, traditionally used for the welding of very
thick plates (locomotive rails, ship hulls, broken large castings etc.), utilizing
the heat from the exothermic reactions of the thermit mixtures (iron oxides or
copper oxides with aluminum powder) for fusion in welding.
A typical thermit reaction: 3 Fe3O4 + 8 Al → 9 Fe + 4 Al2O3 + 3.01 MJ/mol
An intimately mixed thermit mixture ignites at 12000C and generates a
theoretical temperature of 30880C, where the entire reaction product is molten
and because of difference in gravity, Al2O3 floats at the top and Fe sinks down
to be cast (TW is essentially a casting process) at the joint to form the solid
bond. Fluxes and alloying additions may be added to it. The heat released
during the operation is of the order of 35 kJ/kg and the available super-heat is
~ 400 to 5500C.
About 1 to 2 tons of molten steel with a superheat of 5000C can be generated
only in one minute; the safety of the thermit mixture is ensured because heat is
released only after ignition.
Besides making a fast weld, TW also provides a reasonably strong weld.
Use of TW is decreasing day by day as it is being replaced by other methods
such as Submerged Arc Welding.
Electro Slag Welding (ESW)
Electro Slag welding (ESW) process is a single-pass process to weld very large
plates without any edge preparation. It uses consumable electrodes which fills
the gap between the heavy plates. The heat comes initially from an arc so that
the flux forms the molten slag; subsequently, the arc is extinguished and the
heat of welding is obtained by the resistance heating of the slag itself.
Electro Slag Welding (ESW) cont.
It is necessary to maintain a
continuous slag pool and the
best way is to weld vertically.
The slag pool is contained by

water-cooled copper plates
which move along the weld.
The requirement of slag is very
small, 0.2 to 0.3 kg per meter of
weld length, irrespective of
thickness.
The heat required is very less

and most of it is used in melting
the joint. A plate of 200 mm
thickness can be welded in a
single-pass.
Electro Slag Welding (ESW) cont.
Because of vertical
welding, (a) any gas
present bubbles up and
gets out, (b) the slag
floats at top pre-heats
the joint.
Heating and cooling of
edges is more gradual.
No edge preparation,
whatever be the
thickness.
ESW is useful for thick
plates only (welding of
less than 50 mm thick
plate may not be
economical, unlike
submerged arc welding).
Applications: fabrication of high-pressure vessels, frames of heavy mechanical and

hydraulic presses, rolling mill frames, ship hulls, locomotive frames etc.
Electron Beam Welding (EBW)
Electron Beam welding (EBW): The heat
source, here, is a focused beam of high-
velocity electrons. The electron beam
upon impinging on the work-piece
releases the necessary heat by converting
its kinetic energy. The electron beam is
focused by means of an electro-magnetic
lens so that the energy is released in a
small area.
The electron beam welding has several
advantages: (a) the penetration of the
beam is high (depth-to-width :: 10:1 to
30:1), (b) good control of penetration by
controlling V, A and beam focus, (c)
higher welding speed (125 to 200 mm/s),
(d) no filler material or flux is needed, (e)
heat liberated is low and in a narrow
range (heat-affected zone is minimal and
weld distortion is virtually eliminated).
Laser Beam Welding (LBW)
Laser Beam welding (LBW): Laser
(light amplification by stimulated
emission of radiation) is a
concentrated beam of coherent
monochromatic radiation which is a
high energy source of heat to melt
(even evaporate) a joint for fusion
welding. In this process two types of
laser, solid state laser or gas lasers can
be used.
The laser beam welding (LBW) has
several advantages: (a) faster welding
rates, (b) low distortion, (c) single-
pass two-side welding, (d) no filler
material or flux needed, (e) no contact,
eliminating any debris build-up, (f) can
reach in-accessible locations, (g)
shorter cycles and higher uptimes, (h)
welds magnetic materials also.
Solid State Welding (SSW)
In solid state welding (SSW), coalescence of part surfaces is achieved by:
(a) Pressure alone, (b) Heat and pressure
(c) For some SSW processes, time is also a factor
(d) No filler metal is added
Each SSW process has its own way of creating a bond at the faying surfaces.
Essential factors for a successful solid state weld are that the two weld
surfaces must be:
(i) Very clean
(ii) In very close physical contact with each other to permit atomic
bonding
Advantages:
(a) If no melting, then no heat affected zone, so metal around joint
retains original properties.
(b) Many SSW processes produce welded joints that bond the entire
contact interface between two parts rather than at distinct spots or seams
(c) Some SSW processes can be used to bond dissimilar metals,
without concerns about relative melting points, thermal expansions, and
other problems that arise in Fusion Welding.
Solid State Welding (SSW) cont.
In solid state welding (SSW), there are various processes:
(a) forge welding, (b) cold welding, (c) roll welding,
(d) friction welding, (e) diffusion welding,
(f) explosion welding, (g) ultrasonic welding.
Forge Welding: This is the oldest of the metal-joining processes known to

mankind and is familiar to blacksmith. In this process, the ends of the parts to
be joined are heated to a temperature slightly below the solidus temperature
and a pressure is applied [by (i) repeated manual blow, (ii) machine, or (iii)
rotating rolls] so that a fusion joint is obtained.
In forge welding of ferrous alloys, oxide formation is a problem. Oxides must
be removed by adding a flux (borax, Na2B4O7.7H2O, or fine silica sand) which
forms molten slag to flow out of the joint under pressure. Fine silica is
cheaper and may be sprinkled on low carbon steels. Wrought iron and low-
carbon steels are easily forged, even without flux, as their oxides would melt
in the prevailing conditions and flow out.
The grain size gets elongated because of heating, however, subsequent working
brings back the mechanical properties.
Forge welding is very slow, labor intensive, quality depends on skill, hence,
expensive and not in use very much.
(b) cold welding (CW): SSW process done by applying high pressure
between clean contacting surfaces at room temperature. Cleaning usually done
by degreasing and wire brushing immediately before joining. No heat is
applied, but deformation raises work temperature. At least one of the metals,
preferably both, must be very ductile -
Soft aluminum and copper suited to CW
Applications: making electrical connections.
(c) roll welding: SSW process in which pressure sufficient to cause
coalescence is applied by means of rolls, either with or without external
heat.
Variation of either forge welding or cold welding, depending on whether
heating of work-parts is done prior to process:
If no external heat, cold roll welding
If heat is supplied, hot roll welding
Applications:
1: Cladding stainless steel to mild or low
alloy steel for corrosion resistance
2. Bimetallic strips for measuring temperature
3. "Sandwich" coins for U.S mint.
(d) Friction welding(FRW): SSW process in which coalescence is achieved
by frictional heat combined with pressure. Pressure may range from 40 MPa
for low-carbon-steel to 450 MPa for alloy steel. When properly carried out, no
melting occurs at interface surfaces. No filler metal, flux, or shielding gases
normally used. Process yields a narrow ‘heat affected zone’.
Can be used to join dissimilar metals.
Widely used commercial process, amenable to automation and mass
production.
Applications: Shafts and tubular parts.
Industries: automotive, aircraft, farm
equipment, petroleum and natural gas.
Limitations:
At least one of the parts must be
rotational, flash must usually be
removed (extra operation), Upsetting
reduces the part lengths (which must
be taken into consideration in product
design.
(1) Rotating part, no contact; (2) parts brought into contact to generate friction
heat; (3) rotation stopped and axial pressure applied; and (4) weld created.
Friction Stir Welding(FSW): SSW process in which a rotating tool is fed
along a joint line between two work-pieces, generating friction heat and
mechanically stirring the metal to form the weld seam.
Distinguished from FRW because heat is generated by a separate wear-
resistant tool rather than the parts.
Applications: butt joints in large aluminum parts in aerospace, automotive,
and shipbuilding.
Advantages:
Good mechanical properties of
weld joint.
Avoids toxic fumes, warping,
and shielding issues.
Little distortion or shrinkage
Good weld appearance.
Disadvantages:
An exit hole is produced when
tool is withdrawn.
Heavy duty clamping of parts is Rotating tool just partially completed
required before entering work weld seam
Inertia welding: Another variation of SSW process in which energy required
for welding is stored in a flywheel which is accelerated to the required speed,
then it is disengaged from the drive motor and the axial force is applied on the
rotational part till it comes in contact with the fixed part. Its rpm comes down,
yet heat is generated on the joint which is made under pressure.
(e) diffusion welding (DFW): Also called ‘diffusion bonding’, is another
variation of SSW process which uses heat and pressure, usually in a controlled
atmosphere, with sufficient time for diffusion and coalescence to occur.
Main features:
(i) Temperatures  0.5 Tm
(ii) Plastic deformation at surfaces is minimal
(iii) Primary coalescence mechanism is solid state diffusion.
(iv) Can be used to join metal to metal as well as metal to non-metals.
Limitation:
Time required for diffusion can range from seconds to hours.
(f) Explosion welding: SSW process in which rapid coalescence of two
metallic surfaces is caused by the energy of a detonated explosive.
Features: No filler metal used, No external heat applied, No diffusion occurs -
time is too short, Bonding is metallurgical, combined with mechanical
interlocking that results from a rippled or wavy interface between the metals.
Commonly used to bond two dissimilar metals, in particular to clad one metal
on top of a base metal over large areas
(g) ultrasonic welding (USW): Two components are held together, and
oscillatory shear stresses of ultrasonic frequency are applied to interface to
cause coalescence. Oscillatory motion breaks down any surface films to allow
intimate contact and strong metallurgical bonding between surfaces. The
features are: (i) Temperature is well below Tm, (ii) No need of filler metals,
fluxes, or shielding gases, (iii) Generally limited to lap joints on soft materials.
(a) General setup (b) close‑up

for a lap joint of weld area
Applications: Wire terminations and splicing in electrical and electronics industry

(Eliminates need for soldering), assembly of aluminum sheet metal panels, welding
of tubes to sheets in solar panels, assembly of small parts in automotive industry.
Brazing
Brazing is the coalescence of a joint with the help of a filler metal whose
liquidus temperature is above 4500C and is below the solidus temperature of the
base metal; the filler metal is drawn into the joint by means of capillary action
(fluid enters into tightly fitted surfaces). Welding gives higher joint strength, but
cause (i) metallurgical damage due to phase change and (ii) oxide formation,
which are avoided in brazing.
Advantages:
• Dissimilar metals (SS and CI) which can not be
welded can be joined by brazing. Except Al and
Mg, brazing can join almost all the metals.
• Very thin metals can be joined.
• Easy to join metals with different thickness.
• In brazing thermal stresses are not produced in the work piece. Hence, there
is no distortion.
• Using this process, carbides tips are brazed on the steel tool holders.
Disadvantages:
• Brazed joints have lesser strength compared to welding. Color of filler and
base may not match.
• Joint preparation cost is more.
• Not useful for higher temperature service due to low temperature filler metal.
Brazing cont.
Types of joints: The types of joints in brazing are: (a) Lap joint – Flat parts,
(b) Lap joint – Tubular parts, (c) Butt joint – Flat parts, (d) Butt joint – Tubular
parts, (e) Butt-lap joint – Flat parts, (f) Butt-lap joint – Tubular parts.
Butt joint is easy and has strength, but the tensile strength is limited by the
contact area in the joint. In lap joint, it is possible to increase the bonding
area. Butt-lap joints may be used to have advantages of both types.
Brazing cont.
In brazing, joints are to be clean. Grease and oil must be removed by suitable
solvents. Oxides and scales must be removed by pickling. Fluxes are added to
take care of oxides: borax, boric acid, chlorides, fluorides, tetra-borates. For
ferrous materials: mixture of borax (75%) and boric acid (25%); for SS, Al-Cu,
Be-Cu alloys: alkaline fluorides; for W-Cu: A typical flux containing sodium
cyanide (harmful – proper ventilation and care is needed) is used. Fluxes are
applied by spraying, brushing or with the help of a pressurized applicator.
The joint obtained in brazing is by means of the diffusion of the filler metal into
the base material, associated with surface alloying. Braze welding: same as
brazing, except that the filler metal enters the joint without capillary action.
Brazing cont.
Depending on the type of base metal to be brazed, a number of filler metals are
available: (a) for ferrous materials: Cu-based material, (b) for various steels:
Cu-alloys with less Zn (high Zn – 70%, makes it brittle), (c) for Al: Al-Si alloy.
Silver brazing makes use of Ag-based alloys, gives high strength joint (tensile
strength up to 900 MPa), originally used for jewellery, now extensively used for
a large range of materials. However, because of high cost, it is used in case of
special applications requiring high strength and high temperature service.
Brazing cont.
Heat sources used for brazing are: (a) molten bath of brazing filler metal, (b)
oxy-acetylene torch, (c) controlled atmosphere furnace, (d) electrical resistance
heating, or (e) induction heating.
Types of brazing methods:
(i) torch brazing: a reducing flame (oxy-acetylene or propane), generally a
manual operation (depends on operator’s skill), can be mechanized
employing multiple torches,
(ii) dip brazing: the brazing point is prepared and dipped in a salt/metal bath
for quick melting of brazing alloy, on cooling joint is strengthened,
(iii)induction brazing: high-frequency current induced in the work by means of
the electrical coils.
(iv)electrical resistance brazing:
heating set-up is similar to
electrical resistance welding,
except that brazing requires
less power,
(v) furnace brazing: a furnace with
controlled atmosphere, neutral
or reducing is used, the assemblies
enter the furnace with a conveyor.
Soldering
Soldering is a method of joining similar or dissimilar metals by means of a
filler metal whose liquidus temperature is below 4500C. Soldering is normally
used for obtaining a leak-proof joint or a low-resistance electrical joint. It is
similar to brazing, the filler metal is drawn into the joint also by means of
capillary action, the joint is weaker compared to brazing.
Soldering is used for:
•Sealing, as in automotive radiators or tin cans,
•Electrical Connections,
•Joining thermally sensitive components,
•Joining dissimilar metals,
•Used extensively in electronics industry because of heat sensitive components
Fluxes:
–Surface preparation and the use of fluxes are most important,
–Fluxes prevents oxidation and remove slight oxide films from work piece
surfaces.
–Organic fluxes such as zinc chloride and ammonium chloride are quick acting,
–Fluxes are usually available in the form of powder, paste, liquid or in the
form of core in the solder metal. It is necessary that the flux should remain in
the liquid form at the soldering temperature and be reactive to be of proper
use.
Soldering cont.
The filler metals used are normally called solders, which are essentially alloys
of lead and tin (have lower liquidus T, the eutectic alloy of 62% tin + 38% lead
has the lowest liquidus T of 1830C). To improve the mechanical properties and
temperature resistance, solders are added to other alloying elements such as Zn,
Cd and Ag in various proportions.
Composition and melting point of some filter metals used in soldering
% tin % lead %silver % Cd % zinc Solidus T, 0C Liquidus T, 0C

25 75 183 267
40 60 183 235
62 38 183 183
96 4 221 221
62 36 2 180 190
91 9 199 199
70 30 199 311
40 60 265 335
10 90 265 399
Soldering cont.
Types of soldering methods: The most commonly used soldering methods are:
(i) With soldering iron (flame or electrically heated): a soldering iron is a
copper rod with a thin tip, which can be used for flattening the soldering
material. It can be heated in a furnace or by an internal electrical resistance
(15 W for electronic applications to 200 W for sheet-metal joining). This is
the most convenient method of soldering though slower than other methods.
(ii) dip soldering: a large amount of solder is melted in a closed tank. The parts
to be soldered are cleaned, dipped in a flux, and then dipped into this molten
solder pool and lifted with soldering complete.
(iii)wave soldering: a variant of dip soldering, wherein the parts to be soldered
(electronic circuit board, PCB) are not dipped into the solder tank, but a
wave is generated in the tank so that the solder comes up and makes the
necessary joint. It is a continuous process with the PCBs moving
continuously over the tank generating wave continuously. It is used for
mass production of electronic equipments.
Other methods are also available: torch soldering, oven soldering, resistance
soldering, induction soldering and infrared soldering.
Soldering cont.
Residual stresses developed during welding
Rapid heating and cooling results in thermal stresses detrimental to joint strength.
Prevention: - Edge Preparation/Alignment – beveled edges and space between
components to allow movement
– Control of heat input – skip or intermittent weld technique
– Preheating – reduces expansion/contraction forces (alloys) and removes
moisture from the surface
– Peening – help metal stretch as it cools by hitting with a hammer.
– Heat Treatment – “soak” the metal at a high temperature to relieve stresses
– Jigs and Fixtures – prevent distortion by holding metal fixed
– Number of Passes – the fewer the better.
Welding defects
In view of the severe thermal regime through which the welding process
proceeds, the weldments are likely to be affected. Unless proper care is taken
defects are inevitable. The welding defects may be termed as: (a) distortions
and (b) other defects.
Distortions: One of the major problem faced by the weldments is distortion,
which is caused mainly because of the shrinkages taking place in weldments
(depends on geometry and type of weld). There are three types of distortions:
(1) Transverse shrinkage occurring perpendicular to the weld line,
(2) Longitudinal shrinkage occurring parallel to the weld line which is very
small of the order of about 0.1% of the weld length and hence can be
neglected,
(3) Angular change as a rotation about the weld line.
Welding defects cont.
Variation in weld distortion

Transverse shrinkage in butt joints: The transverse shrinkage in a butt joint in a
single pass weld is a result of contraction of the base metal which was
expanded during welding, and can be estimated as:
s = 5.08x(Aw/t) + 1.27xd
s: transverse shrinkage, mm; t: plate thickness, mm; d: root opening, mm; Aw: cross-
sectional area of weld, mm2.
During multi-pass welding, the total shrinkage (st) is the sum total of that in
each pass (major contribution comes from the first pass – s1); and is
proportional to the logarithm of the total weight (w) of weld metal deposited:
st = s1 + b x (logw – logw1) (1: first pass, b: a constant)
Based on this relationship, transverse shrinkage can be decreased by:
(i) Decreasing the weight of the weld metal, w; and/or (ii) increasing w1. The
other factors which affect the transverse shrinkage are given in the table:
Variables affecting the transverse shrinkage
Process variable Effect in butt joint
Root opening Shrinkage increases with root opening
Joint design Single V produces more shrinkage compared to double V
Electrode diameter Larger sized electrodes reduce shrinkage
Degree of constraint Shrinkage decreases with an increase in the degree of constraint
Angular change in butt joints: Angular change in butt joints occurs due to the
non-uniform transverse shrinkage in the thickness direction.
Angular distortion of fillet welds:

Fillet welds in a structure are affected
by the way the structure is designed
and the type of restraint provided.
When restraint is provided wavy
distortion appears.
Control of distortions: The ways to minimize distortions are:
(a) good design with minimum number of joints,
(b) estimate the likely amount of distortion and pre-set the members to
compensate the distortion,
(c) most preferred method in industry is by providing restraint (putting clamps,
fixtures, tack welds),
(d) pre-heating the members of the weldments such that the heat of welding
would be balanced (the distortion is reduced by 50% by pre-heating the
bottom plate of a T-joint).
The other likely defects in welding are: (a) undercut, (b) incomplete fusion, (c)
porosity, (d) slag inclusions, (e) hot cracking, (f) cold cracking, (g) lamellar
tearing.
The other likely defects in welding are: (a) undercut,
This appears like a small notch in the weld interface; due to (i) improper
welding technique, or, (ii) excessive welding current, or (iii) incorrect
manipulation of electrode while depositing the bead, particularly, in horizontal
and vertical welding.
The other likely defects in welding are (cont.):
(b) Incomplete fusion: This will be seen as a discontinuity in the weld zone; due
to (i) improper penetration of the joint, or, (ii) wrong design of the joint, or (iii)
incorrect welding technique (choosing lower or higher current, improper
cleaning of the surface).
Detection:
This type of defect tends to be sub surface and is therefore detectable only by
ultra-sonics or X-ray methods,
Lack of side wall fusion which penetrates the surface may be detected using
magnetic particle, dye or fluorescent penetrant inspection.
The other likely defects in welding are (cont.):
(c) Porosity: May be in form of cavities, worm holes, porosity. The reasons:
entrapped gases such as (i) hydrogen, - main cause, source: electrode coating,
cellulose, dissociation of moisture etc. (ii) oxygen, -source: as oxide from base
metal and filler metal (iii) nitrogen – source: atmospheric air, (Ar, He, CO2 may
be present, but those are not soluble). Porosity reduces the strength.
The other likely defects in welding are (cont.): (d) slag inclusions:
Slag is formed by the reaction with the fluxes and is lighter; hence, expected to
float at the top of the weld pool to be chipped off after solidification. However,
the stirring caused by high intensity arc force the slag to go into the weld pool
and stay as inclusion. Also in multi-pass welding, improper cleaning after the
earlier pass allows slag inclusion.
Some factors responsible for slag inclusion are:
(a) high viscosity of slag pool,
(b) rapid solidification,
(c) insufficient welding heat,
(d) improper manipulation of the electrode,
(e) undercut on previous pass.
Slag inclusion like porosity, weakens the metal by providing discontinuities.
Slag inclusion is normally detected by radiography.
The other likely defects in welding are (cont.): (d) slag inclusions (cont.):
Linear Slag Inclusions

• Cause:
Incomplete removal of slag in multi
-pass welds often associated with the
presence of undercut or irregular
surfaces in underlying passes
Isolated Slag Inclusions

• Causes:
• Normally by the presence of mill
scale and/or rust on prepared
surfaces, or electrodes with
cracked or damaged coverings.
• Can also arise from isolated
undercut in underlying passes of
multi-pass welds
The other likely defects in welding are (cont.): (e) hot cracking: This generally
occurs at high temperature and the size can be very small to visible. The crack
is mostly inter-granular, form during the root pass when the base metal is very
large compared to the weld metal deposited.
This defect can be detected by: Surface: Visual examination, magnetic particle,
dye or fluorescent penetrant inspection, Internal: Ultrasonic flaw detection,
radiography.
Can be prevented by: (i) pre-heating the base metal, (ii) increasing the cross-
sectional area of the root bead, (iii) changing the contour of the weld bead, (iv)
changing composition of the weld bead.
A longitudinal hot crack on the Solidification A longitudinal hot crack in

surface of a weld metal by SMAW Cracking the cross section (SAW)
The other likely defects in welding are (cont.): (e) hot cracking (cont.):
Reheat Cracking:
• Occurs in creep resisting and some thick
section structural low alloy steels during
post weld heat treatment
• Causes:
– Poor creep ductility in HAZ coupled
with thermal stress
– Accentuated by severe notches such as
preexisting cracks, or tears at weld
toes, or unfused root of partial
penetration weld
– Heat treatment may need to include
low temperature soaking
– Grinding or peening weld toes after
welding can be beneficial
The other likely defects in welding are (cont.): (f) cold cracking: This generally
occurs at room temperature after the weld is completely cooled. Cold cracks can
occur in both butt welds and fillet welds; mostly seen in the heat-affected-zone
(HAZ). The causes are: (i) excessive restraint of the joint which induces high
residual stresses, (ii) martensitic transformations (metal becomes hard due),
(iii) high arc energy, (iv) S, P, Nb pick-up from base metal.
Typical cold cracks in fillet welds

The other likely defects in welding are (cont.): (f) cold cracking (cont.):
radiography.
Can be prevented by: (i) pre- and post- heating of the weldment (helps in
reducing the cooling rate), (ii) stress-relieving the weldment immediately
(relieves residual stress)
Crack along the coarse grain

Cold cracking in the weld
structure in the HAZ
The other likely defects in welding are (cont.): (g) lamellar tearing: This is
generally seen at the edge of the heat affected zone (HAZ), It appears as a long
and continuous visual separation line between the base metal and the HAZ.
The causes are: (i) presence of the elongated inclusions such as Mn, Fe and S in
the base metal, (ii) weld configuration which gives rise to high residual tensile
stresses in the transverse region.
radiography.
Can be prevented by: (i) prior
buttering of surface beneficial for
susceptible plate.
Crater Pipes: Results from shrinkage at
the end crater of a weld run.
Causes: Incorrect manipulative technique
or current decay to allow for crater
shrinkage.
Miscellaneous Faults:
Arc Strikes
Cause:
Accidental contact of an electrode
or welding torch with a plate
surface remote from the weld.
Usually result in small hard spots

just beneath the surface which
may contain cracks, and are thus
to be avoided.
Miscellaneous Faults (cont.): Spatter
Cause:
Incorrect welding conditions and/or
contaminated consumables or
preparations, giving rise to explosions
within the arc and weld pool.
Globules of molten metal are thrown out,
and adhere to the parent metal remote
from the weld.
Copper Pick-Up
Cause:
Melting of copper contact tube in MIG
welding due to incorrect welding
conditions.
Some weld symbols – butt joints
Some weld symbols – Fillet joints
Some weld symbols – corner joints

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BASIC MANUFACTURING

Die casting, precision investment casting, shell moulds,

Preparation of powder, properties of powder, 2 15,16

Power supply: 50 to 75 V, 15 to 150 A, electrode size: 1 to 5 mm. The path of

Plasma Arc Welding (PAW) is

Power supply: DCEN (ampere

This method is applicable to flat

Most of the heat should be

Similar situation is for two metal pieces of the

Example 3: Two steel sheets of 1.0 mm thickness are resistance welded in a

Comment: In comparison to spot welding, projection welding with a short cycle

The slag pool is contained by

The heat required is very less

Applications: fabrication of high-pressure vessels, frames of heavy mechanical and

Forge Welding: This is the oldest of the metal-joining processes known to

(a) General setup (b) close‑up

Applications: Wire terminations and splicing in electrical and electronics industry

% tin % lead %silver % Cd % zinc Solidus T, 0C Liquidus T, 0C

Variation in weld distortion

Angular distortion of fillet welds:

Linear Slag Inclusions

Isolated Slag Inclusions

A longitudinal hot crack on the Solidification A longitudinal hot crack in

Typical cold cracks in fillet welds

Crack along the coarse grain

Usually result in small hard spots

Some weld symbols – corner joints

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