MANUFACTURING

PROCESSES II

PROCESS CHARACTERISTICS IN
FORMING METHODS, DEFECTS
AND TROUBLESHOOTINGS
 Traditional Metal Forming Processes

-Rolling
-Forging
-Extrusion
-Wire drawing
-Sheet metal
forming
FACTORS EFFECTING PLASTIC DEFORMATION

1. MATERIAL
2. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
3. DEFORMATION RATE
4. TEMPERATURE
5. FRICTION AND LUBRICATION
6. RESIDUAL STRESSES
7. GEOMETRICAL FACTORS

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1. Material

Materials with small grains have higher fracture toughness and

ductility, however the higher stress is needed to deform the material.

The inclusions in the material make plastic deformation difficult.

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 2. Mechanical Properties
Tensile test gives us
information about the
mechanical properties
(tensile strength, yield
strength, Young’s modulus,
toughness, strain...) of the
material.

When the material high

yield stress, it becomes
difficult to deform the
material.
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3. Deformation Rate

Deformation rate can be identified

as engineering deformation
rate (é) and true deformation
rate (έ) as given

Deformation rate is related to speed

of the jaws of the machine
during tensile or compression
test or the speed of a die
(1/sec)

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As strain rate increases, ductility of the material decreases.
 4. Temperature

Increasing the
temperature generally
has the following effects
on stress-strain curves;

1- The ductility and

toughness increase, and

2- The yield stress and

the modulus of elasticity
decrease.

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 • Hot working and Cold working

Hot working: Slab

rolling, forging, hot
extrusion

Cold working: wire

drawing, sheet rolling,
folio rolling, sheet metal
forming
where Tm is melting temperature
Let’s remember: For cold working
Let’s remember: For hot working
5. Friction and Lubrication

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6. Residual Stresses
Residual stresses can be generated due to non-uniform plastic
deformation (especially in cold working) or non-uniform
cooling gradient (especially in hot working).

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7. Geometrical Factors

Geometrical factors are related to dies,

fixtures, tooling and presses.

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DEFECTS IN METAL FORMING
PROCESSES
FORGING

OPEN DIE FORGING CLOSED DIE (Impression die) FORGING

DEFECTS IN FORGING

1- Buckling, in upsetting forging. Subject to high

compressive stress

2- Mistmaching; This occurs due to improper

alignment between the top and bottom forging
dies

3-Internal crack; due to the secondary tensile

stresses

4-Pitted surface; due to oxide scales occurring at

high temperature stick on the dies

5-Surface cracking; due to temperature

differential between surface and center, or
excessive working of the surface at too low
temperature

6- Microcracking, due to residual stress

Overlapping of the material due to the die design
Excessive flash due to excessive material usage
Inclusion
 Defects due to die design

sharp corner defect

 Critical Factors in Design of Forging Dies

• Parting line
• Draft
• Corner and fillet radii
• Allowances; shrinkage, die wear and machining
• Flashes
• Parting line selections

Flashes
ROLLING
DEFECTS IN ROLLING

Schematic
illustration of typical defects in
flat rolling: (a) wavy edges; (b)
zipper cracks in the center of the
strip; (c) edge cracks;
and (d) alligatoring.
 Defects in Rolling
(1) Surface defects may result from inclusions and impurities
in the material, scale, rust, dirt, roll marks and other causes
related to the prior treatment and working of the material. In
hot rolling blooms, billets and slabs, the surface is usually
preconditioned by various means, such as torch to remove
scale.

(2) Structural defects are defects that distort or affect the

integrity of the rolled product.
 Defects in Rolling
(3) Wavy edges are caused by bending of the rolls; the
edges of the strip are thinner than the center. Because the
edges elongate more than the center and are restrained from
expanding freely, they buckle.
Defects in Rolling
(4) Zipper cracks are usually caused by low ductility and
barreling.
 Defects in Rolling
(5) Edge cracks occurs in plates and slabs because of
either limited ductility of metal or uneven deformation
especially at the edges.
 Defects in Rolling
(6) Alligatoring is a complex phenomenon that results from
inhomogeneous deformation of the material during rolling or from
defects in the original cast ingot, such as piping. The workpiece splits
along a horizontal plane on exit from the rolls.
EXTRUSION
DEFECTS IN EXTRUSION

a) Centerburst. This defect is an internal crack that develops as a result of tensile

stresses along the centerline of the workpart during extrusion. Although tensile
stresses may seem unlikely in a compression process such as extrusion, they tend
to occur under conditions that cause large deformation in the regions of the work
away from the central axis. Other names sometimes used for this defect include
arrowhead fracture, center cracking, and chevron cracking.
DEFECTS IN EXTRUSION
 A draw bench contains a single

WIRE DRAWING die, and its design is similar to

that of a long,
horizontal tension-testing
machine. The pulling force is
supplied by a
chain drive or is activated
hydraulically. Draw benches are
used for a single-length drawing
of straight rods and tubes with
diameters larger than 20 mm and
lengths up to 30 m. Machine
capacities reach 1.3 MN of
pulling force with a speed range
of 6 to 60 m/min.
Lubrication in wire drawing; Proper lubrication is essential in drawing
in order to improve die life and product surface finish and to reduce
drawing forces and temperature.

• Wet drawing, in which the dies and the rod are immersed
completely in the lubricant

• Dry drawing, in which the surface of the rod to be drawn is

coated with a lubricant by passing it through a box filled with
the lubricant (stuffing box)

• Metal coating, in which the rod or wire is coated with a soft

metal, such as copper or tin, that acts as a solid lubricant

• Ultrasonic vibration of the dies and mandrels; in this process,

vibrations reduce forces, improve surface finish and die life,
and allow larger reductions per pass without failure.
• Defects in wire drawing is similar to extrusion

• Die design, reduction in cross-sectional area per pass, and selection

of die materials and lubricants are all important parameters in
making drawn products of high quality with a good surface finish.

• External as well as internal defects can develop both in extrusion

and in drawing. Their minimization or avoidance depends principally
on the die angle, the reduction per pass, and the quality of the
workpiece material.
 SHEET METAL FORMING

• Shearing
• Bending
• Spinning
• Stretching
• Deep drawing
Defects in Sheet Metal Forming

The reasons of defects:

1- Material effect
2- Press, die and tooling effect
3- Lubricant effect

NOW LET’s LOOK AT THE MOST

COMMON DEFECTS IN SHEET
METAL FORMING PROCESSES
- Importance of clearance in SHEARING;

The clearance c in a shearing operation is the distance between the

punch and die, as shown in Figure. Typical clearances in
conventional press working range between 4% and 8% of the
sheet-metal thickness. The effect of improper clearances is
illustrated in Figure.
• If the clearance is too small, then
the fracture lines tend to pass each
other, causing a double burnishing
and larger cutting forces. If the
clearance is too large, the metal
becomes pinched between the
cutting edges and an excessive
burr results.
• Importance of springback in BENDING;
• Wrong selection of bending angle according to the
sheet thickness can result in crack on the bent edge.

Cracking on the bent edge

Deep Drawing
• Drawing of a cup-shaped
part is the basic drawing
operation, with
dimensions and
parameters as pictured in
Figure. A blank of
diameter Db is drawn into
a die cavity by means of
a punch with diameter
Dp. The punch and die
must have corner radii.

Rd: die corner Radius; Rp: Punch Radius; c: clearance; F: drawing force;
Fh: blank holder force
One of the measures of the severity of a deep drawing operation is the
drawing ratio DR. This is most easily defined for a cylindrical shape as the
ratio of blank diameter Db to punch diameter Dp.

The drawing ratio provides an indication of the severity of a given drawing operation.
The greater the ratio, the more severe the operation. An approximate upper limit on
the drawing ratio is a value of 2.0. The actual limiting value for a given operation
depends on punch and die corner radii (Rp and Rd), friction conditions, depth of draw,
and characteristics of the sheet metal (e.g., ductility, degree of directionality of
strength properties in the metal).
What happens if there is no blankholder?
Defects in Deep Drawing
Several defect photographs