Journal of Asian Earth Sciences xxx (2015) xxx–xxx

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Journal of Asian Earth Sciences

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Paleoenvironmental conditions in the late Paleogene, Sumatra, Indonesia

Natalie O’shea a,b, E. Arthur Bettis III c, Yahdi Zaim d, Yan Rizal d, Aswan Aswan d, Gregg F. Gunnell e,
John-Paul Zonneveld f, Russell L. Ciochon g,⇑
a
Department of Anthropology, Graduate Center at the City University of New York, New York, NY 10016, USA
b
New York Consortium in Evolutionary Primatology (NYCEP), New York, NY 10024, USA
c
Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA
d
Department of Geology, Institute of Technology Bandung, Bandung, Java 40132, Indonesia
e
Division of Fossil Primates, Duke University Lemur Center, Durham, NC 27705, USA
f
Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T2L 2A7, Canada
g
Department of Anthropology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: A stratified paleosol sequence exposed in an open pit mine in central Sumatra provides a record of the
Received 30 October 2014 paleoenvironmental conditions in the lower reaches of a large river system in the late Paleogene (latest
Received in revised form 17 June 2015 Eocene or Oligocene). Morphological, geochemical, and stable isotope data suggest that the sequence
Accepted 25 June 2015
represents a mosaic of local environmental conditions changing from estuarine to riverine up section.
Available online xxxx
Weakly expressed soils formed on low-lying estuary surfaces, while more well expressed soils formed
on higher, better drained surfaces. Peatlands (coal) with clayey subsoils were along the estuary margins.
Keywords:
Well-expressed soils with evidence of clay translocation and chemical weathering become more common
Sumatra
Sawahlunto Formation
higher in the section where alluvial deposits associated with a meandering river are dominant. Stable car-
Paleoenvironment bon isotope ratios support a paleolandscape dominated by C3 plants with input by C4 vegetation limited
Geochemistry to a few intervals. Finally, whole-rock geochemistry suggests moderate chemical weathering consistent
Stable carbon isotopes with a tropical locality. This multi-proxy paleoenvironmental reconstruction suggests a highly productive
Pedotypes lowland forest environment at this locality in the late Paleogene and provides the first direct examination
of the terrestrial environment in Sumatra at this time. The limited fossil record in Island Southeast Asia
during this time period is likely a result of poor bone and shell preservation in tropical forest environ-
ments combined with a general lack of systematic prospecting. However, our continuing work in this area
has produced a relatively diverse assemblage of fossil vertebrates, now including fishes, amphibians,
turtles, crocodiles, and mammals, as well as a growing diversity of fossil plants.
Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction water closure of the Indonesian Throughflow at the beginning of

The late Paleogene is a critical time period for the distribution of
terrestrial vertebrates across Southeastern Asia as new landmasses
emerged as the Indian and Australian plates collided with Asia
(Hall, 2009). One consequence of this dynamic tectonic setting
was dramatic changes in topography and relative sea level that sig-
nificantly changed the distribution of land and sea across the east-
ern margin of the Sunda subcontinent (Fig. 1). Furthermore,
changes in ocean temperature and salinity caused by the deep
⇑ Corresponding author at: Department of Anthropology, Macbride Hall 114,
University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242-1322, USA.
E-mail addresses: noshea@gradcenter.cuny.edu (N. O’shea), art-bettis@uiowa.
edu (E. Arthur Bettis III), zaim@gc.itb.ac.id (Y. Zaim), yan@gc.itb.ac.id (Y. Rizal),
aswan@gc.itb.ac.id (A. Aswan), gregg.gunnell@duke.edu (G.F. Gunnell), zonnevel@
ualberta.ca (J.-P. Zonneveld), russell-ciochon@uiowa.edu (R.L. Ciochon).
the Neogene (between 25 Ma and 22 Ma) would have had an effect
on rainfall, winds, atmospheric pressure, sea level, and tempera-
tures, both in the Australia–Asia–Pacific region and globally, and
may have directly influenced plant and animal distributions
(Hall, 2009). These concurrent global and regional climate fluctua-
tions likely influenced habitat availability and thus affected faunal
radiations into what is today one of the most biodiverse regions on
Earth.
The geographic changes that this region has undergone over the
past 50 million years have led to the patterning of higher taxa due
to ancient vicariance events (Lohman et al., 2011). In particular, the
environment of Sumatra during this time period may have affected
mammalian diversity throughout the late Paleogene and early
Neogene (Hall, 2009). Central Sumatra was one of a few emergent
parts of the Sunda Continent from the early Eocene through the

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2015.06.025
1367-9120/Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article in press as: O’shea, N., et al. Paleoenvironmental conditions in the late Paleogene, Sumatra, Indonesia. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences
(2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2015.06.025
2 N. O’shea et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences xxx (2015) xxx–xxx
Volcanoes
Land
Highlands
Carbonate
Platforms
Shallow Sea
Deep Sea
Trenches
Fig. 1. Paleogeographic map of Island Southeast Asia. Map showing reconstructed submerged and elevated land surfaces in Sunda during the late Oligocene (reproduced with
permission from Hall, 2009). Western Sumatra remained emergent during the late Oligocene (approximate study area marked with a black star).
early Miocene, making it an important location for investigating
the distribution, evolution, and paleoecology of terrestrial
vertebrates that existed in Island Southeast Asia during this time
(Zonneveld et al., 2011). The complex geologic history of this
region and its already well-documented evidence for complex pat-
terns of biodiversity make Sumatra a good test bed for examining
how the interplay of land availability and environmental changes
may have affected faunal diversity in Island Southeast Asia.
Paleosols, positioned at the contact of the atmosphere and
lithosphere, are a direct, but complex, terrestrial record of the pale-
oenvironmental and paleoclimatic conditions under which they
formed. This makes paleosol-based proxies a powerful tool for
reconstructing past environments (Sheldon and Tabor, 2009). In
this study paleosol morphology, stable carbon isotope composition
of bulk paleosol organic matter (POM), and bulk geochemistry pro-
vide multiple lines of evidence to help reconstruct the environ-
ment of the late Paleogene in western Sumatra. This research is
the first examination of the Sumatran paleoenvironment from this
largely unknown time period. These reconstructions provide criti-
cal baseline information about the paleoenvironment for assessing
the development of biodiversity in Island Southeast Asia.
2. Geological setting
2.1. Structural setting
The paleosol sequences described in this paper occur within the
Ombilin Basin, an intermontane sedimentary and structural basin
located in the Barisan Mountain Range, West Sumatra (Fig. 2).
The exposed segment of the basin is about 25-km wide and
Please cite this article in press as: O’shea, N., et al. Paleoenvironmental conditions in the late Paleogene, Sumatra, Indonesia. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences
(2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2015.06.025
60-km long, trends NW–SE and roughly parallels the Sumatran
Fault System. The Sitangkai and Silungkang faults define the north-
ern and southern boundaries of the basin, respectively (Koning,
1985; Situmorang et al., 1991). The Sumatran Fault System
resulted from the oblique subduction of the Indo-Australian plate
under the Eurasian plate (Situmorang et al., 1991). Tensional tec-
tonics that resulted from the strike-slip movement of this collision
produced the graben-like, pull-apart structure of the Ombilin Basin
(Koning, 1985; Fatimah and Ward, 2009). The present study area is
located within the Talawi syncline or Talawi Sub-basin in the
northwestern section of the Ombilin Basin (Howells, 1997).
2.2. Stratigraphic setting
Despite the basin’s small size it contains a relatively large
amount of Cenozoic fill (4600 m; Koning, 1985). The basin’s
Cenozoic fill overlies pre-Cenozoic basement rocks and includes
in ascending order; the Brani Formation, the Sangkarewang
Formation, the Sawahlunto Formation, the Sawahtambang
Formation, and the Ombilin Formation (Fatimah and Ward, 2009;
Koesoemadinata and Matasak, 1981; Whateley and Jordan, 1989).
This study focuses on a small part of the late Paleogene
Sawahlunto Formation. The oldest sediment in the Ombilin Basin,
the Brani Formation, represents Eocene marginal fan deposition
and consists of a sequence of breccias and polymictic pebble to
cobble conglomerate in a muddy to sandy matrix that interfinger
laterally and basinward with the Sangkarewang Formation
(Fatimah and Ward, 2009; Whateley and Jordan, 1989). The
Sangkarewang Formation is composed of dark bluish gray to black
laminated shale that is commonly intercalated with greenish-gray
feldspathic turbidite sandstone. These shale successions,
 N. O’shea et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences xxx (2015) xxx–xxx 3

100° 45’ E Recent Volcanics

Ombilin Fm.

- Neogene
Paleogene
Sawahtambang Fm.

Sawahlunto Fm.

Sangkarewang Fm.

Pre-Cenozoic
Limestone

Meta-sediments

0° 30’ S Granite

0 kms 10

101° E
Talawi

KANDI

Banda
Aceh Sawahlunto
Su

0° 45’ S
m
at
ra

Solok
Padang
Ombilin
Basin

Fig. 2. Geological map of Ombilin Basin, Sumatra. Present study area is illustrated by the star (reproduced with permission from Zonneveld et al., 2012).

interpreted as freshwater lacustrine, are overlain by latest Eocene
to early Miocene fluvial sediments of the Sawahlunto and
Sawahtambang formations. The Sawahlunto Formation is
composed of coal, shale, siltstone, and quartz-rich sandstone that
occur primarily as migrating point bar channel fills (Fatimah and
Ward, 2009). The Sawahtambang Formation overlies the
Sawahlunto and is interpreted as a braided river deposit primarily
consisting of cross-bedded quartz sandstone and conglomerate
(Koesoemadinata and Matasak, 1981). The coarse-grained sand-
stone of the Sawahtambang Formation is in turn overlain uncon-
formably by the Ombilin Formation which caps off the basin and
consists of dark gray marine shale that contains limestone lenses
with coral debris, shells, and plant remains (Whateley and
Jordan, 1989). The overall basin fill records a progressive upward
decrease in non-kaolinite clay minerals, relative to kaolinite, and
an upward decrease in feldspar abundance (Fatimah and Ward,
2009). These trends reflect changing sediment sources for the basin
fill; less-weathered, more feldspar rich montane sources dominate
the early basin fill. As erosion of the highlands progressed the basin
fill shifted to more weathered, kaolinite-rich sediments sourced
from intrabasinal lacustrine and alluvial deposits.
3. Materials and methods
This study focuses on two Sawahlunto Formation stratigraphic
sections associated with the Nusa Alam Lestari (NAL) coal mine
west of Kandi, in west central Sumatra. The exposures reveal a
sequence of 24 paleosols formed in an aggrading alluvial sequence
in the lower reaches of a large river system during the late
Paleogene. We sampled and described the 165 m thick strati-
graphic sequence of alluvial deposits in June and July, 2009.
Additional samples were taken from a nearby exposure that
contained 8 paleosols associated with bird tracks and other trace
fossils discussed in Zonneveld et al. (2011, 2012) and Zaim et al.
(2011, 2014).
Exposures were described, measured, sampled, and pho-
tographed. Standard procedures and terminology were employed
to describe paleosol profiles (Soil Survey Staff, 1993). Paleosol

Please cite this article in press as: O’shea, N., et al. Paleoenvironmental conditions in the late Paleogene, Sumatra, Indonesia. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences
(2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2015.06.025
4 N. O’shea et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences xxx (2015) xxx–xxx
samples were described according to soil horizon and thickness to
provide visual descriptions of the samples before processing.
Morphological characteristics recorded include texture, soil struc-
ture, matrix color, redoximorphic features, slickensides, reaction
to dilute HCl, rooting, and burrowing. Based on the above field
observations the paleosols were classified according to the system
of Mack et al. (1993). Bulk samples were collected by soil horizon
for soil stable carbon isotope and major element analysis.
To ensure complete sample homogenization all bulk samples
were dried and ground to powder. Subsamples were analyzed for
carbon and nitrogen concentrations and their respective stable
isotope ratios in the Stable Isotope Lab at Iowa State University
using a Finnigan MAT Delta PlusXL mass spectrometer in continu-
ous flow mode connected to a Costech Elemental Analyzer.
Reference standards (caffeine [IAEA-600], cellulose [IAEA-CH-3],
and acetanilide [laboratory standard]) were used for isotopic
corrections, and to assign the data to the appropriate isotopic
scale. Corrections were applied using a regression method.
The combined uncertainty (analytical uncertainty and average
correction factor) for d13C is 0.06‰ (VPDB) and d15N is 0.06‰
(Air), respectively. The uncertainty for percent carbon and percent
nitrogen is ±1%.
Major element analyses were performed at the University of
Iowa. All samples were prepared for inductively coupled plasma
optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES) analysis under clean
room conditions in the Department of Earth and Environmental
Sciences Clean Laboratory, equipped with laminar flow hoods
and an Analab closed environment evaporation system that
ensures filtered, temperature controlled, and excess-pressure air.
Sample dissolution prior to ICP-OES analysis was performed
according to the Thompson (2011) flux fusion method.
Dissoluted samples were then run using the Varian 720-ES
ICP-OES instrument in the Department of Chemistry to produce
major element concentrations. Individual paleosol samples were
run as a batch along with reagent samples for procedural integrity.
4. Results
4.1. Stratigraphy and sedimentation
The NAL mine section exposes several alluvial facies in strati-
graphic succession (Fig. 3). The lowest 40 m of the section consists
of siltstone, mudstone and coal. Trace fossil associations and phys-
ical sedimentary structures (inclined heterolithic stratification,
reactivation surfaces, bidirectional current ripples, and ripples
with clear mud drapes) indicate tidal influences and marginal mar-
ine deposition in this part of the study interval. These beds are
commonly penetrated by roots and generally exhibit weak
post-depositional pedogenic alteration.
Channel sandstone units less than 3 m in thickness appear in
the section from 44 to 69 m, and alternate with siltstone, mud-
stone and coal, representing a series of rapidly evolving microenvi-
ronments that signal a diminution of marine influences and a
prevalence of meandering fluvial channels and associated low
energy floodplain environments. Between 69 and 135 m relatively
thick channel sandstone beds, some with basal conglomerates,
record the presence of a meandering river channel belt. Siltstone
and mudstone intervals in this part of the section represent rela-
tively small channel-proximal flood basins. From 135 m to the
top of the section, channel sandstone lenses become less frequent
and thinner, while mudstones and siltstone units representing
flood basin and natural levee environments become dominant.
The Kandi bird track locality (KBT), described in detail else-
where (Zaim et al., 2011; Zonneveld et al., 2011, 2012) is likely
equivalent to the 45–69 m interval in the NAL mine section
Please cite this article in press as: O’shea, N., et al. Paleoenvironmental conditions in the late Paleogene, Sumatra, Indonesia. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences
(2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2015.06.025
(Fig. 4). The KBT section also contains several facies and eight
paleosols. The lower 13 m of this section records channel sands
sandwiched between finer-grained estuarine sediments with pale-
osols formed in upward-fining sequences. These are overlain by
silty and fine sand estuarine deposits altered by thin and weakly
expressed paleosols from about 13 to about 20 m.
4.2. Paleosol morphology
Former land surfaces are represented by the paleosols present
in the Sawahlunto Formation exposed in the NAL and KBT sections.
The occurrence of roots, peds, and soil horizonization is indicative
of the pedogenic alteration of these alluvial and estuarine sedi-
ments. Details of the paleosols’ morphologic properties are listed
in the Supplementary Information Tables S1 and S2.
Determining the amount of compaction a paleosol has under-
gone is important for understanding diagenetic transformations
that may have altered properties post-burial. Burial depths of sed-
iments in the Ombilin Basin do not exceed 2200 m (Moss and
Carter, 1996). This overburden was minimal and ichnofossils asso-
ciated with the KBT section show no evidence of compaction
(Zonneveld et al., 2011, 2012). Furthermore, applying the decom-
paction method of Sheldon and Retallack (2001) to these paleosols
yielded very low compaction estimates (Supplementary
Information Table S3). This method utilizes modern soil taxonomy
classifications that require certain assumptions to be made regard-
ing soil type constants. To account for this ambiguity, the soil com-
paction was calculated for all soil types at this depth using the
constants provided in Table 1 of Sheldon and Retallack (2001).
Most soil types (alfisols, aridisols, entisols, inceptisols, mollisols,
oxisols, ultisols, and vertisols) yielded compaction estimates of
greater than 0.95, indicating that the present paleosols retain more
than 95% of their original thickness. The only exceptions were spo-
dosols (C = 0.91), andosols (C = 0.84), and histosols (C = 0.91).
However, there is no evidence to suggest that andosols and spo-
dosols were present in this paleolandscape and the amount of
compaction exhibited by the histosols is consistent with the coal
seams throughout the Sahwalunto Formation. Overall, the pale-
osols are not thought to have been deeply buried or subjected to
temperatures high enough to produce any significant diagenic
effects related to compaction or heating. Furthermore, our burial
depth estimate is conservative as it is based on deposits strati-
graphically lower than the Sawahlunto within the Ombilin Basin.
Diagenesis can also result from fluid flow in sedimentary basins
(Crossey et al., 1996). Because silicate minerals like those filing the
Omblin basin have low solubility and temperature gradients, very
large pore water fluxes are required to dissolve, transport, and pre-
cipitate significant quantities of these minerals (Bjørlykke, 1994).
In addition, the relatively thin, porous sandstone units in the
Sawalunto Formation are not conducive to transport of large quan-
tities of fluids. The lack of evidence for cementation or kaolinite
coatings in areas of the succession that could serve to transport
significant volumes of fluids (sandstones and fractures) in the
exposed succession argues against significant diagenesis induced
by fluid flow (Bjørlykke, 1994).
4.2.1. NAL pedotypes
The paleosols are grouped into distinct kinds, or pedotypes, dis-
tinguished from other pedotypes by an assemblage of key pedo-
logic features (see following descriptions and Supplemental
Information Table S1). Upper case letters in the pedotype name
indicate the locality from which the pedotype was defined
(NAL = NAL mine, KBT = Kandi). Table 1 lists the pedotypes present
in the NAL section. The NAL-1 pedotype is classified as a protosol
characterized by weak soil morphology, and formed under
well-drained conditions. The NAL-2 pedotype is also classified as
 N. O’shea et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences xxx (2015) xxx–xxx 5

Carbon isotope
Distance ratio
Carbon isotope from River
Distance Interpreted (δ13C ‰)
ratio Environment Near - Far -28 -24 -20 -16
Paleosol (Pedotype) Interpreted from River (δ13C ‰)
Environment P24
Near - Far -28 -24 -20 -16 Terrace
170
Crevasse
Splay
channel P23 (4)
80
flood basin
P22 (3)
160

P21 (3)
70 channel
P12 (1)
P20 (4)
C9
150
natural levee
wet flood
basin with
wetlands
60

channel
C8
wetland
P11 (2) 140
flood basin
channel P19 (2) flood basin
C7 wetland
50
P10 (5)
C6 natural levee
P9 (2)
C5 wetland
P8 (2) natural levee
130
channel
meters

channel
meters

C3,4 wetland
P7 (2)
40
flood basin (1)
P6 (1) P18 (3)
P5 (5)
120
P17 (3)
natural levee

30 P16 (3)
flood basin
C2 wetland P15 (4)

P4 (1)
110
P3 (2)
flood basin

20 channel

wetland
P14 (4)
C1 flood basin
P13 (1)
100

10 channel
flood basin
P2 (6)

flood basin
90
P1 (6)

wetland

-coal horizon -siltstone to silty sandstone -cross-stratified sandstone

-coaly siltstone -intraclastic sandstone -rooted horizon

-silty shale and siltstone -sandstone, massive to laminated

Fig. 3. Nusa Alam Lestari (NAL) coal mine section stratigraphy showing paleosols and their assigned pedotypes with associated landform interpretations, relative distance
from river, and carbon isotope ratios. This section records the change from estuarine environments in the lower half of the section to riverine environments in the upper part
of the section. Pedotype abbreviations: 1 – NAL-1, 2 – NAL-2, 3 – NAL-3, 4 – NAL-4, 5 – NAL-5. Refer to Table 1 for pedotype orders.

Please cite this article in press as: O’shea, N., et al. Paleoenvironmental conditions in the late Paleogene, Sumatra, Indonesia. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences
(2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2015.06.025
6 N. O’shea et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences xxx (2015) xxx–xxx

Fig. 4. Kandi bird track (KBT) stratigraphic section showing paleosols and their assigned pedotype with associated landform interpretations, relative distance from open
water and carbon isotope ratios. Note relatively heavy d13C values of paleosol SOM in the lower part of the section (paleosols B1 and B2) and the extremely heavy value
associated with the upper part of paleosol B4. Refer to Table 2 for pedotype orders.

Please cite this article in press as: O’shea, N., et al. Paleoenvironmental conditions in the late Paleogene, Sumatra, Indonesia. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences
(2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2015.06.025
 N. O’shea et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences xxx (2015) xxx–xxx 7

Table 1 The KBT-2 pedotype is weakly expressed but has a cambic horizon
Diagnostic features and classification of pedotypes from the NAL open pit mine. (Bw) and is also assigned to the protosol order. The presence of a
NAL pedotypes gleyed, B horizon with evidence of clay translocation (Btg) sup-
Pedotype Diagnostic features Order Paleosols ports the assignment of the KBT-3 pedotype to the gleyed argillisol
order. The KBT-4 pedotype is an organic-rich claystone profile with
NAL-6 Organic horizon (O), poorly-drained, Histosol P1, P2, coal
presence of peats
dark red mottles. It is assigned to the order carbonaceous protosol
NAL-5 Presence of slickenslides, Vertisol P18, P10, P5 but could also represent a paleo-mollisol. The KBT-5 pedotype has
redoximorphic features (mottling) well-expressed horizonation and is classified as a vertic, albic argil-
NAL-4 Gleyed horizon (Bwg), poorly- Gleysol P23, P20, lisol due to the presence of slickenslides, a thick E horizon, and a B
drained P15, 14
horizon with evidence of clay translocation (Bt). The KBT section
NAL-3 Gleyed, argillic horizon (Btg), Gleyed P22, P21,
poorly-drained argillisol P17, P16 paleosol assemblage is generally more well developed than the
NAL-2 Cambic horizon (Bw), Protosol P19, P11, P9, paleosols in the stratigraphically equivalent interval in the NAL
redoximorphic features (i.e., P8, P7, P3 mine located about 1 km away. Most likely this represents
mottling)
landscape-scale variation in soil development with the KBT locality
NAL-1 Cambic horizon (Bw), well-drained Protosol P13, P12, P6,
4
representing a slightly higher, more well drained part of the
paleolandscape with a slightly lower sedimentation rate.

4.3. POM stable carbon isotope record

a protosol, but redoximorphic features, such as mottling, suggest
that this pedotype formed in areas that were subject to seasonal
The d13C profiles of POM in both the NAL and KBT sections are
saturation. The presence of a gleyed, argillic horizon (Btg) charac-
presented in Figs. 3 and 4, and the results of individual analyses
terizes the NAL-3 pedotype which is classified as a gleyed argillisol.
are listed in the Supplementary Information Table S4. The NAL
The gleyed colors and redoximorphic features indicate that these
d13C values are generally in the 24–20‰ range throughout the
soils were generally poorly-drained during their formation, but
sequence suggesting that the paleolandscape was dominated by
the presence of clay coatings on ped surfaces indicates that the
C3 vegetation. However, some samples from P20 (gleysol), and
water table was occasionally low enough to permit downward flow
P17 (gleyed argillisol) exhibit heavier d13C values ( 14.5‰ and
of gravitational water and translocation of colloidal material. The
18.2‰ respectively) that indicate significant input from C4 vege-
NAL-4 pedotype is classified as a gleysol, and is characterized by
tation. Finally, two samples bracketing the channel-dominated
a gleyed B horizon (Bwg), indicating formation in poorly-drained
interval from about 68 to 102 m exhibit very heavy d13C values;
conditions. The NAL-5 pedotype is a vertisol. This pedotype exhi-
greater than 10‰. These d13C values, associated with P13 (proto-
bits slickenslides and redoximorphic features suggesting an
sol – 8.6‰) and P12 (protosol – 9.5‰) are extremely heavy for a
extended dry season, desiccation-induced soil cracking and a fluc-
terrestrial sequence and may indicate a marine influence.
tuating water table. Finally, the NAL-6 pedotype, classified as a his-
With the exception of B3 (carbonaceous protosol), paleosols in
tosol, is characterized by the presence of an organic horizon (O)
the lower half of the KBT section [B1 (vertic, albic argillisol), B2
and/or peat (coal), indicating formation in ever-wet conditions
(gleyed argillisol), B4 (protosol)] exhibit heavier d13C values than
with high organic matter input. This pedotype also has a rooted
those in the NAL section. The extreme end of this trend occurs in
‘‘underclay’’ which was the saturated subsoil at the time of soil
the A horizon of B4 with a d13C of 11.2‰, perhaps suggesting a
formation. The NAL paleosols exhibit an overall trend toward
higher input from C4 vegetation (Table S4).
greater development up section reflecting either increased land-
scape stability or a more effective weathering environment over
4.4. Major element geochemistry
the time interval represented in the section. Paleosol 24 at the
top of the NAL section has been overprinted by modern weathering
All geochemical results are listed in the Supplementary
and pedogenesis and was not included in the analysis.
Information Table S5 as weight percentages of major element oxi-
des and ppm of select trace elements (Sr and Ba). Raw abundances
were converted to their molar equivalent for calculating weather-
4.2.2. KBT pedotypes
ing ratios and other pedogenic indices (Supplementary Information
The pedotypes present in the KBT section are listed in Table 2
Tables S6 and S7). We use major element ratios to evaluate prove-
with more information provided in Supplementary Information
nance and to obtain estimates of various chemical weathering indi-
Table S2. The KBT-1 pedotype is very weakly expressed, lacks a B
cators following Sheldon and Tabor (2009). Table 3 presents
horizon and is therefore entisol-like and classified as a protosol.
selected weathering ratios (mobile/immobile element ratios) and
pedogenic indices for 7 paleosols representing 5 of the pedotypes
Table 2 described in this study.
Diagnostic features and classification of paleosols from the Kandi birdtrack section. The ratio of Ti/Al, an indicator of provenance and acidification,
KBT pedotypes shows similar values across the pedotypes with slightly larger
values suggesting slightly more acidification, in the protosols
Pedotype Diagnostic features Order Paleosols
(pedotypes NAL-2 and NAL-5). The values for NAL and KBT
KBT-5 Well developed, somewhat poorly Vertic, albic B1
pedotypes are similar to Ti/Al ratios of Eocene and Oligocene
drained, seasonal dry period argillisol
indicated by slickensides mudstone/sandstone parent materials and weakly to moderately
KBT-4 Moderately developed, paleo- Carbonaceous B3 developed paleosols reported by Sheldon et al. (2009). The ratio
mollisol? protosol of aluminum to silica (Al/Si) is an indicator of clay content, with
KBT-3 Gleyed argillic horizon (Btg), drab Gleyed B7, B2 higher values indicating more clay. The protocol pedotypes in
halo mottles, somewhat poorly- argillisol
drained
our study all have lower Al/Si ratios than the other,
KBT-2 Cambic horizon (Bw) Protosol B6, B5, well-expressed pedotypes, suggesting either less clayey parent
B4 material or clay accumulation during formation of the
KBT-1 AC profile, absence of B horizon, Protosol B8 non-protosol pedotypes. Other mobile/immobile elemental ratios
weak soil development
(Ca, Mg, K, Na/Ti) show no systematic trends with regard to soil

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8 N. O’shea et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences xxx (2015) xxx–xxx

Table 3
Pedogenic indices and weathering ratios following the methods and standards as outlined in Sheldon and Tabor (2009).

Pedogenic indices and weathering ratios

Paleosol Sample Hydrolysis Leaching
Al/Si Ca/Ti Mg/Ti Na/Ti K/Ti
B1 (Vertic, Albic B10 (E) 0.413 5.905 1.538 2.677 2.273
Argillisol) B11 (Bt1) 0.388 6.018 1.638 2.078 2.547
B12 (Bt2) 0.452 6.584 1.863 2.849 2.367
P23 (Gleysol) 42 (A) 0.300 6.061 1.301 1.250 2.277
41 (E) 0.430 5.563 1.483 1.254 3.043
40 (Bt) 0.373 5.205 1.359 2.294 2.388
39 (Btg) 0.422 5.473 1.342 2.015 2.582
P17 (Gleyed Argillisol) 29 (A/B) 0.303 5.831 1.451 1.922 1.267
28 (Btg) 0.311 6.255 1.569 1.050 1.761
P10 (Vertisol) 16 (A) 0.315 5.986 1.561 0.395 1.977
15 (Btgss) 0.361 5.558 1.468 1.733 1.835
P9 (Protosol) 14 (A-Bw) 0.217 7.008 1.502 1.436 2.155
P8 (Protosol) 13 (Bw) 0.298 5.861 1.501 1.853 2.181
P3 (Protosol) 5 (A) 0.287 6.076 1.426 3.230 2.172
4 (Bw) 0.296 5.402 1.406 4.096 2.696

Provenance/ Salinization Chemical index of alteration CIA-K RBases/Al

acidification (CIA)
Ti/Al (K + Na)/Al 100  Al/(Al + Ca + K + Na) 100  Al/(Al + Ca + Na) (Ca + K + Mg + Na)/Al
B1 (Vertic, Albic B10 (E) 0.053 0.260 63.693 68.934 0.651
Argilisol) B11 (Bt1) 0.055 0.254 63.072 69.186 0.676
B12 (Bt2) 0.046 0.240 64.839 69.760 0.628
P23 (Gleysol) 42 (A) 0.066 0.234 61.172 67.386 0.721
41 (E) 0.052 0.225 65.953 73.698 0.594
40 (Bt) 0.065 0.304 60.870 67.223 0.731
39 (Btg) 0.055 0.252 64.407 70.876 0.626
P17 (Gleyed Argillisol) 29 (A/B) 0.072 0.230 60.568 64.119 0.756
28 (Btg) 0.065 0.182 63.015 67.891 0.689
P10 (Vertisol) 16 (A) 0.062 0.146 66.021 71.790 0.611
15 (Btgss) 0.062 0.221 63.930 68.929 0.655
P9 (Protosol) 14 (A-Bw) 0.091 0.327 50.858 56.503 1.103
P8 (Protosol) 13 (Bw) 0.068 0.273 59.931 65.735 0.770
P3 (Protosol) 5 (A) 0.074 0.399 54.119 59.263 0.953
4 (Bw) 0.077 0.520 51.701 57.882 1.042

horizon or pedotype in these Sumatran paleosols (Table 3). The
absence of trends could reflect local parent material variations
related to depositional environment, and/or inherited ‘‘mixed’’
geochemical signatures derived from previous pedogenic and
erosion histories of these reworked parent materials.
Another approach to evaluating weathering using major
element geochemistry is the use of indices that quantify the total-
ity of weathering processes (Sheldon and Tabor, 2009). The chem-
ical index of alteration (CIA) is a measurement of the weathering of
feldspar minerals and their hydration to form clay minerals. This
index reveals that the protosol pedotypes exhibit the least amount
of weathering, but there is little difference indicated among the
more strongly developed pedotypes (Table 3). This same pattern
is exhibited with the CIA-K index, which removes the effects of
post-burial potassium additions by metasomatism or illitization
of originally smetitic clays (Maynard, 1992; Fedo et al., 1995). As
mentioned earlier, metasomatism and/or illitization are not sus-
pected in Sawahlunto Fm. paleosols in the Ombilin Basin because
neither deep burial nor high burial temperatures are suspected.
Finally, the sum of cations (Ca + K + Mg + Na) divided by aluminum
has been used for categorizing weathering intensity of paleosols
(Retallack, 1999). The protosols in our study all have higher values
for this index than do the other pedotypes. In addition, Sheldon
et al. (2002) have suggested that a RBases/Al ratio of 0.5 is a
statistically significant dividing line between base-rich Alfisols
(RBases/Al > 0.5) and base-poor Ultisols (RBases/Al < 0.5). The
pedotypes analyzed here all fall within the base-rich field, with
the protosols being more so than the other pedotypes (Table 3).
Whole rock geochemistry based transfer functions have been
developed to estimate paleoclimatic conditions under which pale-
osols have formed (Sheldon and Tabor, 2009). These empirical rela-
tionships have been developed by relating mean annual
temperature (MAT) or precipitation (MAP) to the geochemical com-
position of modern soils. The relationships are typically not applica-
ble to soils formed in the wet tropics, and are best applied to soil Bw
and Bt horizons in applicable settings (Sheldon and Tabor, 2009).
5. Discussion
Regional and local stratigraphic associations in combination
with sedimentary structures and plant fossil associations indicate
that the paleosols investigated in this study formed in the distal
reaches of a large tropical river system. Flood frequency and inten-
sity strongly controlled paleosol development through changes in
the aggradation rate of soil parent materials (Kraus, 1999).
Paleo-landform interpretations, relative distance from river, and
carbon isotope ratios associated with the paleosols in the NAL

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 N. O’shea et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences xxx (2015) xxx–xxx 9

and KBT sections are presented in Figs. 3 and 4, respectively.
Pedotypes in the lower half of this succession are dominantly his-
tosols, coals and protosols formed under poorly-drained condi-
tions. The one exception is the NAL-1 pedotype, a well-drained
protosol that likely formed on elevated portions of natural levees
or crevasse splays. Even those paleosols interpreted to have under-
gone extended dry periods (the vertisol NAL-5 pedotype) show
evidence of periodic rises in the water table in the form of abun-
dant redoximorphic features. At the KBL section, stratigraphically
equivalent to the 45–69 m interval at NAL, mud-draped ripples
and abundant carbonaceous detritus in association with ichnofos-
sil associations indicative of estuarine conditions indicate
previously undocumented marine influence in the Sawahlunto
Fm. (Zonneveld et al., 2012). Compared with the stratigraphically
equivalent paleosol sequence in the NAL mine, more paleosols in
the KBT section show evidence of clay translocation and/or
well-drained conditions. This suggests that the KBT section repre-
sents a slightly higher part of the paleolandscape less prone to
rapid sedimentation during the intervals soils were forming than
in the part of the paleolandscape represented by the equivalent
interval at the NAL mine section about 1 km away.
The upper half of the section records conditions generally
nearer the channel (Fig. 3). Evidence of clay translocation and
periods of lower water table are more common in this part of the
section (the gleyed argillisol NAL-3 pedotype and gleysol NAL-4
pedotype), but these paleosols too exhibit redoximorphic features
indicative of waterlogged conditions characteristic of seasonally
wet flood basins.
The stable carbon isotope ratio of soil organic matter can pro-
vide an indication of past vegetation, and by inference, environ-
mental conditions (Cerling et al., 1989; Ehleringer et al., 1997;
Boutton et al., 1998; Kelly et al., 1998; Nordt et al., 2002). Carbon
isotope analyses from the NAL and KBT sections point to the dom-
inance of C3 vegetation with relatively limited input from C4 plants.
While a period of aridity and low CO2 levels likely favored the evo-
lution of C4 grasses about 24–33 Ma (Sage, 2004), it is widely
accepted that C4 plants only experienced a large expansion outside
of East Africa and North America between 8 and 5 Ma during the
Late Miocene (Kingston et al., 1994; Morgan et al., 1994; Cerling
et al., 1997; Latorre et al., 1997; Cerling, 1999; Fox and Koch,
2004). The few paleosols exhibiting C4 vegetation influence in
our study probably represent localized environments where
seasonal moisture deficits favored C4 plants.
Two samples (associated with P-14 and P-13) from the NAL sec-
tion have unusually heavy d13C values of greater than 10.0‰ that
seem to imply some marine input. These heavy d13C values
together with sedimentary structures and ichnofossil evidence of
estuarine environments lower in the section provides compelling
support for marine incursion in a part of the stratigraphic section
previously thought to be strictly non-marine.
Weathering ratios calculated from major elemental analyses
suggest moderate to strong chemical weathering of the most
well-expressed paleosols and moderate weathering of those less
greater than 35% in Alfisols, and less in Ultisols (Soil Survey Staff,
1993). A molecular weathering ratio of bases/alumina of <0.5 and
a CIA-K value of <80 are considered proxies for the presence of
Alfisols rather than Ultisols (Sheldon et al., 2002). Unusually, all
of the paleosols in our study pass the CIA-K criterion as Alfisols
(<80), but are classified as Ultisols according to the bases/alumina
ratio (>0.5). The presence of Alfisols at this low latitude and alti-
tude in the Indo-Pacific region seems unlikely. However,
pollen-based climate reconstructions of this region for the late
Oligocene suggest that the climate in Sumatra was ‘‘equatorial’’;
more seasonal and less wet than the much wetter ‘‘monsoonal’’ cli-
mates characteristic of the Miocene (Morley, 2000, 2012). This shift
has been attributed to the collision of the Australian plate with
Sunda at the end Oligocene, which closed the Indonesian
Throughflow and, in turn, fostered the onset of the East Asian mon-
soon (Lohman et al., 2011; Morley, 2012). Thus, the apparent
base-rich status of the paleosols in the NAL and KBT sections
may reflect development under the ‘‘equatorial’’ conditions that
characterized Sunda in the late Paloeogene prior to onset of the
East Asian monsoon in the early Miocene.
Geochemistry-based paleoclimate proxies for NAL and KBT
paleosols show apparent inconsistencies with the paleogeographic
setting of Sunda. MAT calculated from protosol Bw horizon data
ranges from 64.4 to 57.2 °C, somewhat cooler than expected in this
low latitude location (Table 4). Similarly, MAP estimates from the
paleosol geochemical data range on the very dry side of what
was expected based on pollen-based climatic reconstructions of
Morley (2000, 2012). These inconsistencies may reflect the fact
that virtually all paleosol proxies and transfer functions using
whole rock geochemistry have been developed from data obtained
from modern Vertisols or soil orders formed in xeric and mesic
environments. There is a noticeable absence of research devoted
to examining the geochemistry of tropical rainforest environments
and much less to the study of ancient wet tropical environments.
Geology has been described as ‘‘the starting point for under-
standing Southeast Asian biogeographic patterns’’ (Hall, 2009:
159). In particular, a better understanding of the paleoenviron-
mental conditions surrounding the evolution of terrestrial verte-
brates in Island Southeast Asia may inform questions about the
selective pressures that have shaped current and past faunal distri-
bution patterns. During our initial fieldwork, ichnofossils and bird
track traces were discovered at the KBT section (Zonneveld et al.,
2011, 2012). Subsequent fieldwork in this region in 2012 and
2014 at nearby localities resulted in the discovery of additional
fossil remains, establishing for the first time the presence of fishes,
Table 4
Reconstructions of mean annual temperature (MAT) and mean annual precipitation
(MAP) based on transfer functions of whole rock geochemical data. The MAT transfer
function is specific to protosols. MAT transfer function from Sheldon (2006); MAP
transfer function from Sheldon et al. (2002).
Paleosol (soil horizon) MAT (°C) MAP (mm/yr)
T = 46.9 (Al/Si) + 4 P = 221 ⁄ e(0.0197⁄CIA-K)

well-expressed. Leaching of bases is heavy in all paleosols B1 (E) NA 859

(Table 3). Since the depletion of alkali and alkaline earth elements B1 (Bt1) NA 864
B1 (Bt2) NA 873
(Ca, Mg, Na, K) in soil is accelerated by moisture and warmth
P23 (A) NA 833
(Sheldon et al., 2002), heavy leaching suggests wet, warm environ- P23 (E) NA 944
mental conditions. Likewise, the high clay content of all the P23 (Bt) NA 831
paleosols is indicative of significant water movement through the P23 (Btg) NA 893
P17 (A/Bw) NA 782
soil profile, weathering in a moist environment, and/or
P17 (Btg) NA 842
low-energy depositional environments. P10 (A) NA 909
Many of these paleosols are assigned to the order argillisol and P10 (Btgss) NA 859
may have been Alfisols or Ultisols before fossilization. Alfisols and P9 (A-Bw) NA 673
Ultisols both exhibit significant clay translocation and subsurface P8 (Bw) NA 807
P3 (A) NA 710
accumulation, but are differentiated by base saturation (a feature
P3 (Bw) 18 691
largely determined by the degree of chemical weathering) of

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(2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2015.06.025
10 N. O’shea et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences xxx (2015) xxx–xxx
turtles, crocodiles, amphibians and mammals in the Sangkarewang
and Sawahlunto Formations. Additionally, our work has begun to
document a rich paleobotanical record from the Sawahlunto
Formation. However, the generally limited fossil evidence in
Sumatra is surprising given our interpretations of a productive
tropical forest environment at this locality. It may be partly due
to the fact that the taphonomic processes associated with these
forests, most notably the intense leaching environment, contribute
to the previous paucity of the vertebrate record in these sediments.
It is also likely that concerted fossil collecting efforts were hin-
dered in the past due to the difficulty in locating rock exposures
on the surface, a problem somewhat alleviated by the open-pit coal
mining in the Ombilin Basin area. Despite these difficulties, the
outcrops in the Ombilin Basin have been described as excellent
in quality making them a prime area for continued fossil collecting
efforts before being compromised by the intense mining activity
(Argakoesoemah and Firmansyah, 2011).
6. Conclusion
Island Southeast Asia is currently one of the most biodiverse and
biogeographically complex regions in the world. The convergence
of the Asian and Australian continental plates significantly altered
the terrestrial landscape and climate of this region during the
Cenozoic. Understanding the environmental conditions present on
exposed landmasses is crucial for recreating the habitats that may
have permitted the dispersal of terrestrial fauna and flora in this
region (Slick et al., 2011). Much emphasis has been placed on the
effect that Pleistocene sea level changes have had on current spe-
cies distributions. However, pre-Pleistocene dispersal and vicari-
ance may have had more influence on current and past species
distributions than previously recognized, with Pleistocene sea level
changes simply partitioning intraspecific variation (Lohman et al.,
2011). The Ombilin Basin late Paleogene paleosol sequences dis-
cussed herein shed some light on the paleoenvironmental condi-
tions in Island Southeast Asia during this under-researched time
period. The paleosol-based paleoenvironmental record points to a
productive tropical forest environment that supported a diverse
faunal community. Currently the terrestrial vertebrate fossil record
in Island Southeast Asia from this time period is still limited but
continued exploration is paying off with the discovery of more fos-
sil faunal, floral and trace fossil elements that are slowly increasing
our understanding of this biodiverse region.
Acknowledgements
Travel and field expenses for EAB, GFG, and RLC were provided
by grants from the National Geographic Society (NGS #8525-08
and #W223-12). Additional funding for fieldwork was provided
by the Human Evolution Research Fund at the University of Iowa
Foundation and the Ann and Gordon Getty Foundation. An Iowa
Center for Research for Undergraduates Fellowship and Ferentz
Fellowship for Undergraduate Research supported research and
quantitative analyses performed by NO. We are grateful to David
Peate and Matthew Wortel for access to critical laboratory facilities
in the Department of Earth & Environmental Sciences at the
University of Iowa. A special thanks to Kat Rocheford for her assis-
tance with the ICP-OES methodology.
Appendix A. Supplementary material
Supplementary data associated with this article can be found, in
the online version, at http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2015.06.
025.
Please cite this article in press as: O’shea, N., et al. Paleoenvironmental conditions in the late Paleogene, Sumatra, Indonesia. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences
(2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2015.06.025
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