PALAEO-08338; No of Pages 11

Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology xxx (2017) xxx–xxx

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/palaeo

Late Holocene sea-level changes and paleoclimate recorded in Lake

Lungué, southern Mozambique
Sandra Raúl Sitoe a,b,c,⁎,1, Jan Risberg a,c, Elin Norström c,d, Lars-Ove Westerberg a,c
a
Department of Physical Geography, Stockholm University, S-106 91 Stockholm, Sweden
b
Department of Geology, University of Eduardo Mondlane, Maputo, Mozambique
c
Bolin Centre for Climate Research, Stockholm University, S-106 91 Stockholm, Sweden
d
Department of Geological Sciences, Stockholm University, S-106 91 Stockholm, Sweden

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: We report on late Holocene paleoenvironmental and sea-level changes in southern Mozambique, based on analy-
Received 23 February 2017 sis of diatom stratigraphy, mineral magnetic susceptibility, Saturation Isothermal Remnant Magnetization (SIRM)
Received in revised form 14 June 2017 and organic carbon content in a sediment core from Lake Lungué, located ca. 30 km north of Xai Xai City in the Lim-
Accepted 16 June 2017
popo River floodplain. Eleven radiocarbon dates performed on terrestrial shells allowed establishment of an age-
Available online xxxx
depth model. High content of brackish-marine taxa, especially Diploneis suborbicularis and Navicula yarrensis, sug-
Keywords:
gests that the Lake Lungué basin was part of the Indian Ocean coastal zone between ca. 740 and 910 CE, suggesting
Limpopo River higher relative sea-level during this phase. A similar diatom distribution in older parts of the sequence, of unknown
Lake level changes age, indicates that the site was connected to the Indian Ocean also at some stage prior to 740 CE. Between ca. 910
Human impact and 1130 CE the basin was under a combined effect of sporadic marine water influx and Limpopo River actions. A
Diatom freshwater lake was established sometime between 1130 and 1360 CE, when the basin became less affected by
Mineral magnetic properties marine influences due to lower sea-levels. Instead, the lake system was more influenced by Limpopo River
meandering dynamics and flooding events, and eventually isolated into a more or less independent lake ecosystem
where diatom diversity most likely responded to lake levels fluctuations driven by shifts in relative humidity and
rainfall amounts within the floodplain and also from upstream sources. During this phase, high abundance of fresh-
water planktonic species, i.e. Aulacoseira granulata and A. ambigua, indicates high lake levels and wetter conditions
dated to ca. 1360–1560 CE. From 1560 CE until present, the lake has been subject to drier conditions and higher
evaporation as indicated by lower lake levels, reported by a decline in freshwater planktonic taxa and increase
in brackish taxa, e.g. Amphora robusta.
© 2017 Published by Elsevier B.V.

1. Introduction With this study, we aim to contribute to the understanding of late

Understanding past climate variability, its amplitudes and its driving
forces is crucial to resolve past environmental history in southeast Africa
and to contribute to improved future climate projections (cf. e.g. Soon et
al., 2003; Dearing et al., 2006; Finné et al., 2011). Furthermore, in a his-
torical perspective, it is of interest to investigate the potential importance
of climate and sea-level change as factors that influenced where human
settlements were successfully established, and how these factors may
have contributed to failure, migration and/or adaptation of certain com-
munities (e.g. Magadza, 2000; Hannaford et al., 2014; Hannaford and
Nash, 2016).
⁎ Corresponding author at: Bolin Centre for Climate Research and Department of
Physical Geography, Stockholm University, S-106 91 Stockholm, Sweden.
E-mail addresses: sandra.sitoe@natgeo.su.se, sandrasitoe@uem.co.mz (S.R. Sitoe).
1
Department of Geology, Av. Moçambique, Km 1.2, CP. 257, Maputo, Moçambique.
Holocene paleoclimate evolution and sea-level change in southern Mo-
zambique, by analysing sediments from a lake within the Limpopo
floodplain. Studying past environments in floodplains and deltas is chal-
lenging (cf. Lauriol et al., 2002; Wolfe et al., 2006; Mariotti et al., 2013;
Rudra, 2014), as these geomorphic features are characterized by com-
plex ecosystem dynamics, such as shifting watercourse positions
owing to the nature of meandering systems, and impacts of local and
upstream precipitation (cf. Malherbe et al., 2012; Maposa et al., 2014;
Trambauer et al., 2014). In the Limpopo River basin, floodplain develop-
ment is further complicated as it occurs behind coastal dunes of Pleisto-
cene and Holocene age (Massinga and Hatton, 1996; Armitage et al.,
2006; Botha and Porat, 2007; Porat and Botha, 2008). Human impacts
contribute to the complexity (cf. Mikhailov et al., 2015), particularly in
connection with livestock handling, which started in southern Africa
ca. 2000 years ago (Bousman, 1998; Huffman, 2008) and in the Limpopo
Valley ca. 1200 years ago (Ekblom et al., 2011). In addition, floodplains
and deltas in southeastern Africa are directly influenced by tidal

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2017.06.022
0031-0182/© 2017 Published by Elsevier B.V.

Please cite this article as: Sitoe, S.R., et al., Late Holocene sea-level changes and paleoclimate recorded in Lake Lungué, southern Mozambique,
Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2017.06.022
2 S.R. Sitoe et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology xxx (2017) xxx–xxx
processes (Massuanganhe, 2016) and by past sea-level variations re-
ported from the area (Ramsay, 1995; Compton, 2001; Norström et al.,
2012; Strachan et al., 2014).
Tropical and subtropical areas have experienced shifts in sea-level
caused by varying climatic conditions since the last glacial maximum
(e.g. Hashimi et al., 1995; Lewis et al., 2013; Hendy et al., 2016). Informa-
tion on Holocene sea-level changes in southeastern Africa is relatively
sparse. In a study from Mauritius, Mayotte, and Réunion in the south-
western Indian Ocean, Camoin et al. (1997) report no clear indication,
based on coral reefs, of a higher sea-level than present during the Holo-
cene. However, other studies indicate a fast eustatic rise with sea-level
higher than today around 4500 BCE, 2500 BCE, 500 BCE and CE 700 (cf.
Ramsay, 1995; Compton, 2001; Strachan et al., 2014). These studies are
based on beachrock, sedimentological and biological facies and forami-
nifera, respectively. Along the Tanzanian coast and on the Seychelles it
has been difficult to resolve, from mangroves and corals, if sea-level
was higher than present around 4000–5000 BCE (Woodroffe et al.,
2015a, 2015b), but Punwong et al. (2013) report from pollen records
of the Rufiji Delta of possible highstands ca. 3650 BCE and 2700 BCE.
After the high stand evident along southern African coast, fluctuations
seem to have been in the order of −1 to +1 m as compared to present
mean sea-level (Ramsay, 1995; Compton, 2001; Norström et al., 2012;
Strachan et al., 2014). The above mentioned sites are widely spaced in
southern and east Africa and the methods applied vary, which may con-
strain comparisons among different records. Furthermore, geomorpho-
logical settings in each location is unique, which may result in varied
response to sea-level fluctuations.
There are an increasing number of studies carried out on past environ-
ment and climate within the Limpopo River Basin, spanning from
speleothems and tree rings from northern South Africa (Holmgren et al.,
2003; Norström et al., 2005, 2008; Sundqvist et al., 2013; Woodborne et
al., 2015) to lake sediments within the Limpopo Valley, stretching from
eastern South Africa to southern Mozambique (Ekblom and Gillson,
2010a, 2010b; Ekblom et al., 2011, 2012; Sitoe et al., 2015). Most of
these studies have delivered information on climate variability and vege-
tation history in the upper part of the basin, while studies from the lower
Limpopo River floodplain are few (Sitoe et al., 2015). The lower floodplain
contains several active and inactive oxbow lakes, cut off because of
meandering. Some of them are permanently isolated, while others con-
nect with the main river channel during flooding events. The oxbow
lakes and lakes dammed between levees and the dunes delimiting the
floodplain, offer a possibility to retrieve information on past climate and
rainfall pattern variability in this dynamic ecosystem, due to their ability
to trap sediments (cf. Toonen et al., 2012). Furthermore, due to their geo-
graphic and topographic position in relation to the current watercourse of
Limpopo River (cf. Karlsson and Arnberg, 2011), the lakes located within
the floodplain were likely to respond to sea-level variations over time (cf.
Ramsay, 1995; Compton, 2001; Norström et al., 2012; Strachan et al.,
2014), as well as climate change (cf. Sitoe et al., 2015). Sitoe et al.
(2015) previously reported on paleoenvironmental change and past
flooding events in the floodplain. With the present study, we attempt to
strengthen the available information, and extend the spatial and temporal
resolution of the paleoenvironmental information within the floodplain.
Thus, we provide information on sea-level change and environmental
evolution during the late Holocene at Lake Lungué in the lower Limpopo
River floodplain. Applied methods are diatom analysis, magnetic suscep-
tibility (χ), Saturation Isothermal Remnant Magnetization (SIRM), organ-
ic carbon content (OCC) and 14C AMS radiocarbon dating performed on
shells.
1.1. Study area
The Limpopo River basin is shared by Botswana, Zimbabwe, South Af-
rica and Mozambique (Fig. 1) with a drainage area estimated to cover ca.
400,000 km2 (Vaz and Pereira, 2000; Boroto, 2001). Limpopo's lower
floodplain covers ca. 80,000 km2 (INGC et al., 2003) of southern
Please cite this article as: Sitoe, S.R., et al., Late Holocene sea-level changes and paleoclimate recorded in Lake Lungué, southern Mozambique,
Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2017.06.022
Mozambique between Chokwé city (ca. 200 km upstream) and the
river mouth. The floodplain is delimited by Pleistocene dunes to the
east and west, and by Holocene dunes at the river mouth. The precipita-
tion in the basin is mainly controlled by the movement of the Inter Trop-
ical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), which brings wet conditions to southern
Mozambique between December and February (Dedekind et al., 2016;
Klutse et al., 2016).
Lake Lungué (24°45′43.16″S, 33°38′8.89″E; Fig. 1) is located at the
eastern margin of the Limpopo River floodplain ca. 30 km north of Xai
Xai City and 53 km west of Malehice Locality. The distance to the present
Indian Ocean shoreline is ca. 40 km. Today, the lake connects with to the
Limpopo River floodplain only during flooding events, e.g. during the
2000 CE flood (cf. Karlsson and Arnberg, 2011). However, the present
lake surface is at an altitude of ca. 8 m a.m.s.l. (above mean sea-level;
Google Earth information), and the lake is thus not influenced by the
high tide, which reaches ca. 3 m a.m.s.l. at the outlet of the river during
spring tide (Massinga and Hatton, 1996; Sete et al., 2002). The basin is lo-
cated in a bay-like indentation of the floodplain into the surrounding
Pleistocene dune system (Fig. 1). The lake basin opens up on the south-
western side, where a levee (of unknown age) of an abandoned water-
course separates the lake from the floodplain. The levee is marked by
the presence of a reed belt, and there is an ephemeral outlet towards
the floodplain crossing the levee during high water levels. At the time
of coring, the lake size was ca. 3.0 × 1.5 km and the maximum water
depth ca. 1.4 m. According to oral history, the water sources for Lake
Lungué include both precipitation and groundwater and it is permanent-
ly filled with water.
2. Materials and methods
Lake Lungué sediments were sampled in June 2012 using a Multi-
sampler (manufactured by Eijkelkamp) and a Russian coring device.
The lake bathymetry was measured using a hand-held echo sounder, in-
dicating a relatively flat bottom of the basin. The core was collected in the
central part, at 1.4 m depth. The Multi-sampler was used to collect the
water-sediment interface yielding 9 cm of water and 91 cm of sediment
(short core). The Russian corer was used to retrieve sediment samples
between 10 cm and 299 cm from the sediment surface (long core). The
short core was sub-sampled in the field every fifth cm in 1 cm segments,
resulting in 19 samples. The long core was sub-sampled in the laboratory
each cm, resulting in 289 samples.
The sediment consists of desiccated grey clay at the bottom of the se-
quence (299–268 cm). In the lower part, this unit shows a light grey col-
our. The unit between 268 and 231 cm consists of light grey silty clay,
and contains scattered complete and fragmented shells. The uppermost
unit, above 231 cm, consists of grey clay.
Organic carbon content was determined every cm of the long core
and every fifth cm of the short core. Samples were dried at 105 °C over-
night, and thereafter crushed. To determine the organic carbon content
(% dwt = dry weight), a sample portion of 150–200 mg was run in an
ELTRA Metalyt 80 W carbon sulphur determinator at 550 °C.
Mineral magnetic parameters of the long core were measured on all
289 sub-samples in the Palaeomagnetic Laboratory of the Department
of Geology, Lund University, Sweden. Magnetic susceptibility (χ) was de-
termined on a Geofyzica Brno KLY-2 Kappabridge. Saturation Isothermal
Remnant Magnetization (SIRM) was induced using a Redcliffe 700 BSM
pulse magnetizer and values were measured using 2G 760 SRM, except
for a couple of samples that displayed stronger signal. For these samples
a Molspin Minispin fluxgate magnetometer was applied. The uppermost
samples were nonconsolidated, which decreases the accuracy of the ob-
tained values. Mass specific values were calculated on the basis of dry
mass and are presented in SI units.
Gastropods were observed at different depths as fragments or com-
plete shells. Eleven depths were chosen for extraction of 1 cm thick sam-
ple segments, which were submitted for AMS 14C dating at the Ångström
Laboratory, Uppsala, Sweden. Among the dated shell samples, eight are
 S.R. Sitoe et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology xxx (2017) xxx–xxx 3

Fig. 1. Map showing the location of Lake Lungué and surroundings. The reed belt damming Lake Lungué is believed to have been established on an abandoned levee of the Limpopo River.

part of the sediment in the long core, two from the short core and one
from the sediment surface. Shell samples were preferred for dating
since bulk sediment dates from Limpopo River floodplain have displayed
a reservoir age of 500–1000 years (Sitoe et al., 2015). Calibration to cal-
endar ages was performed using OxCal version 4.2.3 (Ramsey and Lee,
2013) and the calibration curve for the Southern Hemisphere atmo-
spheric curve (Hogg et al., 2013). The shell sample from the sediment
surface displayed modern age; hence, the bomb radiocarbon curve was
applied for calibration (Hua et al., 2013).
Siliceous microfossil analysis was performed at 5 cm intervals in 1 cm
sample units, resulting in 58 samples. The procedure compiled by
Battarbee (1986) was followed to extract siliceous microfossils from sed-
iments. The samples were acidified with 10% HCl in order to remove in-
organic carbonates. Organic matter was oxidized with 17% H2O2 in a 100
°C water bath. Successive decanting was performed from 100 ml beakers
to remove clay particles. This procedure was repeated after allowing the
silt and sand fraction to settle for 2 h and refilling the beakers with dis-
tilled water. Decanting was concluded when samples were clean, indi-
cating that all clay particles were removed. Sand particles were
removed after 5 s of sedimentation. The residue was mounted in
Naphrax® and counting was performed under a light microscope with
×1000 magnification using immersion oil. Diatom species identification
were mainly based on Cholnoky (1957), Giffen (1963, 1966a, 1966b,
1970, 1971, 1973, 1975, 1976), Foged (1975), Gasse (1986), Krammer
and Lange-Bertalot (1986, 1988, 1991a, 1991b), Round et al. (1990)
and Round and Basson (1997). Generally, a minimum of 500 diatom
frustules were counted per sample, although low diatom concentrations
at some levels resulted in slightly lower sums. The results from the sili-
ceous microfossils analyses are presented using Tilia (Grimm, 1993)
and TG-view (Grimm, 2004). Zonation (Diatom Assembly Zones, DAZ)
was established according to CONISS calculations (Grimm, 1987).
3. Results
3.1. Core chronology
Calibrated radiocarbon ages are shown with one and two sigma (σ)
standard deviations in Table 1 and their calibrated ages are plotted
with ± 2σ (Fig. 2). The dated shells are from terrestrial gastropod
Melanoides tubercula, found as complete frustules or fragments with
varying sizes, indicating that at least some lived in-situ. The recent date
(Ua-45401) displayed two probable ages, 1959 or 1997 CE, after calibra-
tion using the Bomb curve (Hua et al., 2013). Since the sample was col-
lected from a modern specimen living on the sediment surface in 2012,
this indicates that the shells display a maximum/minimum reservoir
age of 53 and 15 years respectively. The average age (34 yrs) was consid-
ered during the age-depth model establishment.
The model was based on linear interpolation between the highest
probability points using Clam software (Blaauw, 2010). The date Ua-
45404 was excluded from the age model, due to low carbon concentra-
tion as reported from the laboratory.
The oldest date (Ua-45411) suggests a calibrated age of 957–
1029 CE (78.7%) at 210 cm depth. It was not possible to date the bottom
sequence due to lack of shells and low organic content. The lowermost

Please cite this article as: Sitoe, S.R., et al., Late Holocene sea-level changes and paleoclimate recorded in Lake Lungué, southern Mozambique,
Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2017.06.022
4 S.R. Sitoe et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology xxx (2017) xxx–xxx

Table 1
Radiocarbon ages for Lake Lungué sediment core. Dated material consisted of gastropod Melanoides tuberculata.
14 14
Depth (cm) Lab code C years BP C years BP (34 yr reservoir) Calibrated age CE (68.2) Calibrated age CE (95.4)

00a Ua-45401 103.3 ± 0.3 pMC 1957 or 1997

35–36 Ua-45402 326 ± 30 292 ± 30 1516–1541 (13.3%) 1507–1586 (28.2%)
1626–1668(54.9%) 1619–1673 (57.9%)
1743–1768 (4.1%)
1780–1797 (5.1%)
38–39b Ua-45404 797 ± 58 763 ± 58 1230–1250 (12.8%) 1212–1392 (95.4%)
1261–1311 (42.4%)
1360–1379 (13.0%)
62–63 Ua-45405 417 ± 30 383 ± 30 1483–1513 (19.4%) 1462–1628 (95.4%)
1547–1623 (48.8%)
65–66b Ua-45403 478 ± 30 444 ± 30 1447–1496 (68.2%) 1435–1509 (78.8%)
1580–1621 (16.6%)
88–89 Ua-45406 436 ± 30 402 ± 30 1459–1508 (40.6%) 1453–1522 (47.1%)
1585–1619 (27.6%) 1536–1627 (48.3%)
118–119 Ua-45407 622 ± 30 588 ± 30 1393–1426 (68.2%) 1321–1348 (15.1%)
1387–1438 (80.3%)
131–132 Ua-45408 776 ± 30 742 ± 30 1276–1306 (49.1%) 1267–1321 (65.1%)
1362–1378 (19.1%) 1350–1387 (30.3%)
147–148 Ua-45409 956 ± 30 922 ± 30 1151–1214 (68.2%) 1046–1090 (15.4%)
1107–1123 (1.8%)
1129–1225 (78.3%)
183–184 Ua-45410 990 ± 30 956 ± 30 1046–1088 (31.9%) 1035–1191 (95.4%)
1112–1117 (2.7%)
1132–1180 (33.6%)
210–211 Ua-45411 1103 ± 30 1069 ± 30 991–1029 (68.2%) 971–1049 (85.0%)
1083–1140 (10.4%)

Note: From the laboratory ages, 34 years of reservoir effect were subtracted. Calibration to calendar ages was performed using OxCal version 4.2.3 (Ramsey and Lee, 2013) and the calibration
curve for the southern hemisphere (Hogg et al., 2013).
a
Recent sample.
b
Sample collected using Multi-sampler.

lithostratigraphic unit between 299 and 269 cm depth is probably lim-
ited upwards by a hiatus, thus the age is unknown. Therefore, the bot-
tom of lowermost extrapolated to 740 CE, i.e. at 269 cm depth.
Fig. 2. Age-depth model and lithology for Lake Lungué. Ages for the lowermost part of the
sequence (dashed line) were extrapolated taking into account the average accumulation
rate for the dated part. The age of the lowermost desiccated clay is uncertain due to a
hiatus. “F” indicates major flooding events identified in a filled-in oxbow lake ca. 14 km
south of Lake Lungué (Sitoe et al., 2015). The samples in blue colours were collected
using the Russian corer while the samples in red represent samples collected using a
Multi-sampler. The sample Ua-45404 was not used to construct the age-depth model.
(For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred
to the web version of this article.)
3.2. Organic carbon content and magnetic properties
The results from measurements of OCC, χ and SIRM were
grouped into six zones (Fig. 3), following the established diatom zones
(Fig. 4, B).
Zone I (299–269 cm depth, unknown age), consists of compact
clay that displays high values of χ (ranging from 0.16 × 10 − 6
to 0.2 × 10 − 6 Am 2 /kg) and SIRM (ranging from 0.2 × 10 − 3 to
0.45 × 10 − 3 Am 2 /kg), while OCC shows low values (ca. 1% dwt).
In Zone II (269–233 cm depth, ca. 740–910 CE; extrapolated), χ
is ranging between 0.1 × 10 − 6 and 0.15 × 10 − 6 Am 2 /kg, and
SIRM between 0.12 × 10 − 3 and 0.2 × 10 − 3 Am 2 /kg), while
OCC increases in comparison to previous zone (from 1% to
4% dwt). The Zone III (233–173 cm depth, ca. 910–1130 CE, partly
extrapolated), shows χ values varying between 0.08 × 10 − 6 and
0.11 × 10−6 Am2/kg, SIRM between 0.15 × 10−3 to 0.25 × 10−3 Am2/kg,
and OCC varying between 3% and 6% dwt. Zone IV (173–114 cm
depth, ca. 1100–1360 CE) is characterized by a highly fluctuating
pattern in all curves. χ values vary between 0.07 × 10 − 6 and
0.12 × 10 − 6 Am 2 /kg, while SIRM varies between 0.13 × 10 − 3
and 0.25 × 10 − 3 Am 2 /kg. OCC ranges between 3% and 4.5% dwt.
In Zone V (114–58 cm depth, ca. 1360–1560 CE), χ shows values
ranging from 0.05 × 10 − 6 to 0.08 × 10 − 6 Am 2 /kg and SIRM ranges
from 0.13 × 10 − 3 to 0.2 × 10 − 3 Am 2 /kg. OCC values vary
between 4% and 5% dwt. The Zone VI (58–0 cm depth, ca.
1560–2012 CE) shows χ values varying between 0.03 × 10− 6
and 0.08 × 10− 6 Am2/kg. SIRM ranges between 0.15 × 10− 3
and 0.25 × 10− 3 Am2/kg and OCC shows values from 4% to
8% dwt.
In general, OCC values in Lake Lungué are higher (except in DAZ 1)
than in the oxbow lake located within the Limpopo floodplain (cf. Sitoe
et al., 2015). We consider this to result from a topographically protected
and calm environment around present Lake Lungué. χ values in Lake
Lungué are 5–10 times lower, while SIRM values are ca. 20 times lower
as compared with the oxbow lake (cf. Sitoe et al., 2015). The upper
part of DAZ 2 and the lower part of DAZ 3 show high OCC values and

Please cite this article as: Sitoe, S.R., et al., Late Holocene sea-level changes and paleoclimate recorded in Lake Lungué, southern Mozambique,
Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2017.06.022
 S.R. Sitoe et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology xxx (2017) xxx–xxx 5

Fig. 3. Lithology, magnetic susceptibility (χ), saturated isothermal remnant magnetization (SIRM) and organic carbon content (OCC) for the analysed sequence. The green curve represents
OCC for sediment collected using a Multi-sampler, used for correlation with the sediment collected using the Russian corer. Zonation is based on diatom stratigraphy. “F” indicates major
flooding events identified in a filled-in oxbow lake ca. 14 km south of Lake Lungué (Sitoe et al., 2015). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is
referred to the web version of this article.)

low χ and SIRM. Tentatively, this is interpreted as a phase of low energy
allowing organic matter to be preserved.
The sediment sequences collected with the Russian corer and the
multi-sampler were correlated using the respective organic carbon
curves (Fig. 3). Based on the general pattern of both curves, it is clear
that these cores show good correlation, even though the Multi-sampler
sequence has lower sample resolution. This correlation implies that the
Russian corer did not collect the upper 10 cm of unconsolidated
sediment.
3.3. Diatom analysis
A characteristic feature of the diagrams in Fig. 4 is the scattered occur-
rence of diatoms in DAZ1 and the high abundance above. Except for
DAZ1, diatoms frustules were well preserved, indicating in situ deposi-
tion and minor transportation distances. The analysis resulted in the
identification of 135 taxa (Table 2, supplement). Diatoms were grouped
according to their ecological preferences regarding salinity degrees, i.e.
brackish-marine, halophilous (favoured by a low salinity), indifferent,
freshwater and aerophilous taxa (Fig. 4). The occurrence of aerophilous
taxa is insignificant for interpretations and was therefore excluded
from the diagram.
The brackish-marine taxa were dominated by Nitzschia compressa, in-
cluding its varieties compressa (Bailey) Boyer, elongata (Grunow) Lange-
Bertalot, balatonis (Grunow) Lange-Bertalot and vexans (Grunow)
Lange-Bertalot. No attempts were made to separate these varieties dur-
ing microscopy since they have similar ecological preferences
(Krammer and Lange-Bertalot, 1988; Zalat, 2000; Barinova et al., 2004).
Also other brackish-marine taxa, that thrive in near-shore, intertidal
areas and in mangrove areas, were noted in DAZ1–4, i.e. Diploneis
suborbicularis (Sournia, 1970; Yabe et al., 2004; Razzhigaeva et al.,
2006; Tanigawa et al., 2013; Wachnicka et al., 2013; Li et al., 2015) and
Navicula yarrensis (Foged, 1975; Kennett and Hargraves, 1985; Parsons
et al., 2006; Zheng et al., 2012; Soares-Gomes et al., 2016).
Dominating taxa within the halophilous group was Cyclotella
meneghiniana, a species that thrives both in freshwater dominated envi-
ronment (Ehrlich, 1973; Barker et al., 2002; Mitrovic et al., 2010) and in
saline waters (Saros and Fritz, 2000; Holmgren et al., 2012; Ekblom and
Stabell, 2008). It may also live in freshwater lakes during highly evapora-
tive conditions (cf. Izaguirre and Vinacur, 1994). Other typical
halophilous taxa include the planktonic Thalassiosira faurii (Barker et
al., 1990; Barker et al., 2002; Roubeix et al., 2014), Nitzschia agnita, and
the benthic Nitzschia aequorea (Krammer and Lange-Bertalot, 1988).
Dominating taxa within the indifferent group was Cocconeis
placentula, which grows in lakes and calm rivers (Gasse, 1986; Stager
and Johnson, 2000; Cocquyt and De Wever, 2002). Within this study, it
was found in recent samples from both Lake Lungué and Limpopo
River water. In addition, significant amounts of Fragilaria brevistriata
and Fragilaria construens occurred in the upper part of the analysed se-
quence. The latter two taxa were grouped together due to identification
difficulties, especially when observed in girdle view. These species, how-
ever, have similar and rather wide ecological preferences (Krammer and
Lange-Bertalot, 1991a), living in lakes, rivers, swamps and freshwater
springs (Gasse, 1986; Chalié and Gasse, 2002; Owen et al., 2004). The
section Nitzschiae Lanceolatae contains several Nitzschia species difficult
to separate due to taxonomic similarities (Krammer and Lange-Bertalot,
1988). Within this investigation, observed Nitzschia species are similar
to N. pusilla, N. palea, N. pumila, N. subacicularis, N. elegantula, N. fonticola,
N. perminuta, N. rosentstockii, N. gracilis, N. frustulum, N. solita, N. tropica,
N. fossilis, N. agnita and N. aequorea. However, although N. agnita and N.
aequorea were possible to distinguish from the other species, they
were difficult to separate individually, and were therefore grouped as
Nitzschia agnita/aequorea.
Predominating freshwater diatom taxa in the upper part of the core
are the planktonic Aulacoseira granulata and A. ambigua (cf. Krammer

Please cite this article as: Sitoe, S.R., et al., Late Holocene sea-level changes and paleoclimate recorded in Lake Lungué, southern Mozambique,
Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2017.06.022
6 S.R. Sitoe et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology xxx (2017) xxx–xxx

and Lange-Bertalot, 1991a; Verschuren et al., 2000; O'Farrell et al., 2001). Fairchild and Sherman, 1993; Shylla and Ramanujam, 2013). Navicula
These taxa may also grow in rivers under relative trophic conditions (e.g. tenera, a rheophilic taxon (Foged, 1976; Chen et al., 2006), occurs in
Risberg et al., 1999; Gell et al., 2002; Risberg, 2006; Finné et al., 2010). the middle section of the core.
Nitzschia amphibia is a species indicating eutrophication and pollution Six diatom assemblage zones (DAZ 1-6) were established based on
(Hancock, 1979; Schoeman, 1979) as is Gomphonema spp. (e.g. CONISS calculations combined with eye matching (Fig. 4a, b). The

Brackish-marine taxa Halophilous taxa Indifferent taxa Freshwater taxa

s
s

en
re

e
tru
is o

ta
ar sp

la
ns
i i ea

eo
a
ic ing

co
ur or
is

nc
ia

a
a/
ne o t a m

fa qu

la
rb st

a
sa

at
n
ul

La
at
lo er us or

bo r e

tu

gu

ra p
ira /ae
hi

ia
ul

ne p
is

es

tri
ip c b ef

us

en
eg

te a s
bi

ib
su pp

ia

an
ns

is
pr
D eto a ro fea

os ta

am
om

ph
ac

ch
en
is s s

gr
rre

ev

m
si ni
m

pl

m
s
ha r f

i c ne
at
m

as g
co
C pho a co

br
th )

ira
ira
itz
ya
)
ep CE

al i a a

a
is

av ho
la

la

ria

se
se
(c

a
ne
a

a
Am gy
r

l
r

hi

hi
te

te

Th ch

N mp
ul

ul
(y

n
Ampho

co
ila

co
co
sc

sc
io
o

ic

lo

lo
e

ag
ol

la

la

ho
ct
Ag

av

itz

yc

yc

itz

oc

itz

AZ
Au

Au
D

th

se
Fr
CONISS

G
N

D
Li

2012 0
10
20
30 6
40
50 F
1560 60
70
80
90 5
100
110
120 F
1360
130
140 F
150 4
160
1130 170
180
190
200 3
210
220
910 230
240
250 2
260
740 270
280 BARREN BARREN 1
290
300
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
20 20 20 40 60 80 20 40 60 20 20 20 40 20 20 20 20 40 20
Total sum of squares

F - flooding event
Clay Silty clay Clay (desiccated)
xa
ta

xa
e

xa
in

xa
ta

ta
ar

Su xa
ta
us
)

er
pt E)

m
m

c a
nt

si n t
h-

lo

at
De r C

(c

re
hi
is

hw
B y

Ba ow
h
(y

og

ffe
op
ck

es

Z
nk
ol
e

di
ra

al

DA
Ag

th

CONISS
Fr
In
H

B
Li

2012 0 453
512
10 452
456
20 750
634
30 934 6
812
40 753
962
50
1560 60
F 843
1149
953
567
70 790
691
80 626
728
90 606 5
676
100 556
745
110 605
120 F 543
388
1360 386
130 867
140 F 887
429
1116
150 600 4
1019
160 609
989
1130 170 427
796
180 727
510
190 477
930
200 569
3
1123
210 681
1131
220 813
872
910 230 975
743
240 852
1129
250 865 2
564
260 1024
456
740 270
280
BARREN BARREN 1
290
300
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
20 40 60 80 100 20 40 60 20 40 20 40 60
Total sum of squares
F - flooding event
Clay Silty clay Clay (desiccated)

Fig. 4. A Selected diatoms of Lake Lungué, grouped according to their salinity preferences. Six diatom assemblage zones (DAZ 1–6) were defined. B. Diatom groups based on their salinity
preferences. “F” indicates major flooding events identified in a filled-in oxbow lake ca. 14 km south of Lake Lungué (Sitoe et al., 2015). The values in “X” axis represent percentages.

Please cite this article as: Sitoe, S.R., et al., Late Holocene sea-level changes and paleoclimate recorded in Lake Lungué, southern Mozambique,
Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2017.06.022
 S.R. Sitoe et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology xxx (2017) xxx–xxx
diagram shows selected species that are relevant for the interpretations.
The zones are described below:
Diatom concentrations were low in DAZ 1 (299–269 cm depth, un-
known age). The few frustules observed were noted in the uppermost
10 cm, yielding basic sums b 25 and therefore not included in the dia-
gram. Dominant taxa were generally of brackish-marine affinity such
as Nitzschia compressa, Diploneis suborbicularis, Navicula yarrensis,
Gyrosigma balticum and Campylodiscus echeneis. Fragments of Nitzschia
compressa and N. cocconeiformis were noted at 260 cm in depth.
In DAZ 2 (269–233 cm depth, ca. 740–910 CE; extrapolated), brackish
water taxa dominated the environment, reaching 70–90%. The most
common species was Nitzschia compressa, followed by Navicula yarrensis
and Diploneis suborbicularis. Minor occurrences of halophilous taxa were
observed, e.g. Cyclotella meneghiniana and Nitzschia agnita/aquorea.
In DAZ 3 (233–173 cm depth, ca. 910–1130 CE, partly extrapolated),
the dominance of brackish-marine water taxa continued, as indicated by
Nitzschia compressa, Diploneis suborbicularis and Navicula yarrensis. There
was an increase in halophilous taxa, mainly Cyclotella meneghiniana, to-
gether with scattered occurrences of the indifferent Cocconeis placentula.
Minor contributions from freshwater taxa were also observed, e.g.
Aulacoseira granulata, Gomphonema spp. and Navicula tenera.
DAZ 4 (173–114 cm depth, ca. 1130–1360 CE) was characterized by
high occurrences of indifferent taxa, with Cocconeis placentula as the pre-
dominant species (average concentration 20%). The section Nitzschiae
Lanceolatae showed low numbers. The contribution from brackish-ma-
rine taxa was slightly lower in comparison to the previous zone, whereas
the contribution from halophilous taxa has increased to 20–40%. The
dominant brackish-marine species was Nitzschia compressa and among
halophilous species Cyclotella meneghiniana dominates. The first minor
concentrations of freshwater taxa were observed, marked by the pres-
ence of Navicula tenera (ca. 5%).
DAZ 5 (114–58 cm depth, ca. 1360–1560 CE) halophilous taxa (30–
60%) dominated and there is sharp decrease in brackish taxa (b 10%).
Cyclotella meneghiniana, C. atomus, Thalassiosira faurii and Nitzschia
aqueora/agnita are the predominant halophilous taxa. Freshwater taxa
also show significant contribution, ranging between 30% and 50%, in-
cluding Aulacoseira granulata, A. ambigua, Nitzschia amphibia and
scattered occurrences of Aulacoseira muzzanensis and Aulacoseira sp.
The indifferent taxa contribute with ca. 10–20%, e.g. section Nitzschiae
Lanceolatae, Fragilaria brevistriata/construens and Cocconeis placentula.
This zone is also characterized by the presence of Gomphonema spp., ac-
counting for ca. 5%.
DAZ 6 (58–0 cm depth, ca. 1560–2012 CE) was characterized by high
concentrations of halophilous taxa (50–70%), Cyclotella meneghiniana, C.
atomus, Nitzschia aqueora/agnita and Thalassiosira faurii. The indifferent
Fragilaria brevistriata/construens varied between 10 and 30%, while fresh-
water taxa decreased abruptly (10–20%). The lowest values were
displayed in the upper part, with only scattered occurrences of
Aulacoseira ambigua and A. granulata. However, Nitzschia amphibia
showed occurrences around 5%. The brackish taxa displayed values
lower than 20% with a different species composition compared to DAZ
3 and 4. Here, the brackish taxa included Amphora coffeaeformis, A.
commutata, A. robusta, and Chaetoceros spp. resting spores. Gomphonema
spp. continued to increase throughout the zone.
4. Discussion
Our study indicates that Lake Lungué was part of the intertidal zone
in the Indian Ocean coastal environment and directly influenced by the
sea during at least two phases of the analysed sequence; between ca.
740 CE and ca. 910 CE (Figs. 4 and 5), and at an earlier phase that our
data fail to put date constraints on. The lowermost sediments (DAZ 1)
represent the latter, undated phase, and was probably deposited in a
tidal zone inhabited by mangrove swamps causing accumulation of
clay which today shows a desiccated character. Several late Holocene
sea-level highstand were reported also by other studies, e.g. ca
Please cite this article as: Sitoe, S.R., et al., Late Holocene sea-level changes and paleoclimate recorded in Lake Lungué, southern Mozambique,
Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2017.06.022
7
Fig. 5. The green line indicates the aggrading ground surface from 740 CE until present (i.e.
DAZ 2–6). An average accumulation rate of 5.0 mm/years was applied, which is similar to
the value calculated by Sitoe et al. (2015). Sea-level curves from Compton (2001), in blue,
and Strachan et al. (2014), in red, are shown. The pink line indicates influences from high
tide as inferred from present day tidal conditions, i.e. a tidal range of ca. 3 m. Sediment in
DAZ 1 was probably accumulated during a Holocene high sea-level stand 2500 BCE (cf.
Ramsay, 1995; Compton, 2001; Punwong et al., 2013) or 500 BCE (cf. Compton, 2001).
From the presence of brackish-marine water taxa, it is clear that DAZ 2 was directly
affected by marine water. DAZ 3 is considered to represent a transition from brackish–
marine conditions to freshwater (as a combined effect of a low sea-level and sediment
aggradation). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the
reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
2500 BCE (cf. Ramsay, 1995; Compton, 2001; Punwong et al., 2013)
and 500 BCE (cf. Compton, 2001). The scattered diatom occurrences,
dominated by brackish-marine taxa, the low content of organic carbon,
high values of magnetic susceptibility and SIRM (cf. van der Lubbe et
al., 2014) indicate connection to a marine coastal zone. The latter two pa-
rameters are probably influenced by magnetic heavy minerals that are
also common along the present shoreline (Tyler and Minnitt, 2004;
Dumouchel et al., 2016), being brought by north-easterly coastal cur-
rents as longshore drift (Preu et al., 2011). The presence of marine ter-
races ca. 10 km east from our site (cf. Spaliviero et al., 2014), combined
with absence of the terrestrial gastropod Melanoides tubercula during
these two phases speaks in favour of our interpretation (cf. Duggan,
2002). At the upper boundary of the lowermost unit, there is an abrupt
decrease of χ and SIRM that is followed by an increase in OCC. Further-
more, the abrupt changes from low basic diatom sums to mass occur-
rences of diatoms suggest a hiatus in the stratigraphy. This hiatus could
be the result of sediment exposure to the atmosphere, which caused ero-
sion the desiccated character. The latter feature resulted in difficulties to
penetrate the sediment with the Russian corer.
Accumulation of sediment is again initiated at ca. 740 CE (Fig. 4a, b).
Diatoms indicate brackish-marine conditions with a relatively high salin-
ity, suggesting a clear influence from the Indian Ocean on Lake Lungué at
a time when other records suggest higher relative sea-levels (Compton,
2001; Punwong et al., 2013; Strachan et al., 2014). At ca. 910 CE, salinity
seems to decrease as indicated by the increase in Cyclotella meneghiniana.
Possibly, this is an effect by the combination of a regressive sea-level (cf.
Compton, 2001; Punwong et al., 2013; Strachan et al., 2014) and sedi-
ment infilling of the floodplain, which made it gradually more difficult
for marine water to enter the area close to Lake Lungué. Although these
curves record sea-level changes in two areas located far from each
other, the western and eastern South African coast belong to the same
8 S.R. Sitoe et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology xxx (2017) xxx–xxx
glacio-isostastic far-field zones and should therefore comparable (cf.
Kemp et al., 2013).
In order for the sea to reach Lake Lungué around the time of the ca.
740–910 CE sea-level highstand (Fig. 5), it would require a ground sur-
face 6 m lower than today, taking tidal processes into account (Fig. 5).
This is based on the modern ground surface at 7 m a.s.l. (measured
approx. 2 km SW of threshold) (Direcção Nacional de Geografia e
Cadastro, 2001), and an average spring tide reaching 3 m a.m.s.l. in the
Inhambane area (Massinga and Hatton, 1996; Sete et al., 2002). The sce-
nario is feasible if assuming an average accumulation rate of ca. 5.0 mm/-
year for the floodplain sediment deposition. This assumption is
reasonable, as a previous study by Sitoe et al. (2015) has estimated the
accumulation rate to ca. 5.5 mm/yr. Comparable accumulation rates
have been reported from floodplains in Brazil (Moreira-Turcq et al.,
2004), USA (Davidson et al., 2004) and the Czech Republic (Sedláček et
al., 2016).
Our interpretation of the Lake Lungué record, in terms of sea-level
change, is valid only under the presumption that there were no isostatic
movements during the last ca. 1200 years. Any major tectonic move-
ments are unlikely, however, as the East African rift system does not
reach this far south – major fault lines have not been identified south
of Beira, central Mozambique (Vail, 1968; Chorowitz, 2005) – and earth-
quakes are rare in this part of Mozambique (Jestin et al., 1994; Fenton
and Bommer, 2006; Raucoules et al., 2010). Other not well-known phe-
nomena are tidal bores, which affect rivers with narrow outlets and a
daily tidal range of 4–6 m, and might allow marine waters to reach far
inland (cf. Bartsch-Winkler and Lynch, 1988; Chanson, 2011). An effect
of tidal bores cannot be excluded, although the tidal range along the
coast where Limpopo River meets the sea is lower than what is normally
considered a prerequisite (Bartsch-Winkler and Lynch, 1988).
Sporadic marine influences seem to continue between 910 CE and
1130 CE (Fig. 5), however, the observed brackish-marine taxa could
partly be the result from sediment reworking processes within the
basin. During this period, Limpopo River actions affect the basin by
building up a shallow levee at the present lake outlet. This interpreta-
tion is supported by the decrease in the brackish-marine taxa Diploneis
suborbicularis and Navicula yarrensis. Sometime between 1130 CE and
1360 CE, the marine impact disappears and more fluvial-lacustrine
and terrestrial-lacustrine influences dominate. The shallow threshold
appears to become more topographically enhanced, probably by the es-
tablishment of an extensive reed belt that acts as a sediment trap. The
indifferent diatom Cocconeis placentula and the rheophilic Navicula
tenera, as well as abrupt and short-lived excursions in the SIRM record,
are evidences of freshwater flooding events, possibly concurring with a
major flooding event dated to 1260 CE (Sitoe et al., 2015). The minor oc-
currences of the brackish-marine taxa observed during this period are
probably a result of reworking. The occurrences of brackish-marine
taxa in a nearby oxbow lake (Sitoe et al., 2015), can be correlated with
the period 1130–1360 CE in Lake Lungué.
The period between 1360 CE and 1560 CE shows the highest percent-
ages of freshwater taxa, especially the planktonic Aulacoseira granulata
and A. ambigua. Since this sequence was formed in an isolated freshwater
lake system, the observed proxy-signals are now to a higher degree con-
sidered to reflect lake-level variability driven mainly by prevailing cli-
mate conditions, as well as flooding event. Previous sedimentological
studies in the area suggest a flooding event affected this area around
1385 CE (Sitoe et al., 2015), probably as a response to high precipitation
amounts in the upper drainage system and/or locally, possibly in combi-
nation with low evaporation rates.
At 1560 CE, freshwater taxa decline and brackish water taxa increase.
The typical brackish-marine taxa that was dominating in the bottom of
the sequence, however occur in low numbers, probably a result of
reworking of older deposits. The significant decrease in freshwater taxa
suggests that the period generally was characterized by decrease in pre-
cipitation and/or highly evaporative conditions. The occurrence of Am-
phora coffeaeformis, A. robusta and an increase of Chaetoceros spp.
Please cite this article as: Sitoe, S.R., et al., Late Holocene sea-level changes and paleoclimate recorded in Lake Lungué, southern Mozambique,
Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2017.06.022
resting spores are probably a result of evaporation effects (cf. Gell et al.,
1994; Lange and Tiffany, 2002; Wachnicka and Gaiser, 2007; Angel et
al., 2016), reflecting a drier climate. An alternative explanation for the
co-occurrence of brackish and freshwater taxa is a shift or strengthening
of the seasonal changes, which would result in growth of freshwater taxa
during wet season and brackish taxa during dry season (Barker et al.,
2002). A major flooding event in the floodplain was dated to mid-
1500s (Sitoe et al., 2015). At Lake Lungué, however, the record provide
no other signals of a flooding event.
4.1. Human influences
The occurrence of Nitzschia amphibia at ca. 1300 CE could indicate eu-
trophication caused by anthropogenic activities, e.g. cattle breeding,
around the basin (cf. Schoeman, 1979; Gaiser et al., 2006; Pérez et al.,
2013). In addition, Aulacoseira granulata could be indicative of enhanced
concentrations of nutrients (e.g. Gómez et al., 1995; Wang et al., 2009).
Since livestock handling has been practised in southern Africa at least
during the past c. 2000 years (Barker, 1978; Bousman, 1998) and in the
Limpopo Valley since the last c. 1200 years (Ekblom et al., 2011) it is pos-
sible that this activity was initiated around Lake Lungué ca. 1300 CE.
Thermoluminescence dates of pottery from Xai-Xai and Chongoene indi-
cate presence of humans in the nearby area from at least 1700 CE
(Sinclair, 1991). It should also be noted that effects from early human ac-
tivities might have been masked by the brackish-marine signal in the di-
atom record during this phase.
5. Conclusions
The interpretation of the diatom distribution, combined with organic
carbon content, magnetic susceptibility and Saturation Isothermal Rem-
nant Magnetization (SIRM) indicate that the Lake Lungué basin has been
subject to relative sea-level variations, climate shifts, flooding events and
the meandering pattern of the Limpopo River at least since 740 CE. The
conclusions are:
• Lake Lungué basin was connected to the Indian Ocean at least be-
tween 740 CE and 910 CE, as indicated by a high abundance of brack-
ish-marine species during this phase. This is probably related to the
lower topographic position for the floodplain and the previously ob-
served sea-level transgression in southeastern Africa around 800 CE.
It is possible that the (undated) sampled sequence just below this
phase, was accumulated during one of the other major Holocene
sea-level high stands reported during late Holocene;
• Between 910 CE and 1360 CE the Lake Lungué site experienced a tran-
sition from a marine (estuary) system, towards a freshwater lake that
was increasingly more influenced by local and regional hydro-climate
conditions in general, and flooding of the Limpopo River in particular.
At ca. 1360 CE, Lungué freshwater lake was finally established, and the
high abundances of planktonic freshwater diatom species indicate
high lake levels until 1560 CE, probably associated with high precipi-
tation in the upper catchment;
• Livestock handling was tentatively established in Lake Lungué basin
surroundings at ca. 1300 CE as indicated by diatoms inferring eutro-
phication that may have been caused by human activities and en-
hanced concentrations of nutrients;
• From 1560 CE until present, lower lake levels prevailed as indicated by
a decrease of planktonic species and an increase of brackish taxa. This
may be a result of increased evaporation and lower rainfall amounts
locally and in the upper catchment.
Acknowledgments
The research was funded by the SIDA/SAREC (Swedish Agency for Re-
search Cooperation) and VR (the Swedish Research Council) (SIDA Deci-
sion No. 2011-002102). Christos Katrantsiotis and Jenny Sjöström,
 S.R. Sitoe et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology xxx (2017) xxx–xxx
Department of Physical Geography, Stockholm University, assisted with
counting of diatoms. The authors thank Elidio António Massuanguanhe
and João Alberto Mugabe from Department of Geology, Eduardo
Mondlane University, for their participation and collaboration during
fieldwork.
References
Angel, A., Vila, I., Herrera, V., 2016. Extremophiles: photosynthetic systems in a high-alti-
tude saline basin (Altiplano, Chile). Int. Aquat. Res. 8, 91–108.
Armitage, S.J., Botha, G.A., Duller, G.A.T., Wintle, A.G., Rebêlo, L.P., Momade, F.J., 2006. The
formation and evolution of the barrier islands of Inhaca and Bazaruto, Mozambique.
Geomorphology 82, 295–308.
Barinova, S.S., Anissimova, O.V., Nevo, E., Jarygin, M.M., Wasser, S.P., 2004. Diversity and
ecology of algae from the Nahal Qishon river, northern Israel. Plant Biosyst. 138,
245–259.
Barker, G., 1978. Economic models for the Manekweni Zimbabwe, Mozambique. Azania
13, 71–100.
Barker, P., Gasse, F., Roberts, N., Taieb, M., 1990. Taphonomy and diagenesis in diatom as-
semblages; a Late Pleistocene palaeoecological study from Lake Magadi, Kenya.
Hydrobiologia 214 (261–212).
Barker, P., Telford, R., Gasse, F., Thevenon, F., 2002. Late Pleistocene and Holocene
palaeohydrology of Lake Rukwa, Tanzania, inferred from diatom analysis. Palaeogeogr.
Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 187, 295–305.
Bartsch-Winkler, S., Lynch, D.K., 1988. Catalog of worldwide tidal bore occurrences and
characteristics. US Geological Survey Circular (No. 1022, 17 p).
Battarbee, R.W., 1986. Diatom analysis. In: Berglund, B.E. (Ed.), Handbook of Holocene Pa-
laeoecology and Paleohydrology. John Wiley & Sons Ltd., Chichester, pp. 527–570.
Blaauw, M., 2010. Methods and code for classical age-modelling of radiocarbon se-
quences. Quat. Int. 5, 512–518.
Boroto, R.A.J., 2001. Limpopo River: steps towards sustainable and integrated water re-
sources management. Regional Management of Water Resources. Proceedings of a
Symposium Held During Die Sixth IAHS Scientific Assembly at Maastricht, The Neth-
erlands, July 2001. IAHS Publ. no. 268. 33-39.
Botha, G., Porat, N., 2007. Soil chronosequence development in dunes on the southeast Af-
rican coastal plain, Maputaland, South Africa. Quat. Int. 162–163, 111–132.
Bousman, C.B., 1998. The chronological evidence for the introduction of domestic stock
into southern Africa. Afr. Archaeol. Rev. 15, 133–149.
Camoin, G.F., Colonna, M., Montaggioni, L.F., Casanova, J., Faure, G., Thomassin, B.A., 1997.
Holocene sea-level changes and reef development in the southwestern Indian Ocean.
Coral Reefs 16, 247–259.
Chalié, F., Gasse, F., 2002. Late Glacial - Holocene diatom record of water chemistry and
lake level change from the tropical East African Rift Lake Abiyata (Ethiopia).
Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 187, 259–283.
Chanson, H., 2011. Current knowledge in tidal bores and their environmental, ecological
and cultural impacts. Environ. Fluid Mech. 11, 77–98.
Chen, C.P., Gao, Y.H., Lin, P., 2006. Four newly recorded species of Baccillariophyta from
the mangroves in China. Acta Phytotaxonomica Sin. 44, 95–99.
Cholnoky, B.J., 1957. Beiträge zur kenntnis der südafrikanischen diatomeenflor. Postugaliae
Acta Biol. (B) VI 53–93.
Chorowitz, J., 2005. The East African rift system. J. Afr. Earth Sci. 43, 379–410.
Cocquyt, C., De Wever, A., 2002. Epiphytic diatom communities on herbarium material from
Lake Naivasha and Lake Sonachi, eastern Rift Valley, Kenya. Belg. J. Bot. 135, 38–49.
Compton, J.S., 2001. Holocene sea-level fluctuations inferred from the evolution of depo-
sitional environments of the southern Langebaan Lagoon salt marsh, South Africa.
The Holocene 11, 395–405.
Davidson, G.R., Carnley, M., Lange, T., Galicki, S.J., Douglas, A., 2004. Changes in sediment ac-
cumulation rate in an oxbow lake following late 19th century clearing of land for agri-
cultural use: a 210Pb, 137Cs, and 14C study in Mississippi, USA. Radiocarbon 46, 755–764.
Dearing, J.A., Battarbee, R.W., Dikau, R., Larocque, Oldfield, F., 2006. Human–environment
interactions: learning from the past. Reg. Environ. Chang. 6, 1–16.
Dedekind, Z., Engelbrecht, F.A., van der Merwe, J., 2016. Model simulations of rainfall over
southern Africa and its eastern escarpment. Water SA 42, 129–143.
Direcção Nacional de Geografia e Cadastro, 2001. Mapa Topográfico de Chokwè, Folha
N°95, Escala. 1 p. 250 000.
Duggan, I.C., 2002. First record of a wild population of the tropical snail Melanoides
tuberculata in New Zealand natural waters. N. Z. J. Mar. Freshw. Resour. 36, 825–829.
Dumouchel, J., Hees, F., Alvin, M.P., 2016. Coastal evolution and associated titanium sand
mineralisation of Jangamo district, Inhambane Province, Mozambique. Appl. Earth
Sci. 125, 140–152.
Ehrlich, A., 1973. Quaternary diatoms of the Hula basin (northern Israel). Geol. Surv. Israel
Bull. 58, 1–39.
Ekblom, A., Gillson, L., 2010a. Hierarchy and scale: testing the long-term role of water,
grazing and nitrogen in the savanna landscape of Limpopo National Park (Mozam-
bique). Landsc. Ecol. 25, 1529–1546.
Ekblom, A., Gillson, L., 2010b. Dung fungi as indicators of past herbivore abundance, Kru-
ger and Limpopo National Park. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeocol. 296, 14–27.
Ekblom, A., Stabell, B., 2008. Paleohydrology of Lake Nhaucati (southern Mozambique)
~400 AD to present. J. Paleolimnol. 40, 1127–1141.
Ekblom, A., Gillson, L., Notelid, M., 2011. A historical ecology of the Limpopo and Kruger
National Parks and Lower Limpopo Valley. J. Archaeol. Anc. Hist. 1, 1–29.
Ekblom, A., Gillson, L., Risberg, J., Holmgren, K., Chidoub, Z., 2012. Rainfall variability and
vegetation dynamics of the lower Limpopo Valley, southern Africa, 500 AD to present.
Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 363-634, 69–78.
Please cite this article as: Sitoe, S.R., et al., Late Holocene sea-level changes and paleoclimate recorded in Lake Lungué, southern Mozambique,
Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2017.06.022
9
Fairchild, G.W., Sherman, J.W., 1993. Algal periphyton response to acidity and nutrients in
softwater lakes: lake comparison vs. nutrient enrichment approaches. J. N. Am.
Benthol. Soc. 12, 157–167.
Fenton, C.H., Bommer, J.J., 2006. The Mw7 Machaze, Mozambique, earthquake of 23 Feb-
ruary 2006. Seismol. Res. Lett. 77 (4), 426–439.
Finné, M., Norström, E., Risberg, J., Scott, L., 2010. Siliceous microfossils as Late-Quaternary
paleo-environmental indicators at Braamhoek wetland, South Africa. The Holocene
20, 747–760.
Finné, M., Holmgren, K., Sundqvist, H.S., Weiberg, E., Lindblom, M., 2011. Climate in the
eastern Mediterranean, and adjacent regions, during the past 6000 years – a review.
J. Archaeol. Sci. 38, 3153–3173.
Foged, N., 1975. Some littoral diatoms from the coast of Tanzania. Bibl. Phycol. (German,
127 pp).
Foged, N., 1976. Freshwater diatoms in Sri Lanka (Ceylon). Bibl. Phycol. Band 23 (113 pp).
Gaiser, E.E., Childers, D.L., Jones, R.D., Richards, J.H., Scinto, L.J., Trexler, J.C., 2006. Periph-
yton responses to eutrophication in the Florida Everglades: cross-system patterns
of structural and compositional change. Limnol. Oceanogr. 51, 617–630.
Gasse, F., 1986. East African diatoms: taxonomy, ecological distribution. Bibl. Diatomol. 11.
Gell, P.A., Barker, P.A., De Deckker, P., Last, W.M., Jelicic, L., 1994. The Holocene history of
West Basin Lake, Victoria, Australia; chemical changes based on fossil biota and sed-
iment mineralogy. J. Paleolimnol. 12, 235–258.
Gell, P.A., Sluiter, I.R., Fluin, J., 2002. Seasonal and interannual variations in diatom assem-
blages in Murray River connected wetlands in north-west Victoria, Australia. Mar.
Freshw. Res. 53, 983–992.
Giffen, M.H., 1963. Contributions to the diatom flora of South Africa: I. Diatoms of the Es-
tuaries of the Eastern Cape Province. Hydrobiologia XXI, 200–265.
Giffen, M.H., 1966a. Contributions to the diatom flora of South Africa. Nova Hedwigia XIII,
245–291.
Giffen, M.H., 1966b. Contributions to the diatom flora of southern Africa II. Nova Hedwigia
21, 122–150.
Giffen, M.H., 1970. New and interesting marine and littoral diatoms from Sea Point, near
Cape Town, South Africa. Bot. Mar. XIII, 87–99.
Giffen, M.H., 1971. Marine diatoms from the Gordon's Bay, Region of False Bay, Cape Prov-
ince, South Africa. Bot. Mar. XIV, 1–16.
Giffen, M.H., 1973. Diatoms of the Marine Littoral of Steenberg's Cove in St. Helena Bay,
Cape Province, South Africa. XVI pp. 32–48.
Giffen, M.H., 1975. An account of the littoral diatoms from Langebaan, Saldanha Bay, Cape
Province, South Africa. Bot. Mar. XVIII, 71–95.
Giffen, M.H., 1976. A further account of the marine littoral diatoms of the Saldanha Bay
Lagoon, Cape Province, South Africa. Bot. Mar. XIX, 379–894.
Gómez, N., Riera, J.L., Sabater, S., 1995. Ecology and morphological variability of Aulacoseira
granulata (Bacillariophyceae) in Spanish reservoirs. J. Plankton Res. 1, 1–16.
Grimm, E.C., 1987. CONISS a FORTRAN 77 program, for stratigraphically constrained
cluster analysis by the method of incremental sum of squares. Comput. Geosci.
13, 13–54.
Grimm, E.C., 1993. Tilia 2.0 Version d.4 (Computer Software). Illinois State Museum. Re-
search and Collections Center, Springfield, IL.
Grimm, E.C., 2004. TGview Version 2.0.2 (Computer Software). Illinois State Museum. Re-
search and Collection Center, Springfield, IL.
Hancock, F.D., 1979. Diatom associations and succession in Lake Kariba, South Central Af-
rica. Hydrobiologia 67, 33–50.
Hannaford, M.J., Nash, D.J., 2016. Climate, history, society over the last millennium in
southeast Africa. WIREs Clim. Chang. 7:370–392. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/wcc.
389.
Hannaford, M.J., Bigg, G.R., Jones, J.M., Phimister, I., Staub, M., 2014. Climate variability and
societal dynamics in pre-colonial Southern African History (AD 900–1840): a synthe-
sis and scritique. Environ. Hist. 20, 411–445.
Hashimi, N.H., Nigam, R., Nair, R.R., Rajagopalan, G., 1995. Holocene sea-level fluctuations
on western Indian continental margin: an update. J. Geol. Soc. India 46, 157–162.
Hendy, I.L., Minckley, T.A., Whitlock, C., 2016. Eastern tropical Pacific vegetation response
to rapid climate change and sea-level rise: a new pollen record from the Gulf of
Tehuantepec, southern Mexico. Quat. Sci. Rev. 145, 152–160.
Hogg, A.G., Hua, Q., Blackwell, P.G., Niu, M., Buck, C.E., Guilderson, T.P., Heaton, T.J.,
Palmer, J.G., Reimer, P.J., Reimer, R.W., Turney, C.S.M., Zimmerman, S.R.H., 2013.
SHCAL13 southern hemisphere calibration, 0–50,000 years cal BP. Radiocarbon 55,
1889–1903.
Holmgren, K., Lee-Thorp, J.A., Cooper, G.R.J., Lundblad, K., Partridge, T.C., Scott, L.,
Sithaldeen, R., Talma, A.S., Tyson, P.D., 2003. Persistent millennial-scale climatic
variability over the past 25000 years in southern Africa. Quat. Sci. Rev. 22,
2311–2326.
Holmgren, K., Risberg, J., Freudendahl, J., Achimo, M., Ekblom, A., Norström, E., Mugabe, J.,
Sitoe, S., 2012. Lake level variations at Lake Nhauhache, Mozambique, during the last
2300 years. J. Paleolimnol. 48, 311–322.
Hua, Q., Barbetti, M., Rakowski, A.Z., 2013. Atmospheric radiocarbon for the period 1950–
2010. Radiocarbon 55 (4), 2059–2072.
Huffman, T.N., 2008. Climate change during the Iron Age in the Shashe-Limpopo Basin,
southern Africa. J. Archaeol. Sci. 35, 2032–2047.
INGC (Instituto Nacional de Gestão de Calamidades), Universidade Eduardo Mondlane
(UEM), FEWS NET, 2003. Atlas for Disaster Preparedness and Response in the Limpo-
po Basin. Maputo (99 pp).
Izaguirre, I., Vinacur, A., 1994. Algal assemblages from shallow lakes of the Salado River
Basin (Argentina). Hydrobiologia 289, 57–64.
Jestin, F., Huchon, P., Gaulier, J.M., 1994. The Somalia plate and the East African Rift Sys-
tem: present-day kinematics. Geophys. J. Int. 116, 637–654.
Karlsson, J.M., Arnberg, W., 2011. Quality analysis of SRTM and HYDRO1K: a case study of
flood inundation in Mozambique. Int. J. Remote Sens. 32 (1), 267–285.
10 S.R. Sitoe et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology xxx (2017) xxx–xxx
Kemp, A.C., Horton, B.P., Engelhart, S.E., 2013. Sea-levels, Late Quaternary|Late Quaterna-
ry relative sea-level changes at mid-latitudes. In: Mock, S.A.E.J. (Ed.), Encyclopedia of
Quaternary Sciences, Second Edition Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 489–494.
Kennett, D.M., Hargraves, P.E., 1985. Benthic diatoms and sulfide fluctuations: upper basin
of Pettaquamscutt River, Rhode Island. Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 21, 577–586.
Klutse, N.A.B., Abiodun, B.J., Hewitson, B.C., Gutowski, W.J., Tadross, M.A., 2016. Evaluation
of two GCMs in simulating rainfall inter-annual variability over Southern Africa.
Theor. Appl. Climatol. 123, 415–436.
Krammer, K., Lange-Bertalot, H., 1986. Bacillariophyceae 1. Teil Naviculaceae.
Süsswasserflora von Mitteleuropa 2/1. Gustav Fischer Verlag, Stuttgart (876 pp).
Krammer, K., Lange-Bertalot, H., 1988. Bacillariophyceae 2. Teil Bacillariaceae,
Epithemiaceae, Surirellaceae. Süsswasserflora von Mitteleuropa 2/2. Gustav Fischer
Verlag, Stuttgart (596 pp).
Krammer, K., Lange-Bertalot, H., 1991a. Bacillariophyceae 3. Teil Centrales, Fragilariaceae,
Eunotiaceae. Süsswasserflora von Mitteleuropa 2/3. Gustav Fischer Verlag, Stuttgart
(576 pp).
Krammer, K., Lange-Bertalot, H., 1991b. Bacillariophyceae 4. Teil Achnanthaceae. Kritische
Ergänzungen zu Navicula (Lineolate) und Gomphonema. Süsswasserflora von
Mitteleuropa 2/4. Gustav Fischer Verlag, Stuttgart (437 pp).
Lange, C.B., Tiffany, M.A., 2002. The diatom flora of the Salton Sea, California. Hydrobiologia
473, 179–201.
Lauriol, B., Duguay, C.R., Riel, A., 2002. Response of the Porcupine and Old Crow rivers in
northern Yukon, Canada, to Holocene climatic change. The Holocene 12, 27–34.
Lewis, S.E., Sloss, C.R., Murray-Wallace, C.V., Woodroffe, C.D., Smithers, S.G., 2013. Post-
glacial sea-level changes around the Australian margin: a review. Quat. Sci. Rev. 74,
115–138.
Li, D., Jiang, H., Knudsen, K.L., Björck, S., Olsen, J., Zhao, M., Li, T., Li, J., 2015. A diatom re-
cord of mid- to late Holocene palaeoenvironmental changes in the southern Okinawa
Trough. J. Quat. Sci. 30, 32–43.
van der Lubbe, J.,(.H.).J.L., Tjallingii, R., Prins, M.A., Brummer, G.-J.A., Jung, S.J.A., Kroon, D.,
Schneider, R.R., 2014. Sedimentation patterns off the Zambezi River over the last
20,000 years. Mar. Geol. 355, 189–201.
Magadza, C.H.D., 2000. Climate change impacts and human settlements in Africa: pros-
pects for adaptation. Environ. Monit. Assess. 61, 193–205.
Malherbe, J., Engelbrecht, F.A., Landman, W.A., Engelbrecht, C.J., 2012. Tropical systems
from the southwest Indian Ocean making landfall over the Limpopo River basin,
southern Africa: a historical perspective. Int. J. Climatol. 32, 1018–1032.
Maposa, D., Cochran, J.J., Lesaoana, M., 2014. Investigating the goodness-of-fit of ten can-
didate distributions and estimating high quantiles of extreme floods in the lower
Limpopo River Basin, Mozambique. J. Stat. Manag. Syst. 17, 265–283.
Mariotti, G., Falcini, F., Geleynse, N., Guala, M., Sun, M., Fagherazzi, S., 2013. Sediment eddy
diffusivity in meandering turbulent jets: implications for levee formation at river
mouths. J. Geophys. Res. Earth Surf. 118, 1908–1920.
Massinga, A., Hatton, J., 1996. Status of the coastal zone of Mozambique. In: Lundin, C.G.,
Lindén, O. (Eds.), Proceedings of the National Workshop on Integrated Coastal Zone
Management in Mozambique, Inhaca Island and Maputo, Mozambique, May 5-10,
1996. The World Bank, Land, Water and Natural Habitats Division, Environmental De-
partment and Sida Marine Science Program, Department for Research Cooperation,
SAREC, pp. 7–68 (ISBN 91-586-6068-2).
Massuanganhe, E.A., 2016. Geomorphology and environmental dynamics in Save River
delta, Mozambique: a cross-timescale perspective. Doctoral Thesis in Physical Geog-
raphy at Stockholm University, Dissertations from the Department of Physical Geog-
raphy No 53. Stockholm, Sweden.
Mikhailov, V.N., Kravtsova, V.I., Isupova, M.V., 2015. Impact of reservoirs on the hydrolog-
ical regime and morphology of the lower reaches and delta of the Zambezi River
(Mozambique). Water Res. 42, 170–185.
Mitrovic, S.M., Hitchcock, J.N., Davie, A.W., Ryan, D.A., 2010. Growth responses of
Cyclotella meneghiniana (Bacillariophyceae) to various temperatures. J. Plankton
Res. 32, 1217–1221.
Moreira-Turcq, P., Jouanneau, J.M., Turcq, B., Seyler, P., Weber, O., Guyot, J.L., 2004.
Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 214, 27–40.
Norström, E., Holmgren, K., Mörth, C.-M., 2005. Rainfall driven variations in δ13C-compo-
sition and wood anatomy of Breonadia salicina trees from South Africa between
AD1375 and 1995. S. Afr. J. Sci. 101, 162–168.
Norström, E., Holmgren, K., Mörth, C.-M., 2008. A 600 year long δ18O-record from cellu-
lose of Breonadia salicina trees, South Africa. Dendrochronologia 26, 21–33.
Norström, E., Risberg, J., Gröndahl, H., Holmgren, K., Snowball, I., Mugabe, J.A., Sitoe, S.R.,
2012. Coastal paleo-environment and sea-level change at Macassa Bay, southern Mo-
zambique, since c. 6600 cal BP. Quat. Int. 260, 153–163.
O'Farrell, I., Tell, G., Podleiski, A., 2001. Morphological variability of Aulacoseira granulata
(Ehr.) Simonsen (Bacillariophyceae) in the Lower Paraná River (Argentina). Limnol-
ogy 2, 65–71.
Owen, R.B., Renaut, R.W., Hover, V.C., Ashley, G.M., Muasya, A.M., 2004. Swamps, springs
and diatoms: wetlands of the semi-arid Bogoria-Baringo Rift, Kenya. Hydrobiologia
518, 59–78.
Parsons, M.L., Dortch, Q., Turner, R.E., Rabalais, N.R., 2006. Reconstructing the develop-
ment of eutrophication in Louisiana salt marshes. Limnol. Oceanogr. 51, 534–544.
Pérez, L., Lorenschat, J., Massaferro, J., Pailles, C., Sylvestre, F., Hollwedel, W., Brandorff, G.-
O., Brenner, M., Islebe, G., del Socorro Lozano, M., Scharf, B., Schwalb, A., 2013.
Bioindicators of climate and trophic state in lowland and highland aquatic ecosys-
tems of the Northern Neotropics. Rev. Biol. Trop. 61, 603–644.
Porat, N., Botha, G., 2008. The luminescence chronology of dune development on the
Maputaland coastal plain, southeast Africa. Quat. Sci. Rev. 27, 1024–1046.
Preu, B., Spieẞ, V., Schwenk, T., Schneider, R., 2011. Evidence for current-controlled sedi-
mentation along the southern Mozambique continental margin since Early Miocene
times. Geo-Mar. Lett. 31, 427–435.
Please cite this article as: Sitoe, S.R., et al., Late Holocene sea-level changes and paleoclimate recorded in Lake Lungué, southern Mozambique,
Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2017.06.022
Punwong, P., Marchnant, R., Selby, K., 2013. Holocene mangrove dynamics and environ-
mental change in the Rufiji Delta, Tanzania. Veg. Hist. Archaeobotany 22, 381–396.
Ramsay, P.J., 1995. 9000 years of sea-level change along the southern African coastline.
Quat. Int. 31, 71–75.
Ramsey, B.C., Lee, S., 2013. Recent and planned developments of the Program OxCal. Ra-
diocarbon 55, 720–730.
Raucoules, D., Ristori, B., de Michele, M., Briole, P., 2010. Surface displacement of the Mw 7
Machaze earthquake (Mozambique): complementary use of multiband InSAR and
radar amplitude image correlation with elastic modelling. Remote Sens. Environ.
114, 2211–2218.
Razzhigaeva, N.G., Ganzei, L.A., Grebennikova, T.A., Ivanova, E.D., Kaistrenko, V.M., 2006.
Sedimentation particularities during the tsunami of December 26, 2004, in Northern
Indonesia: Simelue Island and the Medan Coast of Sumatra Island. Oceanology 46,
875–890.
Risberg, J., 2006. Appendix 4. Siliceous microfossils and lithostratigraphy at Degue-Mufa
and Songo. In: Macamo, S. (Ed.), Privileged Places in South central Mozambique.
Studies in Global Archaeology. Vol. 4, pp. 258–263 (Uppsala).
Risberg, J., Sandgren, P., Teller, J.T., Last, W.M., 1999. Siliceous microfossils and mineral
magnetic characteristics in a sediment core from Lake Manitoba, Canada: a remnant
of glacial Lake Agassiz. Can. J. Earth Sci. 36, 1299–1314.
Roubeix, V., Chalié, F., Gasse, F., 2014. The diatom Thalassiosira faurii (Gasse) Hasle in the
Ziway–Shala lakes (Ethiopia) and implications for paleoclimatic reconstructions: case
study of the Glacial–Holocene transition in East Africa. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol.
Palaeoecol. 402, 104–112.
Round, F.E., Basson, P.W., 1997. A new diatom genus (Giffenia) based on Nitzschia
cocconeiformis Grun. A note on Nitzschia (Tryblionella) lanceolata Grun. Diatom Res.
12, 347–355.
Round, F.E., Crawford, R.M., Mann, D.G., 1990. The Diatoms: Biology & Morphology of the
Genera. Cambridge University press, Cambridge (747 pp).
Rudra, K., 2014. Changing river courses in the western part of the Ganga–Brahmaputra
delta. Geomorphology 227, 87–100.
Saros, J.E., Fritz, S.C., 2000. Nutrients as a link between ionic concentration/composition
and diatom distributions in saline lakes. J. Paleolimnol. 23, 449–453.
Schoeman, F.R., 1979. Diatoms as indicators of water quality in the Hennops River (Trans-
vaal, South Africa). J. Limnol. Soc. South. Afr. 5, 73–78.
Sedláček, J., Bábek, O., Kielar, O., 2016. Sediment accumulation rates and high-resolution
stratigraphy of recent fluvial suspension deposits in various fluvial settings, Morava
River catchment area, Czech Republic. Geomorphology 254, 73–87.
Sete, C., Ruby, J., Dove, V., 2002. Seasonal Variation of Tides, Currents, Salinity and Tem-
perature Along the Coast of Mozambique. Unesco (IOC) Odinafrica. Centro Nacional
de Dados Oceanográficos (72 pp).
Shylla, O., Ramanujam, P., 2013. Effect of nutrients on diversity of algae in Marngar Lake,
Meghalaya (India). Int. J. Algae 15, 239–250.
Sinclair, P.J.J., 1991. Archaeology in Eastern Africa: an overview of current chronological
issues. J. Afr. Hist. 32 (2), 179–219.
Sitoe, S.R., Risberg, J., Norström, E., Snowball, I., Holmgren, K., Achimo, M., Mugabe, J.,
2015. Paleo-environment and flooding of the Limpopo River-plain, between c. AD
1200–2000. Catena 126, 105–116.
Soares-Gomes, A., da Gama, B.A.P., Baptista Neto, J.A., Freire, D.G., Cordeiro, R.C.,
Machado, W., Bernardes, M.C., Coutinhoe, R., Thompson, F.L., Pereira, R.C.,
2016. An environmental overview of Guanabara Bay, Rio de Janeiro. Reg. Stud.
Mar. Sci. 8, 319–330.
Soon, W., Baliunas, S., Idso, C., Idso, S., Legates, D.R., 2003. Reconstructing climatic and envi-
ronmental changes of the past 1000 years: a reappraisal. Energy Environ. 14, 233–296.
Sournia, A., 1970. A checklist of planktonic diatoms and dinoflagellates from the Mozam-
bique Channel. Bull. Mar. Sci. Miami 20, 678–696.
Spaliviero, M., De Dapper, M., Maló, S., 2014. Flood analysis of the Limpopo River basin
through past evolution reconstruction and a geomorphological approach. Nat. Haz-
ards Earth Syst. Sci. 14, 2027–2039.
Stager, J.C., Johnson, T.C., 2000. A 12,400 14C yr offshore diatom record from east central
Lake Victoria, East Africa. J. Paleolimnol. 23, 373–383.
Strachan, K.L., Finch, J.M., Hill, T., Barnett, R.L., 2014. A late Holocene sea-level curve for
east coast of South Africa. S. Afr. J. Sci. 110, 1–9.
Sundqvist, H.S., Holmgren, K., Fohlmeister, J., Zhang, Q., Matthews, M.B., Spötl, C., Körnich,
H., 2013. Evidence of a large cooling between 1690 and 1740 AD in southern Africa.
Sci Rep 3 (1767), 1–6.
Tanigawa, K., Hyodo, M., Sato, H., 2013. Holocene relative sea-level change and rate of
sea-level rise from coastal deposits in the Toyooka Basin, western Japan. The Holo-
cene 23, 1039–1051.
Toonen, W.H.J., Kleinhans, M.G., Cohen, K.M., 2012. Sedimentary architecture of aban-
doned channel fills. Earth Surf. Process. Landf. 37, 459–472.
Trambauer, P., Maskey, S., Werner, M., Pappenberger, P., van Beek, L.P.H., Uhlenbrook, S.,
2014. Identification and simulation of space-time variability of past hydrological
drought events in the Limpopo river basin, Southern Africa. Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci.
11, 2639–2677 (Discussions).
Tyler, R.M., Minnitt, R.C.A., 2004. A review of sub-Saharan heavy mineral sand deposits:
implications for new projects in southern Africa. J. South. Afr. Inst. Min. Metall.
89–100.
Vail, J.R., 1968. The southern extension of the East African Rift System and related igneous
activity. Geol. Rundsch. 57, 601–614.
Vaz, Á.C., Pereira, A.L., 2000. The Incomati and Limpopo international river basins: a view
from downstream. Water Policy 2, 99–112.
Verschuren, D., Laird, K.R., Cumming, B.F., 2000. Rainfall and drought in equatorial east Af-
rica during the past 1,100 years. Nature 403, 410–414.
Wachnicka, A.H., Gaiser, E.E., 2007. Characterization of Amphora and Seminavis from south
Florida, U.S.A. Diatom Res. 22, 387–455.
 S.R. Sitoe et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology xxx (2017) xxx–xxx 11

Wachnicka, A., Gaiser, E., Wingard, L., Briceño, H., Harlem, P., 2013. Impact of Late Holo-
cene climate variability and anthropogenic activities on Biscayne Bay (Florida,
U.S.A.): evidence from diatoms. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 371, 80–92.
Wang, C., Li, X., Lai, Z., Tan, X., Pang, S., Yang, W., 2009. Seasonal variations of Aulacoseira
granulata population abundance in the Pearl River Estuary. Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 85,
585–592.
Wolfe, B.B., Hall, R.I., Last, W.M., Edwards, T.W.D., English, M.C., Karst-Riddoch, T.L.,
Paterson, A., Palmini, R., 2006. Reconstruction of multi-century flood histories from
oxbow lake sediments, Peace-Athabasca delta, Canada. Hydrol. Process. 20, 4131–4153.
Woodborne, S., Hall, G., Robertson, I., Patrut, A., Rouault, M., Loader, N.J., Hofmeyr, M.,
2015. A 1000-year carbon isotope rainfall proxy record from South African Baobab
Trees (Adansonia digitata L.). PLoS One 10 (5), e0124202.
Woodroffe, S.A., Long, A.J., Punwong, P., Selby, K., Bryant, C.L., Marchant, R., 2015a. Radio-
carbon dating of mangrove sediments to constrain Holocene relative sea-level change
on Zanzibar in the southwest Indian Ocean. The Holocene 25, 820–831.
Woodroffe, S.A., Long, A.J., Milne, G.A., Bryant, C.L., Thomas, A.L., 2015b. New constraints
on late Holocene eustatic sea-level changes from Mahe, Seychelles. Quat. Sci. Rev.
115, 1–16.
Yabe, H., Yasui, S., Urabe, A., Takahama, N., 2004. Holocene paleoenvironmental changes
inferred from the diatom records of the Echigo Plain, central Japan. Quat. Int. 115–
116, 117–130.
Zalat, A.A., 2000. Distribution and palaeoecological significance of fossil diatom assem-
blages from the Holocene sediments of Lake Manzala, Egypt. Diatom Res. 15, 167–190.
Zheng, Y.F., Sun, G.P., Chen, X.G., 2012. Response of rice cultivation to fluctuating sea-level
during the Mid-Holocene. Chin. Sci. Bull. 57, 370–378.

Please cite this article as: Sitoe, S.R., et al., Late Holocene sea-level changes and paleoclimate recorded in Lake Lungué, southern Mozambique,
Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2017.06.022