Department of Mechanical Engineering

Institute of Engineering
Central Campus, Pulchowk

Heat Transfer
Chapter 2
Conduction Heat Transfer

Prepared by
Umesh Sharma
Course outline
 General Differential equation of Conduction
 Fourier Law of Conduction
 Cartesian and Cylindrical coordinates
 Conduction through Plane Wall, Cylinders and Spherical systems
 One Dimensional Steady State Heat Conduction
 Composite Systems
 Conduction with Internal Heat Generation
 Two Dimensional Steady State Heat Conduction
 Unsteady Heat Conduction
• Lumped Analysis
• Use of Heislers Chart
2
 INTRODUCTION
• Although heat transfer and temperature are closely related, they are of a different nature.
• Temperature has only magnitude. It is a scalar quantity.
• Heat transfer has direction as well as magnitude. It is a vector quantity.
• We work with a coordinate system and indicate direction with plus or minus signs.

3
Steady versus Transient Heat Transfer

• Steady implies no change with time at

any point within the medium
• Transient implies variation with time or
time dependence
• In the special case of variation with time
but not with position, the temperature of
the medium changes uniformly with
time. Such heat transfer systems are
called lumped systems.

4
1. GENERAL DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION OF CONDUCTION
The Fourier Equation mentioned earlier represents the fundamental heat conduction law for
unidirectional flow of heat.

In general, however, temperature variations will exist throughout the body. Heat will also flow
in other directions of the body, because there may be nothing present in the body to prevent the
same.
It is, therefore, necessary that a general mathematical formulation be obtained with the help of
this equation, which would be applicable to heat flow in all the three directions.

Such a mathematical treatment can lead to an expression of temperature distribution as a

function of space coordinates and time.

Thus the heat flow at any particular location in any direction, at any instant, can be evaluated.
Further, a general three dimensional heat conduction equation can also be used for one or two
dimensional cases with suitable modifications.

5
An element of having the dimensions x, y, z at a distance x, y, z as shown in Figure
is considered for the derivation of the general heat conduction equation. In general
analysis, the thermal conductivity at x, y, and z direction will be considered as
dependent upon the orientation of the surface. Thus KX, KY, and KZ are the directional
characteristics of the material. If these three values are equal, the material is called
isotropic, if unequal anisotropic, as example - wood.

6
Considering unit area through heat is flowing along X-axis in time t

and

Heat stored in time t per unit area due conduction of heat along X-axis,

As the area of heat flow along X-direction is y. z so that total heat stored in time t

7
Similarly the heat stored due to the heat flow by conduction along Y and Z directions
in time t are

and

If the body is generating heat and q is the heat generation rate per unit volume of the
material per unit time then the heat generated in the body in time t

8
The total heat which is stored in the body will be utilized for increasing the
temperature of the body and it can be calculated by using the equation as follows

Heat stored in the body in time t

= (Mass of the body)  specific heat of the body material 
rise in temperature
= (.x.y.z)CP.T

9
This is the conduction equation for non-homogeneous material; self heat generating and
unsteady state three dimensional heat flow.

For an isotropic material,

KX = KY = KZ = K

10
If the heat flow is in steady state condition then controlling equation becomes

If heat flow is in unsteady without heat generation the controlling equation

becomes

This equation is also known as Fourier equation.

If the heat flow is steady without heat generation the controlling equation
becomes

This equation is also known as Laplace Equation.

11
 2. FOURIER LAW OF CONDUCTION
• Heat transfer problems are also classified as being:
 one-dimensional
 two dimensional
 three-dimensional
• In the most general case, heat transfer through a medium is three-dimensional.
However, some problems can be classified as two- or one-dimensional depending
on the relative magnitudes of heat transfer rates in different directions and the level
of accuracy desired.
• One-dimensional if the temperature in the medium varies in one direction only and
thus heat is transferred in one direction, and the variation of temperature and thus
heat transfer in other directions are negligible or zero.
• Two-dimensional if the temperature in a medium, in some cases, varies mainly in
two primary directions, and the variation of temperature in the third direction (and
thus heat transfer in that direction) is negligible. 12
13
• The rate of heat conduction through a medium in a specified direction (say, in
the x-direction) is expressed by Fourier’s law of heat conduction for one-
dimensional heat conduction as:

Heat is conducted in the direction of

decreasing temperature, and thus the
temperature gradient is negative when
heat is conducted in the positive x -
direction.

14
• The heat flux vector at a point P on the
surface of the figure must be perpendicular
to the surface, and it must point in the
direction of decreasing temperature
• If n is the normal of the isothermal surface
at point P, the rate of heat conduction at
that point can be expressed by Fourier’s
law as

15
Heat Generation
• Examples:
 electrical energy being converted to heat at a rate of I2R,
 fuel elements of nuclear reactors,
 exothermic chemical reactions.
• Heat generation is a volumetric phenomenon.
• The rate of heat generation units : W/m3 or Btu/h·ft3.
• The rate of heat generation in a medium may vary with time as well as
position within the medium.

16
3. CARTESIAN AND CYLINDRICAL COORDINATES
• The driving force for any form of heat transfer is the temperature difference.
• The larger the temperature difference, the larger the rate of heat transfer.
• Three prime coordinate systems:
 rectangular T(x, y, z, t)
 cylindrical T(r, , z, t)
 spherical T(r, , , t).

17
Conduction Equation in Cylindrical Coordinates
Using the following relations between the
coordinates of a point in rectangular and cylindrical
coordinate systems:

Conduction Equation in Spherical Coordinates

Using the following relations between the
coordinates of a point in rectangular and
spherical coordinate systems:

18
4. CONDUCTION THROUGH PLANE WALL, CYLINDERS AND
SPHERICAL SYSTEMS
Consider heat conduction through a large plane wall such as the wall of a
house, the glass of a single pane window, the metal plate at the bottom of a
pressing iron, a cast-iron steam pipe, a cylindrical nuclear fuel element, an
electrical resistance wire, the wall of a spherical container, or a spherical
metal ball that is being quenched or tempered.
Heat conduction in these and many other geometries can be approximated as
being one-dimensional since heat conduction through these geometries is
dominant in one direction and negligible in other directions.
Next we develop the one dimensional heat conduction equation in
rectangular, cylindrical, and spherical coordinates.

19
I. CONDUCTION THROUGH PLANE WALL

(2-6)

20
21
II. CONDUCTION THROUGH CYLINDERS

22
23
III. CONDUCTION THROUGH SPHERICAL SYSTEMS

24
Combined One-Dimensional Heat Conduction Equation
An examination of the one-dimensional transient heat conduction equations for the
plane wall, cylinder, and sphere reveals that all three equations can be expressed in
a compact form as

n = 0 for a plane wall

n = 1 for a cylinder
n = 2 for a sphere
In the case of a plane wall, it is customary to replace the variable r by x.
This equation can be simplified for steady-state or no heat generation cases as
described before.

25
 BOUNDARY AND INITIAL CONDITIONS
The description of a heat transfer problem in a medium is not complete without a full description of
the thermal conditions at the bounding surfaces of the medium.
Boundary conditions: The mathematical expressions of the thermal conditions at the boundaries.

The temperature at any point on

the wall at a specified time
depends on the condition of the
geometry at the beginning of
the heat conduction process.
Such a condition, which is
usually specified at time t = 0,
is called the initial condition,
which is a mathematical
expression for the temperature
distribution of the medium
initially.

26
I. Specified Temperature Boundary Condition
The temperature of an exposed surface can usually be
measured directly and easily.
Therefore, one of the easiest ways to specify the thermal
conditions on a surface is to specify the temperature.
For one-dimensional heat transfer through a plane wall of
thickness L, for example, the specified temperature
boundary conditions can be expressed as

where T1 and T2 are the specified temperatures at surfaces

at x = 0 and x = L, respectively.
The specified temperatures can be constant, which is the
case for steady heat conduction, or may vary with time.
27
II. Specified Heat Flux Boundary Condition
The heat flux in the positive x-direction anywhere in the medium, including the boundaries,
can be expressed by

For a plate of thickness L subjected to heat flux of

50 W/m2 into the medium from both sides, for
example, the specified heat flux boundary
conditions can be expressed as

28
4. ONE DIMENSIONAL STEADY STATE HEAT CONDUCTION
One dimensional steady state heat conduction includes heat flow through a wall or
along an insulated rod.

For one dimensional, steady state heat conduction through a

solid with no heat generation

The particular solution to the equation will give the value of the temperature
T which will represent the temperature field of the system.

29
Integrating the above Equation

Again integrating the above Equation

The values of C1 and C2 can be obtained by imposing

initial and boundary conditions of the system, shown
in Figure.

Substituting the boundary conditions,

30
Substituting the values of these constants

Then heat flow can be determined as

We have

31
Steady State Radial Heat Conduction through Tubes
The case of conduction of heat through the walls of hollow cylinders or tubes are
usually encountered in heat exchangers, can be conveniently treated in cylindrical
coordinates instead of Cartesian coordinates.

Let us assume the cylinder to be of infinite length and the

flow to be only in radial direction.

Integrating the above equation

32
Integrating further we have,

Now applying the boundary conditions

Subtracting the second equation from first we get

Substituting C1 into the first equation, we get

33
Substituting the values of C1 and C2,

Heat flow under steady condition

34
35
Steady State Radial Heat Conduction through a Spherical Shell

The mathematical formulation of this problem can be expressed as

with boundary conditions

Integrating the differential equation once with respect to r yields

where C1 is an arbitrary constant. We now divide both sides of this equation by r2 to bring it
to a readily integral form,

36
Again integrating with respect to r gives

We now apply both boundary conditions

Solving them simultaneously gives

The variation of temperature within the spherical shell is determined to be

37
The rate of heat loss from the container is simply the total rate of heat conduction
through the container wall and is determined from Fourier’s law

38
SOLUTION OF STEADY ONE-DIMENSIONAL HEAT CONDUCTION PROBLEMS

In this section we will solve a wide range of heat

conduction problems in rectangular, cylindrical, and
spherical geometries.
We will limit our attention to problems that result in
ordinary differential equations such as the steady one-
dimensional heat conduction problems. We will also
assume constant thermal conductivity.
The solution procedure for solving heat conduction
problems can be summarized as
(1) formulate the problem by obtaining the applicable
differential equation in its simplest form and specifying
the boundary conditions,
(2) Obtain the general solution of the differential
equation, and
(3) apply the boundary conditions and determine the
arbitrary constants in the general solution. 39
40
41
42
VARIABLE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY, k(T)

When the variation of thermal conductivity with

temperature in a specified temperature interval is large, it
may be necessary to account for this variation to
minimize the error.
When the variation of thermal conductivity with
temperature k(T) is known, the average value of the
thermal conductivity in the temperature range between T1
and T2 can be determined from

43
The variation in thermal conductivity of a material with
temperature in the temperature range of interest can often be
approximated as a linear function and expressed as

 temperature coefficient of
thermal conductivity.

The average value of thermal conductivity in the temperature

range T1 to T2 in this case can be determined from

The average thermal conductivity in this case is equal to

the thermal conductivity value at the average temperature.

44
 6. COMPOSITE SYSTEMS
Different arrangements of different materials designed for a particular application is called
a composite structure.

Composite Plane Wall

For steady state heat transfer, heat flowing through

each layer should be same, i.e.;

45
Rearranging the above equations for the temperature differences,

Adding above equations, we get

Rearranging the above Equation, we get an expression for conduction heat transfer through
a composite plane wall as,

46
Composite Hollow Cylinder

For steady state heat transfer, heat flowing through

each layer should be same, i.e.;

Rearranging the above equations for the

temperature differences,

47
Adding above equations

Rearranging the above Equation, we get an expression for conduction heat transfer through
a composite cylinder as,

48
Composite Hollow Sphere

For steady state heat transfer, heat flowing through

each layer should be same, i.e.;

Rearranging the above equations for the temperature

differences,

49
Adding above equations

Rearranging the above Equation, we get an expression for conduction heat transfer through
a composite cylinder as,

50
Thermal Resistance Concept

Conduction resistance of the wall: Thermal

resistance of the wall against heat conduction.
Thermal resistance of a medium depends on the
geometry and the thermal properties of the
medium. Analogy between thermal and electrical
resistance concepts.
rate of heat transfer  electric current
thermal resistance  electrical resistance
temperature difference  voltage difference
51
 Newton’s law of cooling

Convection resistance of the surface: Thermal

resistance of the surface against heat convection. Schematic for convection resistance at
a surface.
When the convection heat transfer coefficient is very large (h → ), the convection
resistance becomes zero and Ts  T.
That is, the surface offers no resistance to convection, and thus it does not slow down the
heat transfer process.
This situation is approached in practice at surfaces where boiling and condensation occur.
52
Radiation resistance of the surface: Thermal
resistance of the surface against radiation.

Radiation heat transfer coefficient

Schematic for convection and

radiation resistances at a surface.

Combined heat transfer coefficient

53
Thermal Resistance Network

The thermal resistance network for heat transfer through a plane wall subjected to convection
on both sides, and the electrical analogy.

54
 Temperature drop

U overall heat transfer

coefficient

Once Q is evaluated, the surface temperature

T1 can be determined from

The temperature drop across a layer is

proportional to its thermal resistance.
55
Electric Analogy for Heat Transfer and Thermal Resistance

We can express heat transfer equation as

which shows that heat (Q) flows due to the difference in temperature (T) and the property
of the substance by virtue of which it opposes the flow of heat through it is called the
thermal resistance (Rth).

Thermal Resistance of a Plane Wall

56
Thermal Resistance of a Hollow Cylinder

Thermal Resistance of a Hollow Sphere

Thermal Resistance of a Convective Layer

57
Heat Transfer through a Composite Plane Wall Using
Electric Analogy Approach
In this case same amount of heat flows through each
layer; hence all thermal resistances are arranged in series.
Whenever heat flows through a thermal resistance, there
will a temperature drop (analogous to voltage drop in
case of electric circuit).
Thermal resistances for each layers of the plane
wall are given as

Equivalent thermal resistance is then given as

Then overall heat transfer for a composite plane wall is given by

58
Heat Transfer through a Composite Cylinder
Using Electric Analogy Approach

59
Heat Transfer through a Composite Sphere Using
Electric Analogy Approach

60
Application of Electric Analogy Approach

61
Combined Heat Transfer and Overall Heat
Transfer Coefficient

In real case, all modes of heat transfer will present,

whenever there exists a temperature difference.
Among these modes, we will consider the problems
involving conduction and convection only.
Plane Wall Subjected to Convective Medium on both
Sides
For steady state heat transfer, heat flowing
through each layer should be same, i.e.;

62
 Rearranging the above equations for the temperature
differences,

Adding above equations, we get

Rearranging the above Equation, we get an expression for

combined heat transfer through a composite plane wall as,

Above equation can also be expressed in simpler form as

where is called overall heat transfer coefficient

63
Hollow Cylinder Subjected to Convective
Medium on both Sides
For steady state heat transfer, heat flowing
through each layer should be same, i.e.;

Rearranging the above equations for the

temperature differences,

Adding above equations, we get

64
Rearranging the above Equation, we get an expression for combined heat transfer through
a hollow cylinder as,

which can also be expressed as

or

Above equations can also be expressed in the simpler form as

or

where,
and

are called inside overall heat transfer coefficient and outside overall heat transfer
coefficient respectively.
Substituting A1 = 2r1L and A2 = 2r2L

and 65
Hollow Sphere Subjected to Convective
Medium on both Sides
For steady state heat transfer, heat flowing
through each layer should be same, i.e.;

Rearranging the above equations for the temperature

differences,

Adding above equations, we get

66
Rearranging the above Equation, we get an expression for combined heat transfer through
a hollow sphere as,

Above equations can also be expressed in the simpler form as

or

where, and

are called inside overall heat transfer coefficient and outside overall heat transfer coefficient
respectively.
Substituting A1 = 4r12 and A2 = 4r22

and

Do yourself: Use electric analogy approach to derive overall heat transfer coefficients.
67
THERMAL CONTACT RESISTANCE

• When two such surfaces are pressed

against each other, the peaks form good
material contact but the valleys form
voids filled with air.
• These numerous air gaps of varying
sizes act as insulation because of the
low thermal conductivity of air.
• Thus, an interface offers some resistance
to heat transfer, and this resistance per
unit interface area is called the thermal
contact resistance, Rc.

Temperature distribution and heat flow lines along two solid plates
pressed against each other for the case of perfect and imperfect contact.
68
 The value of thermal contact resistance depends
on:
hc thermal contact • surface roughness,
conductance • material properties,
• temperature and pressure at the interface
• type of fluid trapped at the interface.

The thermal contact resistance can be

minimized by applying
• a thermal grease such as silicon oil
• a better conducting gas such as
helium or hydrogen
• a soft metallic foil such as tin, silver,
copper, nickel, or aluminum

Thermal contact resistance is significant and can even dominate the heat transfer for good
heat conductors such as metals, but can be disregarded for poor heat conductors such as
insulations. 69
CRITICAL RADIUS OF INSULATION

Adding more insulation to a wall or to the attic

always decreases heat transfer since the heat
transfer area is constant, and adding insulation
always increases the thermal resistance of the
wall without increasing the convection
resistance.
In a a cylindrical pipe or a spherical shell, the
additional insulation increases the conduction
resistance of the insulation layer but decreases
the convection resistance of the surface because An insulated cylindrical pipe exposed to
of the increase in the outer surface area for convection from the outer surface and the
convection. thermal resistance network associated with it.
The heat transfer from the pipe may increase or
decrease, depending on which effect dominates.

70
The critical radius of insulation for a cylindrical
body:

The critical radius of insulation for a spherical

shell:

The largest value of the critical radius we are

likely to encounter is

We can insulate hot-water or steam pipes

The variation of heat transfer rate with the
freely without worrying about the
outer radius of the insulation r2 when r1 < rcr.
possibility of increasing the heat transfer by
insulating the pipes.
71
7. CONDUTION WITH INTERNAL HEAT GENERATION
Many practical heat transfer applications involve the
conversion of some form of energy into thermal energy in the
medium.
Such mediums are said to involve internal heat generation,
which manifests itself as a rise in temperature throughout the
medium.
Some examples of heat generation are
- resistance heating in wires,
- exothermic chemical reactions in a solid, and
- nuclear reactions in nuclear fuel rods
where electrical, chemical, and nuclear energies are converted
to heat, respectively.
Heat generation in an electrical wire of outer radius ro and
length L can be expressed as

72
I. HEAT GENERATION IN PLANE WALL
Consider one-dimensional, steady-state conduction in a plane wall of constant k, uniform
generation, and asymmetric surface conditions
•
The heat equation in given by d  dT  • d T q 2

k q  0   0
dx  dx  dx2 k
The general solution is given by
•
T  x     q / 2 k  x 2  C 1 x  C 2

Boundary conditions  
At x = (- L), T(x) = TS,1
At x = (L), T(x) = TS,2
The preceding result simplifies when both surfaces are
maintained at a common temperature TS,1 = TS,2 = TS . The
temperature distribution is then symmetrical about the mid
plane. The equation reduces to •
q L2  x2 
T x  1  2   Ts
2 k  L 
We can determine TS using overall energy balance on the wall
• •
 E out  E g  0
•
 h A s T s  T    q A s L  0
•
qL
T s  T 
h
The maximum temperature exists at the mid plane, which can be
obtained by differentiating T(x) w.r.t. x and given by
In which case the temperature distribution equation can be
expressed as which can be obtained by subtracting T(0) from
T(x).
II. HEAT GENERATION IN CYLINDER
Consider one-dimensional, steady-state conduction in a large cylinder of constant k, uniform
generation, and asymmetric surface conditions

The heat equation in given by

The general solution is given by

On solving the general solution we get,

We can determine Ts using overall energy balance on the cylinder
• •
 E out  E g  0

The maximum temperature exists at the mid plane, which can be

obtained by differentiating T(r) w.r.t. r and is given by

In which case the temperature distribution equation can be

expressed as which can be obtained by subtracting T(0) from
T(r).
III. HEAT GENERATION IN SPHERE
Consider one-dimensional, steady-state conduction in a Sphere of constant k, uniform generation,
and asymmetric surface conditions

The heat equation in given by 1 d  2 dT  

 kr q  0 Solid Sphere
r 2 dr  dr 
The general solution is given by •
q r2 C
T    1  C2
6k r

On solving the general solution we get,

•
dT q ro 2
|r  0  0  C 1  0 T  ro   T s  C 2  T s 
dr 6k
The temperature distribution is therefore •
q ro 2  r2 
T r    1  2   Ts
6k  ro 
We can determine Ts using overall energy balance on the cylinder
• •
 E out  E g  0

The maximum temperature exists at the mid plane, which can be

obtained by differentiating T(r) w.r.t. r and is given by
7. TWO DIMENSIONAL STEADY STATE HEAT CONDUCTION

Many heat transfer problems encountered in practice can be approximated as being one-
dimensional, but this is not always the case. Sometimes we need to consider heat transfer in other
directions as well when the variation of temperature in other directions is significant.

For steady state two dimensional heat conduction, the Laplace equation applies

………. (1)

The solution to this equation may be obtained by analytical, graphical or numerical techniques.

Then the heat flow in the x and y directions may be calculated

from the Fourier Equations

………. (2)

………. (3)
79
Analytical Method for Two-Dimensional Steady State Heat
Conduction

To solve Equation (1), the separation of variables method is

used. The essential point of this method is that the solution of
the differential equation is assumed to take a product form
………. (4)

The boundary conditions are then applied to determine the

form of functions X and Y. The basic assumption as given by
Equation (4) can be justified only if it is possible to find a
solution of this form which satisfies the boundary conditions.

First consider the boundary conditions with a sine wave temperature distribution impressed on the
upper edge of the plate. Thus

………. (5)

80
Substituting Equation (4) in Equation (1) gives

………. (6)

Rearranging the above equation,

………. (7)

Observe that each side of Equation (7) is independent of the other because x and y are independent
variables. This requires that each side be equal to some constant. Let this constant be 2.

………. (8)

where 2 is called the separation constant. Its value must be determined from the boundary
conditions.
81
We may thus obtain two ordinary differential equations in terms of this constant,
………. (9)

………. (10)

The general solutions of the Equations (9) and (10) are given as

………. (11)
………. (12)

The general solution for T is given as

………. (13)

The application of boundary conditions will be easier to handle when the substitution  = T –
T1 is made. The differential equation and the solution then retain the same form in the new
variable 
………. (14)
82
Then, we need only transform the boundary conditions. Thus

………. (15)

Applying these conditions, we have

………. (16)

………. (17)

………. (18)

………. (19)

From Equation (16), ………. (20)

………. (21)
From Equation (17),
83
Substituting Equations (20) and (21) in Equation (18),
………. (22)

Equation (22) requires that

………. (23)

Several values will satisfy Equation (23), and these may be written as

………. (24)

The solution to the differential equation may thus be written as the sum of the solutions for
each values of n. This is an infinite sum so that the final solution is the infinite series

………. (25)

where the constants have been combined and the exponential terms are converted to the
hyperbolic function. 84
The final boundary condition given by Equation (19) may now be applied

………. (26)

which requires that Cn = 0 for n > 1. The final solution is therefore

………. (27)

We now consider the set of boundary conditions, i.e.,

………. (28)

Using the first three boundary conditions, we obtain the solution in the form,

………. (29)

85
Constant Cn can be evaluated by writing an infinite series expansion in terms of orthogonal
functions. For this multiplying Equation (30) by and integrating for 0  x  W,

………. (31)

Rearranging Equation (31) for the coefficients Cn,

…… . (32)

Substituting Cn into Equation (29), we get the solution for temperature profile as

………. (33)

86
LUMPED SYSTEM ANALYSIS
Interior temperature of some
bodies remains essentially
uniform at all times during a
heat transfer process.
The temperature of such
bodies can be taken to be a
function of time only, T(t).
Heat transfer analysis that
utilizes this idealization is
known as lumped system
analysis.

A small copper ball

can be modeled as a
lumped system, but
a roast beef cannot. 87
Integrating with
T = Ti at t = 0 The geometry and
T = T(t) at t = t parameters involved in the
lumped system analysis.

time
constan
t
88
 • This equation enables us to
determine the temperature
T(t) of a body at time t, or
alternatively, the time t
required for the temperature
to reach a specified value
T(t).
• The temperature of a body
approaches the ambient
temperature T
exponentially.
• The temperature of the body
changes rapidly at the
beginning, but rather slowly
later on. A large value of b
indicates that the body
The temperature of a lumped system approaches the environment
approaches the environment temperature in a short time
temperature as time gets larger. 89
 The rate of convection heat
transfer between the body
and its environment at time t

The total amount of heat transfer

between the body and the surrounding
medium over the time interval t = 0 to t

The maximum heat transfer

between the body and its
surroundings

Heat transfer to or from a

body reaches its
maximum value when the
body reaches the
environment 90
temperature.
Criteria for Lumped System Analysis
Characteristi
c length

Biot number

Lumped system
analysis is applicable if

When Bi  0.1, the temperatures

within the body relative to the
surroundings (i.e., T −T) remain
within 5 percent of each other.

91
Small bodies with high
thermal conductivities
and low convection
coefficients are most
likely to satisfy the
criterion for lumped
system analysis.

When the convection coefficient h is

high and k is low, large temperature
differences occur between the inner
and outer regions of a large solid.

Analogy between heat

transfer to a solid and 92
passenger traffic to an island.
Nondimensionalization
reduces the number of
independent variables in one-
dimensional transient
conduction problems from 8
to 3, offering great
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convenience in the
presentation of results.
 (a) Midplane temperature

Transient temperature and heat transfer charts

(Heisler and Grober charts) for a plane wall of thickness
2L initially at a uniform temperature Ti subjected to
convection from both sides to an environment at
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temperature T with a convection coefficient of h.
(b) Temperature distribution
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(c) Heat transfer

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 The physical significance of the Fourier number

• The Fourier number is a

measure of heat
conducted through a
body relative to heat
stored.
• A large value of the
Fourier number indicates
faster propagation of
heat through a body.
Fourier number at time t
can be viewed as the
ratio of the rate of heat
conducted to the rate of
heat stored at that time.
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