General Physiology 1

Dr Md Abedur Rahman
MBBS (DMC), M Phil (Physiology), BCS (Health)
Post Graduate Training (Heart Diseases)
Associate Professor and
Head of the Department
Department of Physiology
 1. Introduction to Human Physiology
WHAT IS PHYSIOLOGY?
Define physiology SU Jan 07
Physiology is the science that seeks to explain the physical and chemical
mechanisms that are responsible for the origin, development, and progression
of life. (Guyton, 13 th, page 3)

HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY
Human physiology attempt to explain the specific characteristics and
mechanisms of the human body that make it a living being. (Guyton, 13 th, page
3)

IMPORTANCE OF PHYSIOLOGY
(What are the importances/goals of physiology? SU Jan 10, 07, DU Jan 07)
Physiology and medical science are intimately related. Because
1. Physiology explains the physical & chemical factors that are responsible for
the origin, development & progression of life.
2. It is concerned with the specific characteristics & mechanisms of the
human body that make it a living being.
3. We remain alive is almost beyond our own control, for example, hunger
makes us seek food, sensation of cold makes us provide warmth. Physiology
explains these.
4. A sound knowledge of physiology & other related basic disciplines is
essential for the rational practice of medical & related health sciences.

BASIC LIVING UNIT OF THE BODY

 The basic living unit of the body is the cell
 The entire body contains about 100 trillion cells.
 Each type of cell is specially adapted to perform one or a few
particular functions. For instance, the red blood cells, numbering about 25
trillion in each human being, transport oxygen from the lungs to the tissues.
 Although the red blood cells are the most abundant of any single type of
cell in the body, about 75 trillion additional cells of other types perform
functions different from those of the red blood cell.

ORGANIZATION OF
THE BODY
The cells that make up
the bodies of all but
the simplest
multicellular animals
exist in an “internal
sea” of extracellular fluid (ECF) enclosed within the integument of the animal. From
this fluid, the cells take up 02, and nutrients into it. They also discharge metabolic
waste products into it.

BODY COMPOSITION

In the average young adult male,

 18% of the body weight is protein and related substances
 7% mineral
 15% fat and
 60% is water.
 >1% carbohydrate.
 (Reference: Totora and Derickson 13th)

2. Homeostasis
DEFINITION
Define Homeostasis. (CU Nov 17, 15 Jan 16, 15, 14, 12'Ju'12, DU Nov 18, 16, 15, Jul
10, 08, 06, RU JAN 10, SUST Jul 12, 11, Jan 12)

Homeostasis means maintenance of nearly constant conditions in the internal

environment.

In 1929 the American physiologist Walter Cannon (1871–1945)

coined the term homeostasis.

MAINTENANCE OF HOMEOSTASIS IN THE BODY

How homeostasis is maintained? SUST Jul 12

Essentially all organs and tissues of the body perform functions that help
maintain Homeostasis. For example,
 Lungs provide 0 2 to the cell & eliminate CO2 & other volatile metabolic end
products from the cell.
 Kidney excrete wastes..
 GIT always provides nutrition to cell.
(Guyton and Hall, 13 th, page 4)

Different systems involved in maintaining Homeostasis

1. The Cardiovascular System

2. Respiratory System.
3. Digestive System
4. Urinary system
5. Nervous System.
6. Endocrine System
7. Reproductive system
PROTECTION SYSTEMS OF THE BODY
1. Immune System.
2. Integumentary System.

REGULATORY SYSTEMS OF THE BODY

The human body has literally thousands of control systems in it. Some of these
are
1. The nervous system: It regulates the body function.
2. The endocrine system: It also regulates the body function.
(Guyton and Hall, 13 th, page 6)
CONTROL SYSTEMS OF THE BODY/ FEEDBACK SYSTEM
Short note: Feedback system. CU Jul 15,

Feedback is the process in which part of the output of a system is returned to its input in
order to regulate its further output.

The human body has thousands of control systems.

 Some of the most intricate of these systems are the genetic control
systems that operate in all cells to help control intracellular and
extracellular functions.
 Many other control systems operate within the organs to control functions
of the individual parts of the organs; others operate throughout the entire
body to control the inter-relations between the organs. For example,
o The respiratory system, operating in association with the nervous system,
regulates the concentration of carbon dioxide in the extracellular fluid.
o The liver and pancreas regulate the concentration of glucose in the
extracellular fluid, and the kidneys regulate concentrations of hydrogen,
sodium, potassium, phosphate, and other ions in the extracellular fluid.

Components of control system

Homeostatic control involves three parts or mechanisms:
1) The receptor - receives information that something in the environment is
changing.
2) The control center or integration center - receives and processes
information that come from the receptor
3) The effector - responds to the commands of the control center by either
opposing or enhancing the stimulus.
This is an ongoing process that continually works to restore and maintain
homeostasis
Because the internal and external environment of the body are constantly
changing and adjustments must be made continuously to stay at or near the
set point, homeostasis can be thought of as a synthetic equilibrium

Types of control
Give example of homeostatic mechanism in human body (SUST Jan 12, CU Ju'07,
Ju'12)
There are two types of control mechanisms:
1. Negative feedback control mechanism
2. Positive feedback control mechanism

1. Negative feedback control mechanism

State briefly about the negative feedback regulation in our body with example.
SUST Jan 16, CU Jan 14, DU May 18, Ja-13, 08, Jul11, SUST Jul 11
 Most of the body’s functions are regulated by negative feedback mechanism —
Explain. CU Nov 17, Jan 08
"Negative feedback mechanism" is beneficial for regulating normal body
function- explains with example. (DU Nov 16, Ju-10)
Short note: Negative feedback mechanism. CU May 15

If some factor becomes excessive or deficient, a control system which

consists of a series of changes those return the factor toward a certain
mean value, thus maintaining homeostasis, called, negative feedback control
system. Most control systems of the body act by negative feedback,

Example:
a. Regulation of Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Concentrations in the
Extracellular Fluid.
 Increased CO2 in ECF (stimulus)  Chemoreceptors stimulated
(receptor)  respiratory centers (control center)  Increased rate
and depth of respiration(effector)  Decreased CO2 (result).
 Decreased O2 in ECF  Increased rate and depth of respiration 
Increased O2
(Guyton and Hall, 13 th, page 7)

b. Blood pressure control system:

i. High blood pressure > baroreceptor stimulated> blood pressure is
lowered.
 ii. Low blood pressure > chemoreceptor stimulated> blood pressure is
raised. (Guyton 13 th, page 7)
c. Action
potential:
stimulus >
nerve or
muscle fiber
stimulated >
potassium
channels
open >
potassium
flow out of
the cell > repolarization > inhibition of further release of potassium.
(Reference: Ganong W F)
d. Temperature control system: Increased body temperature > sweating >
body temperature is lowered.
e. Regulation of water balance: decreased water in the body > thirst >
intake of water> increased water inside body.

2. Positive feedback system

Explain positive feedback mechanism. DU Nov 15, Ju-12

Discuss diagrammatically that ‘positive feedback’ is a vicious cycle. CU Jan 1,
6Nov 15
Usually positive feedback regulation is harmful to our body, show it with example.
(DU Ju-09).
Short note: positive feedback mechanism. DU Nov 18.

If the initiating stimulus causes more of the same, is called positive

feedback system. Examples:
a. Positive feedback can sometimes cause vicious cycles and death
 A person suddenly bleed 2 liter of blood amount of blood in the body is
decreased to such a
low level that not
enough blood is
available for the
heart to pump
effectively falls
and the flow of
blood to the heart
muscle through the
coronary vessels
diminishes 
weakening of the
heart  further
diminished pumping  a further decrease in coronary blood flow  still
more weakness of the heart. The cycle repeats itself again and again
until death occurs.
b. Positive feedback can sometimes be useful.
i. Blood coagulation: blood vessels ruptured > clotting factors activated >
some factors act on others and activate them.
ii. Action potential: stimulus > nerve or muscle fiber stimulated > slight
leakage of sodium into nerve or muscle fiber > depolarization > more
sodium channels open and more sodium enter into nerve > more
depolarization > Action potential.
iii. Parturition (child birth): uterus contracts > push child head to cervix
of uterus > cervix send signal to the uterus > more uterus contraction.
(Guyton and Hall, 13 th, page9)

COMPARISON BETWEEN POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE FEEDBACK

Compare and contrast negative and positive feedback mechanism. CU Jan15

Positive Negative
Direct positive correlation between Negative correlation between the
the concentration and the process concentration and the process rate.
 rate.

Enhances change. Resists change

Less frequent, More frequent,
Less stable, More stable,
May be associated with vicious Negative feedback is closely related
cycles and illnesses with maintaining good health.
Wider range Narrower range

AUTOMATICITY OF THE BODY

All the cells of the body act together to maintain the homeostasis of the
body. This is called automaticity of the body.

RESULT OF HOMEOSTASIS
• Successful compensation  Homeostasis reestablished
• Failure to compensate
o Pathophysiology
o Illness
o Death

Short notes: Homeostasis CU Nov 16, DU Ja-10

MCQ

Q. Homeostasis means- (DU-06J) secretion/endocrine system

a) static condition of body fluid.
b) to maintain normal level of all cc
c) to maintain static condition of EC
d) to maintain normal blood pressur
e) stasis of fluid flow.
Ans. a-F,b-T,c-T,d-Fe-F
Q. Negative feedback mechanism is
involved with- (DU-17 Nov, 15 Jan)
a. regulation of blood pressure
b. blood coagulation
c. regulation of growth hormone
d. parturition
e. body temperature regulation
Ans. a-T, b-F, c-T, d-F, e-T
Q. Negative feedback control- (DU-12.
11 Jan)
a) operates in endocrine system (T)
b) operates in normal labour (F)
c) can lead to death (F)
d) operates in regulation of BP (T)
e) operates in blood clotting (F)
Q. Negative feedback control- (DU-l a. Regulates levels of substances in the
l/06J) body fluid. (F)
a. Operates in endocrine system. (T) b. Is useful in maintaining hormonal level in
b. Occurs in normal labour. (F) blood. (F)
c. Can lead to death. (F) c. Can lead to a vicious cycle. (T)
d. Operates in blood pressure regulation. d. Is the initiating stimulus caused more
(T) of the same. (T)
e. Operates in blood clotting process. (F) e. Is seen in most of the control sys body.
Q. Positive feedback (F)
applicable for (DU Nov 16) Q. Following are the example of positive
a. regulation of blood pressure. feedback mechanism (RU May 17)
b. blood coagulation (a) blood clotting process
c. parturition (b) blood pressure regulation by baro
d. acid base balance receptor reflex mechanism
e. generation of nerve impulse (c) generation of action potential in nerve
Ans .a)F b)Tc)T d)F e)T cell
Q. Positive feedback mechanism (d) child birth mechanism
for- (DU-16 Nov, 16, l5, 13 Jul, 07 (e) regulation mechanism of CO2 cone in
Jan RU- 17 May) ECF
a. Regulation of blood pressure Ans. a- T b-F c-T d-T, e-F
b. Blood coagulation
c. Parturition
d. Acid base balance/Regulation of CO2 in
ECF
e. Generation of nerve impulse
Any. a-F, b-T, c-T, d-F, e-T
Q. Positive feedback mechanism is
(DU-l3Ju)
a. regulation of blood pressure
b. blood coagulation
c. acid base balance
d. parturition
e. generation of nerve impulse
Ans. a-F, b-T, c-F, d-T, e-T
Q. Positive feedback mechanism- (DU-
O8Ju, 07 Jan)