Chapter 2: MATHEMATICAL

LANGUAGE AND SYMBOLS

• Mathematics as a Language
2.1

• Four Basic Concepts: Set, Relation, Function and Binary Operation

2.2

• Elementary Mathematical Logic

2.3
 Four Basic Concepts: Set, Relations,
2.2 Functions and Binary Operations
 2.2.1 Sets
What is a set? A set is a well-defined collection of distinct objects.
ℕ is the set of natural numbers ℤ is the set of integers W is the set of whole numbers
ℕ = { 1,2,3,4, . . . } ℤ = { . . . , -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . } W = {0,1,2,3,4, . . . }

ℚ is the set of rational numbers

𝑚
ℚ = {x  ℝ| x = 𝑛 , where m and n are integers and n  0}
SETS
Sets are denoted
by Capital letters Elements of set is enclosed
by a pair of braces
A = {1, 3, 2, 5}
n(A) = | A | = 4 Or the cardinality of set A is 4

The number of elements in Set A is 4

3 A 7A “7 is not an element of A”

“3 is an element of A”
 Two Common Methods of Describing a Set
1) RULE METHOD – uses a phrase that describes
the property of the elements of the set and
enclosing it by a pair of braces { }.

Examples:
A = {x: x is a vowel of the English alphabet}
B = {y: y is a counting number}
C = {z: z is a college of USTP-CDO}
D = {p: p is a dog that can fly}
E = {m: m is a month with 31 days}
 Two Common Methods of Describing a Set
2) ROSTER METHOD – lists, enumerates, or
tabulates elements of a set which are separated by
a comma and enclosed by a pair of braces { }.

Examples:
A = {a, e, i, o, u}
B = {1,2,3, . . .}
C = {CSM, COT, CEA, CSTE, CITC}
D={}
E = {January, March, May, July, August, October, December}
A set A is a subset of a set B, denoted by AB, if every element of A
is also an element of B.
Examples:
A = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8} C = {1,2,3,4,5,6}
B = {1,3,7,8} D = {2,4,6}
BA DC
True or False?

DA
A set A is a subset of set B, denoted by AB, if every element of A
is also an element of B.
Examples:
A = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8} C = {1,2,3,4,5,6}
B = {1,3,7,8} D = {2,4,6}
BA DC
True or False?

DA TRUE AD

A set A is a subset of set B, denoted by AB, if every element of A
is also an element of B.
Examples:
A = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8} C = {1,2,3,4,5,6}
B = {1,3,7,8} D = {2,4,6}
BA DC
True or False?

DA TRUE AD FALSE BC

A set A is a subset of set B, denoted by AB, if every element of A
is also an element of B.
Examples:
A = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8} C = {1,2,3,4,5,6}
B = {1,3,7,8} D = {2,4,6}
BA DC
True or False?

DA TRUE AD FALSE BC FALSE

A set A is a subset of set B, denoted by AB, if every element of A
is also an element of B.
Examples:
A = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8} C = {1,2,3,4,5,6}
B = {1,3,7,8} D = {2,4,6}
BA DC
True or False?

DA TRUE AD FALSE BC FALSE

{2}  C
A set A is a subset of set B, denoted by AB, if every element of A
is also an element of B.
Examples:
A = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8} C = {1,2,3,4,5,6}
B = {1,3,7,8} D = {2,4,6}
BA DC
True or False?

DA TRUE AD FALSE BC FALSE

{2}  C TRUE
A set A is a subset of set B, denoted by AB, if every element of A
is also an element of B.
Examples:
A = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8} C = {1,2,3,4,5,6}
B = {1,3,7,8} D = {2,4,6}
BA DC
True or False?

DA TRUE AD FALSE BC FALSE

{2}  C TRUE 1A
A set A is a subset of set B, denoted by AB, if every element of A
is also an element of B.
Examples:
A = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8} C = {1,2,3,4,5,6}
B = {1,3,7,8} D = {2,4,6}
BA DC
True or False?

DA TRUE AD FALSE BC FALSE

{2}  C TRUE 1  A FALSE
The intersection of two sets A and B, denoted by AB, is the set of
all elements that belong to both sets A and B. In set descriptive
notation, we have AB = {x : xA and x B}.

Examples:

A = {2,3,4,5} C = {1,2,3,4,5,6}
B = {1,3,7,8} D = {2,4,6}
AB ={3} CD ={2,4,6} = D

AC D ={2,4} AB  C D ={} or 

The union of two sets A and B, denoted by AB, is the set of all
elements that belong to either set A or set B. In set descriptive
notation, we have AB = {x : xA or x B}.

Examples:

A = {2,3} C = {1,2,3,4,5,6}
E
B = {1,3,9} D = {2,4,6}
AB ={1,2,3,9} CD ={1,2,3,4,5,6} = C

AC D =C AB  C D ={1,2,3,4,5,6,9}

The Universal set, denoted by U, is a set which contains all the
elements or objects of other sets under consideration.

Examples:

A = {2,3} C = {1,2,3,4,5,6}
E
B = {1,3,9} D = {2,4,6}

U ={1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10}
The complement of a set A , denoted by A’, is the set of all elements
that belong to the universal set but does not belong to set A. In set
descriptive notation, we have A’ = {x : xA and x U}.
Examples:
U = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10} B’= {2,5,6,8,10}
A = {2,3,7,8}
E
B = {1,3,4,7,9} (AB)’ ={5,6,10}
A’ ={1,4,5,6,9,10}
The Cartesian product of two nonempty sets A and B, denoted by
AXB, is the set of all ordered pairs (x,y) where xA and yB. In set
descriptive notation, we have AXB = {(x,y) : xA and yB}.
Examples:

A = {a,b}
B = {1,2,3}
AXB ={(a,1),(a,2),(a,3), (b,1),(b,2),(b,3)}

A = {a,b}
B = {1,2,3}
BXA ={(1,a),(1,b),(2,a), (2,b),(3,a),(3,b)}
ExERCISE:

Consider the following sets:

A = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10}
B = {1,2,3,7,9}
C ={2,3,4,5}

Find: True of False

1) B  C’ 1) A  B
2) A B 2) B  A
3) A BC 3) C  B’
4) C’  A
2.2.2 Relations and Functions

What is a RELATION?

Definition: RELATION
A relation R from a set X to a set Y is a rule that assigns to
each element x of X at least one element of Y. It is a set of
ordered pairs.
 Example 1:

A = {a,b,c,d}
B = {1,2,3,4,5}
E
R1 = {(a,1), (b,1),(b,2),(c,3),(d,2)} is a relation from A to B
R2 = {(a,2), (a,4),(b,2),(c,2),(d,1),(d,5)} is a relation from A to B
R3 = {(a,1), (b,1),(c,3),(d,4)} is a relation from A to B
Definition: RELATION
A relation R from a set X to a set Y is a rule that assigns to
each element x of X at least one element of Y. It is a set of
ordered pairs.

Definition: domain, co-domain, and range

The set X is called the Domain of R, while the set Y is called
the co-domain of R. The set of all y in Y that is assigned to
some x in X is called the range of R. Clearly, the range of R is
a subset of the co-domain of R.
Example 1:
Let A = {a,b,c,d} and B = {1,2,3,4,5}.
R1 = {(a,1), (b,1),(b,2),(c,3),(d,2)} is a relation from A to B
R2 = {(a,2), (a,4),(b,2),(c,2),(d,1),(d,5)} is a relation from A to B
R3 = {(a,1), (b,1),(c,3),(d,4)} is a relation from A to B
E
Domain of R1, R2, and R3 is A
Co-domain of R1, R2, and R3 is B
Range of R1 is {1,2,3}
Range of R2 is {1,2,4,5}
Range of R3 is {1,3,4}
Example 2:
Let A = {1,2,3,4,5} and B = {1,4,9,16,25}.
R1 = {(1,1), (2,1),(1,9),(3,9),(4,4),(5,25)} is a relation from A to B
R2 = {(1,1), (2,4),(3,9),(4,16)} is a relation from A to B
EDomain of R1 and R2 is A
Co-domain of R1 and R2 is B
Range of R1 is {1,4,9,25}
Range of R2 is {1,4,9,16}
 What is a FUNCTION?

Definition: FUNCTION
A function f from a set X to a set Y is a rule that assigns to
each element x of X one and only one element of Y.
Example 1: Which of the following is a function?
Let A = {a,b,c,d} and B = {1,2,3,4,5}
R1 = {(a,1), (b,1),(b,2),(c,3),(d,2)} is a relation from A to B
R2 = {(a,2), (a,4),(b,2),(c,2),(d,1),(d,5)} is a relation from A to B
R3 = {(a,1), (b,1),(c,3),(d,4)} is a relation from A to B
E
Domain of R1, R2, and R3 is A
Co-domain of R1, R2, and R3 is B
Range of R1 is {1,2,3} R3 is a function
Range of R2 is {1,2,4,5}
Range of R3 is {1,3,4}
Example 2: Which of the following is a function?
Let A = {1,2,3,4,5} and B = {1,4,9,16,25}
R1 = {(1,1), (2,1),(1,9),(3,9),(4,4),(5,25)} is a relation from A to B
R2 = {(1,1), (2,4),(3,9),(4,16)} is a relation from A to B
E
Domain of R1 and R2 is A
Co-domain of R1 and R2 is B
Range of R1 is {1,4,9,25} R2 is a function
Range of R2 is {1,4,9,16}
 What is a BINARY OPERATION?

Definition: BINARY OPERATION

A BINARY OPERATION ∗ on a nonempty set A is a
function from A × A into A.
 DEFINITION: BINARY OPERATION
A BINARY OPERATION ∗ on a nonempty set A is a function
from A × A in to A.

 :AxA A
(a,b)  a  b, where
(a,b)  A x A and a  b  A

A binary operation on a set A

is a rule that we have to assign
to every pair of elements of A,
A is closed under  a unique element of A.
Example 1:
Usual addition (+) and usual multiplication (x) are binary
operations on Z.

+: Z x Z  Z x:ZxZZ
E (1,3)  4 (2,3)  6

Is the usual subtraction a binary operation on Z?

– :ZxZZ
(5,3)  2
Example 1:
Usual addition (+) and usual multiplication (x) are binary
operations on Z.
+: Z x Z  Z x:ZxZZ – :ZxZZ
E (1,3)  4  Z (2,3)  6  Z (5,3)  2

Is the usual subtraction a binary operation on N?

– :NxNN
(1,5)  -4  N
Example 2:
(Z, ), where xy = min(x,y)

47 = 4
-3-7 = -7
-3 0 = -3
 TRY THIS!
Example 3:
(Z, ), where xy = (x-y)x
Example 4:
(Z, ), where xy = (1/2)(x+y)
Example 5:
(R, ), where xy = (1/2)(x+y)
Example 6:
(Z, ), where xy = xy – (x+y)
Example 3:
BINARY
(Z, ), where xy = (x-y)x OPERATION

Example 4:
NOT A BINARY
(Z, ), where xy = (1/2)(x+y) OPERATION

Example 5:
BINARY
(R, ), where xy = (1/2)(x+y) OPERATION

Example 6:
BINARY
(Z, ), where xy = xy – (x+y) OPERATION