Subject Code: KEE302

B TECH
(SEM-III) THEORY EXAMINATION 2020-21
ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS & INSTRUMENTATION
Time: 3 Hours Total Marks: 100
Note: 1. Attempt all Sections. If require any missing data; then choose suitably.

SECTION A
1. Attempt all questions in brief. 2 x 10 = 20
Q no. Question Marks CO
a. What is measurement? Explain measurement system with appropriate block 2 1
diagram.
b. Differentiate between Accuracy and Precision. 2 1
c. What is the difference between an ammeter and a voltmeter? 2 1
d. What are the applications of bridge circuits? 2 2
e. Draw the phasor diagram of hay’s bridge. 2 2
f. Explain the meaning of “burden” in case of instrument transformer. 2 3
g. Explain the advantages of digital instruments over their analog counterpart. 2 4
h. What you mean by smart sensor? 2 5
i. What is the need of ADC in DAS? 2 4
j. Why reference junction compensation is necessary in thermocouple? 2 5
SECTION B
2. Attempt any three of the following:
Q no. Question Marks CO
a. Explain the principle of working of a Kelvin’s double bridge for 10 2
measurement of unknown low resistances. Explain how the effects of contact
resistance and resistance of leads are eliminated.
b. The inductance of a moving iron ammeter is given by the expression L= 10 + 10 1
3θ - θ2 /4 µH where θ is deflection in radian from the zero position. The
control spring torque is 25 * 10-6 N-m/rad. Estimate the angular deflection of
the pointer for a current of 5.0A.
c. What is an instrument transformer? Derive the transformation ratio of PT. 10 3
d. Discuss the working of a wave analyzer. 10 4
e. Explain the construction and working principle of LVDT. 10 5
SECTION C
3. Attempt any one part of the following:
Q no. Question Marks CO
a. Explain the principle construction and operation of Attraction type moving 10 1
iron instruments with neat diagram.
b. Determine the dimensions of µ (r and L are radius and length, P1 and P2 are 10 1
pressures and Q is flow).
If r = 0.5 ±0.01 mm; P1= 200±3 kPa; P2=150±2 kPa; Q= 4* 10-7 m3/s and
L=1m. Calculate the absolute error in µ. Given expression is µ= πr4 (P1-
P2)/8QL.

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4. Attempt any one part of the following:

Q no. Question Marks CO
a. A Maxwell’s inductance–capacitance bridge is used to measure a unknown 10 2
inductive impedance. The bridge constants at bridge balance are: Pure
resistance arms = 2.5 kΩ and 50 kΩ. In between these two resistors, the third
arm has a capacitor of value 0.012 μF in series with a resistor of value 235
kΩ. Find the series equivalent of the unknown impedance.
b. Derive an expression for the unknown high resistance measurement using 10 2
the loss of charge method.

5. Attempt any one part of the following:

Q no. Question Marks CO
a. (i) Differentiate between CT and PT. 5 3
(ii) Explain the characteristics of CT. 5
b. A bar-type CT has 300 turns in the secondary winding. An ammeter 10 3
connected to the secondary has a resistance of 1 Ω and reactance of 0.8 Ω,
and the secondary winding impedance is (0.5 + j0.6) Ω. The magnetizing
MMF requirement for the core is 60 A and to supply the iron loss the current
required is 25 A. (i) Find the primary winding current and also determine the
ratio error when the ammeter in the secondary winding shows 5 A. (ii) How
many turns should be reduced in the secondary to bring down ratio error to
zero at this condition?

6. Attempt any one part of the following:

Q no. Question Marks CO
a. Describe the working of ramp type and Dual slope type DVM with suitable 10 4
diagram.
b. Explain with the help of a functional block diagram, the principle of 10 4
operation of digital frequency meter.

7. Attempt any one part of the following:

Q no. Question Marks CO
a. Derive expression for gauge factor of strain gauge ,A resistance strain gauge 10 5
with gauge factor 2 is fastened to steel subjected to stress 500 kg/sq. cm .if
modulus of elasticity of steel is 2 *106 kg/ cm2 ,calculate change in resistance
if strain gauge element applied due to applied stress.
b. (i) What is an electrical transducer? What are the basic requirements of a 10 5
transducer? Give the classification of a transducer.
(ii) Why is platinum considered most suitable material for RTDs for most 5
laboratory work and for industrial material measurements of high accuracy?

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Sol. 1 (a). The instruments of measurement are considered as systems of interconnected components organized
to perform a specified function for the purpose of analysis and synthesis. The performance of measurement
system can be described in terms of static and dynamic characteristic. It is desirable to describe the operation of
a measuring instrument or a system in a generalized manner without restoring the details of the physical
aspects of a measurement system. The whole operation is described in terms of functions elements. Each
functional element is made up of a distinct component or groups of components which perform the required &
definite steps in the measurement.

Sol. 1 (b). Accuracy

Accuracy is the closeness with which the instrument reading approaches the true value of the variable under
measurement. Accuracy is determined as the maximum amount by which the result differs from the true
value. It is almost impossible to determine experimentally the true value. The true value is not indicated by any
measurement system due to the loading effect, lags and mechanical problems (e.g., wear, hysteresis, noise,
etc.).
Accuracy of the measured signal depends upon the following factors:
•Intrinsic accuracy of the instrument itself;
•Accuracy of the observer;
•Variation of the signal to be measured; and
•Whether or not the quantity is being truly impressed upon the instrument.

Precision

Sol. 1 (c).

Difference Between Ammeter and Voltmeter

The ammeter is used from measuring small amount of current and the result is displayed in milliamperes when
it is kept in series with the circuit to be measured so that the entire current in the circuit is passing through it.
Voltmeter is parallelly connected with the electric circuit in order to measure the potential. Both the devices
has same connection polarity which is the negative potential is joined with the negative polarity and positive
terminal is joined with the positive polarity of the supply.

Difference Between Ammeter and Voltmeter

Ammeter Voltmeter

It is used to measure current It is used to measure voltage across two points

Resistance is low Resistance is high

It is connected in series with the circuit and its It is connected in parallel with the circuit and its
accuracy is more accuracy is less

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Changing of range is not possible Changing of range is possible

For ideal ammeter, the value of resistance is 0 For ideal voltmeter, the value of resistance is
approximately infinity

It is denoted by a symbol A It is denoted by a symbol V

Sol. 1 (d).
A bridge circuit is used to measure the impedances like resistors, capacitors & inductors and also altering
signals from transducers with associated current or voltage signals.

Application of Bridge Circuits

Different types of bridge circuits include Wheatstone, Wien, Maxwell, H-bridge, Fontana, Diode, Kelvin and
Carey Foster.

Wheatstone Bridge Circuit

A Wheatstone bridge circuit is mainlyused to calculate an unknown electrical resistance by balancing two legs
of a circuit; one leg of the circuit comprises an unknown component.

Wien Bridge Circuit

A Wien bridge circuit is used for accurate measurement of capacitance in terms of frequency and resistance. It
is also used for measuring audio frequencies.

Maxwell Bridge Circuit

A Maxwell bridge circuit is used to calculate an unknown inductance in terms of standardized capacitance and
resistance. .

H Bridge Circuit
A H-bridge circuit is used to allow DC motors in robots to move forward and backward by enabling a voltage
across a load.

Fontana Bridge Circuit

A Fontana bridge circuit is used to implement an ample frequency band voltage to current converter.

Diode Bridge Circuit

A diode bridge circuit is used to provide the same polarity of output for each polarity of the input.

Kelvin Bridge Circuit

A Kelvin bridge circuit is used to measure unknown electrical resistors, beneath1 Ohm. It is particularly
intended to measure resistors that are assembled as four-terminal resistors.

Carey Foster Bridge Circuit

A Carey Foster bridge circuit is used to measure tiny differences between two large resistances to calculate low
resistances.

Sol. 1 (e).

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Sol. 1 (f).
The burden is the termination impedance of the measuring instrument. The measuring instrument can be
an analog or digital energy meter, a data logger or a recorder. All instruments t hat use a current
transformer to measure line current must terminate the CT with a resistance (impedance in same case
which means there is some inductance involved).

Sol. 1 (g).

Digital Instruments:

An instrument indicating the value of measurement is in the form of a decimal number and is known as
Digital Instrument
The digital meters work on the principal of quantization. The analog quantity to be measured is first quantized
into a number of small intervals up to the many decimal places. The objective of the digital instrument is to be
determine in which portion of the subdivision or quantum of the measure and can thus be identified an integral
multiple of the smallest unit called the quantum and choose for subdivision. The reading accuracy can be
increased by increasing the number of decimal places.
Advantages of Digital Instruments:

(i) The digital instruments indicate the reading directly in decimal numbers.(ii) The reading may be carried to
any number of significant figures by merely positioning the decimal point.(iii) The digital instrument requires
smaller power.(iv) Its output is in digital form, so it is directly fed into the memory devices like the tape
recorder, printers, floppy discs, and digital computer etc.
Advantages of Digital Instruments over Analog Instruments:

(i)In this limit can be made with a resolution of one part in several thousands.(ii) Its accuracy is much
higher.(iii)Most Digital instruments are D.C instruments that measure upto 100V to 1kV bymeans of a range
attenuator.(iv)These instruments are free from observational errors, like a parallax and approximation errors.

Sol. 1 (h).
A smart sensor is a device that takes input from the physical environment and uses built-in compute resources
to perform predefined functions upon detection of specific input and then process data before passing it on.

Smart sensors enable more accurate and automated collection of environmental data with less erroneous noise
amongst the accurately recorded information. These devices are used for monitoring and control mechanisms
in a wide variety of environments including smart grids, battlefield reconnaissance, exploration and many
science applications.
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The smart sensor is also a crucial and integral element in the internet of things (IoT), the increasingly prevalent
environment in which almost anything imaginable can be outfitted with a unique identifier and the ability to
transmit data over the internet or a similar network. One implementation of smart sensors is as components of a
wireless sensor and actuator network (WSAN) whose nodes can number in the thousands, each of which is
connected with one or more other sensors and sensor hubs, as well as individual actuators.

Compute resources are typically provided by low-power mobile microprocessors. At a minimum, a smart
sensor is made of a sensor, a microprocessor and communication technology of some kind. The compute
resources must be an integral part of the physical design -- a sensor that just sends its data along for remote
processing isn't considered a smart sensor.

Sol. 1 (i).

Components of a Data Acquisition System

All data acquisition systems consist of three essential elements – Sensor, Signal Conditioning, and Analog-to-
Digital Converter (ADC).

Analog-to-Digital Converter

At the core of all data acquisition systems is an Analog to Digital Converter (ADC). As the name implies, this
chip takes data from the environment and converts it to discrete levels that can be interpreted by a processor.
These discrete levels correspond to the smallest detectable change in the signal being measured. The higher the
number of “bits” of an ADC (12-bit, 16-bit, 18-bit etc.), the greater the number of discrete levels that can
represent an analog signal and the greater the resolution of the ADC. The resolution of an ADC is essentially
analogous to the ticks on a measuring stick. A measuring stick with mm tick marks has more resolution than a
measuring stick with only cm tick marks. Whether you need mm or cm tick marks depends on what you are
measuring – the same is true for ADC resolution.

Sol. 1 (j).
Thermocouples are very common temperature sensors in process plants. Thermocouples have few benefits that
makes them widely used. They can be used to measure very high temperatures, much higher than with RTDs
(Resistance temperature detector). The thermocouple is also a very robust sensor, so it does not break easily.
Although thermocouples are not as accurate as RTD sensors, they are accurate enough in many applications.
Thermocouples are also relatively cheap sensors and the thermocouple measurement circuit does not require
excitation current like an RTD circuit does, so the circuit is in that sense, more simple to make. There are many
different thermocouple types optimized for different applications.

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Sol. 2 (a).

Modification of Wheatstone Bridge

In Wheatstone Bridge, while measuring the low-value resistance, the resistance of their lead and contacts
increases the resistance of their total measured value. This can easily be understood with the help of the circuit
diagram.

The r is the resistance of the contacts that connect the unknown resistance R to the standard resistance S.
The ‘m’ and ‘n’ show the range between which the galvanometer is connected for obtaining a null point.
When the galvanometer is connected to point ‘m’, the lead resistance r is added to the standard resistance S.
Thereby the very low indication obtains for unknown resistance R. And if the galvanometer is connected to
point n then the r adds to the R, and hence the high value of unknown resistance is obtained. Thus, at point n
and m either very high or very low value of unknown resistance is obtained.
So, instead of connecting the galvanometer from point, m and n we chose any intermediate point say d where
the resistance of lead r is divided into two equal parts, i.e., r1 and r2

The presence of r1 causes no error in the measurement of unknown resistance.

From equation (1), we get

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as
The above equation shows that if the galvanometer connects at point d then the resistance of lead will not affect
their results.
The above mention process is practically not possible to implement. For obtaining the desired result, the actual
resistance of exact ratio connects between the point m and n and the galvanometer connects at the junction of
the resistor.
Kelvin Double Bridge Circuit
The ratio of the arms p and q are used to connect the galvanometer at the right place between the point j and k.
The j and k reduce the effect of connecting lead. The P and Q is the first ratio of the arm and p and q is the
second arm ratio.

The galvanometer is connected between the arms p and q at a point d. The point d places at the centre of the
resistance r between the point m and n for removing the effect of the connecting lead resistance which is placed
between the unknown resistance R and standard resistance S.
The ratio of p/q is made equal to the P/Q. Under balance condition zero current flows through the
galvanometer. The potential difference between the point a and b is equivalent to the voltage drop between the
points Eamd.

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Now,

For zero galvanometer deflection,

As we known, P/Q = p/q then above equation becomes

The above equation is the working equations of the Kelvins bridge. The equation shows that the result obtains
from the Kelvin double bridge is free from the impact of the connecting lead resistance.
For obtaining the appropriate result, it is very essentials that the ratio of their arms is equal. The unequal arm
ratio causes the error in the result. Also, the value of resistance r should be kept minimum for obtaining the
exact result.
The thermo-electric EMF induces in the bridge during the reading. This effect can be reduced by measuring the
resistance with the reverse battery connection. The real value of the resistance obtains by takings the means of
the two.
Limitations of Kelvins Bridge
1. The sensitive galvanometer is used for detecting the balance condition.
2. The high measurement current is required for obtaining the good sensitivity.

Sol. 2 (c).
Potential Transformer (PT)
Definition – The potential transformer may be defined as an instrument transformer used for the
transformation of voltage from a higher value to the lower value. This transformer step down the voltage to a
safe limit value which can be easily measured by the ordinary low voltage instrument like a voltmeter,
wattmeter and watt-hour meters, etc.
Construction of Potential Transformer
The potential transformer is made with high-quality core operating at low flux density so that the magnetising
current is small. The terminal of the transformer should be designed so that the variation of the voltage ratio
with load is minimum and the phase shift between the input and output voltage is also minimum.
The primary winding has a large number of turns, and the secondary winding has a much small number of
turns. For reducing the leakage reactance, the co-axial winding is used in the potential transformer. The
insulation cost is also reduced by dividing the primary winding into the sections which reduced the insulation
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between the layers.

Connection of Potential Transformer
The potential transformer is connected in parallel with the circuit. The primary windings of the potential
transformer are directly connected to the power circuit whose voltage is to be measured. The secondary
terminals of the potential transformer are connected to the measuring instrument like the voltmeter, wattmeter,
etc.The secondary windings of the potential transformer are magnetically coupled through the magnetic circuit
of the primary windings.

The primary terminal of the transformer is rated for 400V to several thousand volts, and the secondary terminal
is always rated for 400V. The ratio of the primary voltage to the secondary voltage is termed as transformation
ratio or turn ratio.
Types of Potential Transformer
The potential transformer is mainly classified into two types, i.e., the conventional wound types
(electromagnetic types) and the capacitor voltage potential transformers.
Conventional wound type transformer is very expensive because of the requirement of the
insulations.Capacitor potential transformer is a combination of capacitor potential divider and a magnetic
potential transformer of relatively small ratio.
The circuit diagram of the capacitor potential transformer is shown in the figure below. The stack of high
voltage capacitor from the potential divider, the capacitors of two sections become C 1 and C2, and the Z is the
burden.

The voltage applied to the primary of the intermediate transformer is usually of the order 10kV. Both the
potential divider and the intermediate transformer have the ratio and insulation requirement which are suitable
for economical construction.
The intermediate transformer must be of very small ratio error, and phase angle gives the satisfactory
performance of the complete unit. The secondary terminal voltage is given by the formula shown below.

Ratio and Phase Angle Errors of Potential Transformer

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In an ideal potential transformer, the primary and the secondary voltage is exactly proportional to the primary
voltage and exactly in phase opposition. But this cannot be achieved practically due to the primary and
secondary voltage drops. Thus, both the primary and secondary voltage is introduced in the system.
Voltage Ratio Error – The voltage ratio error is expressed in regarding measured voltage, and it is given by
the formula as shown below.

Where Kn is the nominal ratio, i.e., the ratio of the rated primary voltage and the rated secondary voltage.
Phase Angle Error – The phase angle error is the error between the secondary terminal voltage which is
exactly in phase opposition with the primary terminal voltage.
The increases in the number of instruments in the relay connected to the secondary of the potential transformer
will increase the errors in the potential transformers.
Burden of a Potential Transformer
The burden is the total external volt-amp load on the secondary at rated secondary voltage. The rated burden of
a PT is a VA burden which must not be exceeded if the transformer is to operate with its rated accuracy.The
rated burden is indicated on the nameplate.
The limiting or maximum burden is the greatest VA load at which the potential transformer will operate
continuously without overheating its windings beyond the permissible limits. This burden is several times
greater than the rated burden.
Phasor Diagram of a Potential Transformer
The phasor diagram of the potential transformer is shown in the figure below.

The main flux is taken as a reference. In instrument transformer, the primary current is the vector sum of the
excitation current Io and the current equal to the reversal secondary current Is multiplied by the ratio of 1/kt. The
Vp is the voltage applied to the primary terminal of the potential transformer.
The voltage drops due to resistance and reactance of primary winding due to primary current is given by
IpXp and IpRp. When the voltage drop subtracts from the primary voltage of the potential transformer, the
primarily induced emf will appear across the terminals.
This primary emf of the transformer will transform into secondary winding by mutual induction and converted
into secondary induced emf Es. This emf will drop by the secondary winding resistance and reactance, and the
resultant voltage will appear across the secondary terminal voltage, and it is denoted by Vs.
Applications of Potential Transformer
1. It is used for a metering purpose.
2. For the protection of the feeders.
3. For protecting the impedance of the generators.
4. For synchronising the generators and feeders.
The potential transformers are used in the protecting relaying scheme because the potential coils of the
protective device are not directly connected to the system in case of the high voltage. Therefore, it is necessary
to step down the voltage and also to insulate the protective equipment from the primary circuit.
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Sol. 2 (d).
Wave Analyzer Definition
An electronic instrument that analyzes the signal or wave by measuring the amplitude of the frequency
components or harmonics is called a Wave Analyzer. It is also known as signal analyzer or carrier frequency
voltmeters or frequency-selective voltmeters, or selective level voltmeters. This instrument uses a set of filters
for tuning and voltmeters to analyze the signal in the frequency domain. The wave analyzers are available in
the RF range (low) and 50 MHz below range and also runs through AF range with high-frequency resolution.
Block Diagram
The wave analyzer block diagram is shown below. It contains a primary detector, full-wave rectifier, and
PMMC galvanometer.

Wave Analyzer Block Diagram

• Primary Detector: It is made up of an LC circuit. By adjusting the values of ‘L’ (inductor) and ‘C’,
the particular frequency component of the signal is allowed to measure.
• Full-wave Rectifier: The input AC signal is converted into the DC signal and the average value of the
signal is obtained
• PMMC Galvanometer: It is used to indicate the value of the signal i.e, the output of the full-wave
rectifier.

Sol. 2 (e)
LVDT
Linear Variable Differential Transformer, LVDT is the most used inductive transducer for converting
translating linear motion into electrical signal. This transducer converts a mechanical displacement
proportionally into electrical signal.
Construction:
LVDT is a transformer consisting of one primary winding P and two secondary winding S1 & S2 mounted on a
cylindrical former. The two secondary winding have equal number of turns and placed identically on either
side of the primary winding as shown in figure below.

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A movable soft iron core is placed inside the former. Actually the movable core is made of nickel iron with
hydrogen annealed. Hydrogen annealing is done to eliminate harmonics, residual voltage of core and thus
provides high sensitivity. The movable core also is laminated in order to reduce eddy current loss. The
assembly of laminated core is placed in a cylindrical steel housing and end lids are provided for
electromagnetic and electrostatic shielding. The displacement to be measured is attached to this movable soft
iron core.
LVDT- Working Principle:
Since the primary winding of Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT) is supplied with AC supply, it
produces an alternating magnetic flux in the core which in turn link with the secondary winding S1 and S2 to
produce emf due to transformer action. The electrical equivalent circuit of LVDT is shown below.

Let us assume that the emf produced in secondary winding S1 is Es1 and that in S2 is Es2. The magnitude of
Es1 and Es2 will depend upon the magnitude of rate of change of flux (dØ / dt) as per the Faraday’s Law. The
lower the value of ‘dt’, the more will be the emf induced. But lower value of ‘dt’ means that core is moving
faster. Thus we can say that the faster the movement of core, the greater will be the magnitude of emf induced
in secondary windings.
To get a single output voltage from the Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT), both the secondary
winding are connected in series but in phase opposition as shown in figure below.

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Due to this connection, the net output voltage E0 of the LVDT is given as below.
E0 = Es1 – Es2
Since the secondary windings of LVDT are identical and placed symmetrically on either side of core, therefore
under normal position the flux linkage of both the secondary winding S1 & S2 will be same. This means Es1 =
Es2 and hence net output voltage E0 of LVDT = 0. This position of soft iron core is called NULL position. Thus
NULL position of Linear Variable Differential Transformer is the normal position of movable core where the
net output voltage is zero.
Now, as the core can either be moved toward right or left to the null position. Let us now consider such
movement of core under two cases.
Case-1: Core is moved left to the NULL position

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When core of LVDT is moved to the left of the NULL position ‘O’ as shown in figure above, the flux
linkage of secondary winding S1 will become more than that of winding S2. This means the emf induced in
winding S1 will be more than S2. Hence Es1 > Es2 and net output voltage E0 = (Es1 – Es2) = Positive. This means
that the output voltage E0 will be in phase with the primary voltage.
Case-2: Core is moved right to the NULL position

When the core of LVDT is moved toward right of NULL position ‘A’, you can guess what will happen?
Obviously the emf induced in secondary winding S2 will be more than that of S1. This means Es2 > Es1 and
hence net output voltage E0 = (Es1 – Es2) = negative. This means that the output voltage of LVDT will be in
phase opposition (180 degree out of phase) with the primary voltage.
From the above two cases, we can have the following conclusions:
1) The direction of movement of a physical quantity can be identified by the output voltage of LVDT. If the
output voltage E0 is positive, this means the physical quantity is moving toward left.
2) If the output voltage E0 is negative, this will mean that the physical quantity is moving in the right direction
from the NULL position.
3) The amount / magnitude of displacement is proportional to the magnitude of output voltage. The more the
output voltage, the more will be displacement. But here is a clue. You can’t take core out of the former;
otherwise the output voltage will become zero.
4) In fact corresponding to both the cases i.e. whether core is moving left or right to the NULL position, the
output voltage will increase lineally up to a displacement of around 5 mm from the NULL position. After
5mm, output voltage E0 becomes non-linear. The graph of variation of E0 with displacement is shown below.

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Carefully observe the above graph. It may be noted from the graph that even at NULL position (i.e. when there
is no displacement) there is some output voltage of LVDT. This small output is due to the residual magnetism
in the iron core.
Application:
LVDT is used in those applications where displacement ranging from fraction of a mm to few cm. As a
primary transducer, it converts the mechanical displacement into electrical signal.
Acting as a secondary transducer, it is sued for measurement of force, pressure, weight etc.

Q3. a. Attraction Type Moving Iron Instruments- The instrument in which the iron plate attracts from the
weaker field towards the stronger field such type of instrument is known as the attraction type instrument.
Construction of Attraction Type Instrument – The stationary coil of the attraction type instrument is flat and
has a narrow opening. The moving element is the flat disc of the iron core. The current flow through the
stationary coil produced the magnetic field which attracts the iron coil.

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The iron vane deflects from the low magnetic field to the high magnetic field, and the strength of the deflection
is directly proportional to the magnitude of the current flow through it. In short, we can say that the iron coil
attracts towards in.
The attraction type instruments use spring, which provided the controlling torque. The deflection of the coil is
reduced by the aluminium piston which is attached to the moving coil.

Torque Equation of Moving Iron Instruments:

Suppose that, at any instant of time current flowing in the coil is I. Thus the energy stored in the coil in the
form of magnetic field = (1/2)LI2.
As soon as the current changes to (I+dI), deflection in the pointer becomes dƟ resulting into change in
inductance of coil from L to (L+dL). Let this deflection in pointer is due to deflection torque Td.
Thus mechanical work done = Tdx dƟ ………………..(1)
Energy stored in Coil = (1/2)(L+dL)(I+dI)2
Change in stored energy of coil
= Final Stored Energy – Initial Stored Energy
= (1/2)(L+dL)(I+dI)2 – (1/2)LI2
= (1/2)[ (L+dL)(I+dI)2 – I2L]
= (1/2)[ (L+dL)(I2+2IdI+(dI)2 – I2L]
= (1/2)[ LI2+2LIdI+L(dI)2 + dLxI2+2IdIxdL+dLx(dI)2 – I2L]
Neglecting second order and higher terms of differential quantities i.e. L(dI)2, 2IdIxdL and dLx(dI)2
= (1/2)[ 2LIdI+dLxI2]
= LIdI +(1/2)dLx I2 ……………………(2)
Again, just think, when there is a change of current from I to (I+dI), this change change of current must be
accompanied by change in emf of coil. Thus we can write as
e = d(LI) / dt
= IdL/dt + LdI/dt
But electrical energy supplied by the source = eIdt
= (IdL + LdI) x I
= I2dL + LIdI
According to law of conservation of energy, this electrical energy supplied by the source is converted into
stored energy in the coil and mechanical work done for deflection of needle of Moving Iron Instruments.
Hence,
I2dL + LIdI = Change in stored energy + Work done
⇒ I2dL + LIdI = LIdI +(1/2)dLx I2 + Tdx dƟ ….[from (1) and (2)]
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⇒ Tdx dƟ = (1/2)dLxI2
⇒ Td = (1/2)I2(dL/dƟ)
Thus deflecting torque in Moving iron Instruments is given as
Td = (1/2)I2(dL/dƟ)
From the above torque equation, we observe that the deflecting torque is dependent on the rate of change of
inductance with the angular position of iron van and square of rms current flowing through the coil.
In moving iron instruments, the controlling torque is provided by spring. Controlling torque due to spring is
given as
Tc = KƟ
Where K = Spring constant
Ɵ = Deflection in the needle
In equilibrium state, deflecting and controlling torque shall be equal as below.
Deflecting Torque = Controlling Torque
⇒ Td = Tc
⇒ (1/2)I2(dL/dƟ) = KƟ
⇒ Ɵ = (1/2)(I2/K)(dL/dƟ)
From the above torque equation, we observe that the angular deflection of needle of moving iron instruments is
square of rms current flowing through the coil. Therefore, the deflection of moving iron instruments is
independent of direction of current.

Q.4.a

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Q4.b. Loss of Charge Method- In this method we utilize the equation of voltage across a discharging
capacitor to find the value of unknown resistance R. Figure below shows the circuit diagram and the
equations involved are-

However the above case assumes no leakage resistance of the capacitor. Hence to account for it we
use the circuit shown in the figure below. R1 is the leakage resistance of C and R is the unknown
resistance.
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We follow the same procedure but first with switch S1 closed and next with switch S1 open. For the
first case we get

For second case with switch open we get

Q5.a.(i)
Basis for Comparison Current Transformer Transformer
Potential
Definition Transform the current from Transform the voltage from
high value to the low value high value to the low value.
Core Usually built up with
It is made up of with high
lamination of silicon steel. quality steel operating at low
flux densities
Primary Winding It carries the current which is It carries the voltage which is
to be measured to be measured.
Secondary Winding It is connected to the current It is connected to the meter or
winding of the instrument. instrument.

(ii) Characteristics of CT- Main electric characteristics of CT are:

Rated primary current: The value of primary current which appears in the designation of the
transformer and on which the performance of the current transformer is based

Rated secondary current:- The value of secondary current which appears in the designation of the
transformer and on which the performance of the current transformer is based.

Rated transformation ratio: The ratio of the rated primary current to the rated secondary current.

Current error (ratio error):The error with a transformer introduces into the measurement of a current
and which arises from the fact that actual transformation ratio is not equal to the rated transformer
ratio. The current error expressed in percentage is given by the formula:

Current error, percent = (Ka.Is-Ip) x 100 / Ip

Where Ka= rated transformation ratio
Ip= actual primary current
Is= actual secondary current when Ip is flowing under the conditions of measurement

Phase displacement: The difference in phase between the primary and secondary current vectors, the
direction of the vectors being so chosen that the angle is zero for the perfect transformer. The phase
displacement is said to be positive when the secondary current vector leads the primary current
vector. It is usually expressed in minutes.
Accuracy class: A designation assigned to a current transformer the errors of which remain within
specified limit under prescribed conditions of use.
Burden:The impedance of the secondary circuit in ohms and power factor.
Rated burden: The impedance of the secondary circuit on which the accuracy requirements are
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based. It is usually expressed as apparent power (in VA), at the rated secondary current and at a
specified power factor.

b.

Q6. a. Ramp type DVM- The block diagram of a ramp-type digital voltmeter is shown in the
figure below. As seen from this diagram, it consists of a voltage-to-time conversion unit and a
time measurement unit.

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Operation of Ramp-Type Digital Voltmeter

The operating principle of the ramp type DVM is based on the measurement of the time taken by the
DVM for a linear ramp voltage to rise from 0 V to the level of the input voltage or to decrease from
the level of the input voltage to zero. This time period is measured with an electronic time-interval
counter and the count is displayed as a number of digits on a digital display.

At the start of measurement, a ramp voltage is initiated. The ramp voltage can be negative or positive.
The above figure shows a negative-going ramp, this ramp is continuously compared with the
unknown input voltage. At the instant that the ramp voltage equals the unknown voltage to be
measured, a coincidence circuit or comparator generates a pulse to open the gate. The ramp voltage
continues to decrease with time until it finally reaches 0 V. At this instant the ground comparator
generates an output pulse to close the gate. The time between opening and closing of the gate is Δt as
shown in Fig. 6.19. During this time interval pulses from a clock pulse generator pass through the
gate and are counted and displayed.An oscillator generates clock pulses that are allowed to pass
through the gate to a number of counting units which totalize the number of pulses passed through the
gate.The sampling rate multivibrator determines the rate at which the measurement cycles are
initiated. The sample-rate circuit provides an initiating pulse for the ramp generator to start its next
ramp voltage.

Dual Slope Type DVM- The dual slope integrating type DVM integrates the input voltage ViVi. The
slope of the integrated signal is proportional to the input voltage under measurement. After certain
period of time, say t1t1, the supply of input voltage ViVi is stopped, and a negative voltage -VrVr of
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the integrator is applied.

Then the output signal of integrator experiences a negative slope, which is constant and proportional
to the magnitude of the input voltage.
The major blocks of a dual slope integrating type DVM are
1. An op-amp employed as an integrator
2. A level comparator
3. Oscillator for generating time pulses
4. Decimal counter
5. Block of logic circuitry

Initially a pulse is applied to reset the counter and the output of flip-flop will be at logic '0.' The
switch SrSr is in open condition and the switch SiSi is in closed condition.
Now, the capacitor 'C' starts to charge. Once the output of the integrator becomes greater than zero,
the output state of the comparator changes, which in turn opens the AND gate.
When the gate opens, the output of the oscillator (clock pulses) are allowed to pass through it and are
applied to the counter. Now the counter counts the number of pulses fed to it. As soon as it reaches its
maximum count i.e. that is the counter is preset to run for a time period r; in this condition the
maximum count will be'9999', and for the next immediate clock pulse the count changes or goes to
'0000' and the flip-flop will be activated.
Therefore, the output of flip flop becomes logic 'I' which in turn activates the switch drive circuitry.
This makes the switch SiSi to open and SrSr to close (i.e. the supply of ViVi will be stopped, and the
supply of V is applied to the integrator.) With this applied signal the output of the integrator will be a
constant negative slope i.e. its output signal linearly decreases to zero. This again makes the output of
the comparator to change its state which in turn closes the gate.
Here, the discharging time t2t2 of the capacitor is proportional to the input voltage signal Vi. During
this discharging period the counter indicates the count. As soon as, the negative slope reaches zero
volts the comparator changes its output state to 'zero' which in turn locks the gate. Once the output of
integrator becomes zero (or the input of the comparator is zero) the counter will be stopped and the
counted pulses are displayed (which directly gives the input voltage).

Q.6.b. Digital Frequency Meter-A frequency meter has a small device which converts the sinusoidal
voltage of the frequency into a train of unidirectional pulses. The frequency of input signal is the
displayed count, averaged over a suitable counting interval out of 0.1, 1.0, or 10 seconds. These three
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intervals repeat themselves sequentially. As the ring counting units reset, these pulses pass through
the time-base-gate and then entered into the main gate, which opens for a certain interval. The time
base gate prevents a divider pulse from opening the main gate during the display time interval. The
main gate acts as a switch when the gate is open; pulses are allowed to pass. When the gate is closed,
pulses are not allowed to pass that means the flow of pulses get obstructed.
The functioning of the gate is operated by the main-gate flip-flop. An electronic counter at the gate
output that counts the number of pulses passed through the gate while it was open. As the main gate
flip-flop receives next divider pulse, the counting interval ends, and divider pulses are locked out. The
resultant value displayed on a display screen which has the ring counting units of scale-of-ten circuits
and each unit couples to a numeric indicator, which provides the digital display. As the reset pulse
generator is triggered, ring counters get reset automatically, and the same procedure starts again.

The range of modern digital frequency meter is between the range from104 to 109 hertz. The
possibility of relative measurement error ranges between from 10-9 to 10-11 hertz and a sensitivity of
10-2 volt.

Q.7 Gauge Factor of Strain Gauge-The strain gauge has been in use for many years and is the
fundamental sensing element for many types of sensors including pressure sensors, load cells, torque
sensors, position sensors, et cetera.
In order to explain a strain gauge and its working, we need to first define strain.
• Strain is what happens as a result of stress. If a material is stressed by a force, it often changes
shape and gets a little bit longer (if you've pulled it apart) or shorter (if you've pushed it
together). Therefore, strain is defined as the change in length the force produces divided by the
material's original length.
• A Strain Gauge is a passive transducer that converts a mechanical elongation or displacement
produced due to a force into its corresponding change in resistance R, inductance L, or
capacitance C.
• It is basically used to measure the strain in a work piece. If a metal piece is subjected to a
tensile stress, the metal length will increase and thus will increase the electrical resistance of
the material. Similarly, if the metal is subjected to compressive stress, the length will decrease,
but the breadth will increase. This will also change the electrical resistance of the conductor
Following is a basic diagram of a bonded strain gauge –

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Application in Load Measurement –In engineering, designing anything from a car engine or a
bridge to a wind turbine or an airplane wing requires measurement of stress that will be inflicted by
the load. Strain gauge simplifies this process by providing accurate data and the engineer does not
have to rely on intuition or guesswork.
Gauge factor is defined as the ratio of per unit change in resistance to per unit change in length.
Gf=(ΔR/R)(ΔL/L)Gf=(∆R/R)(∆L/L)
ΔRR=Gf×ΔLL=Gf×ε∆RR=Gf×∆LL=Gf×ε
where ε=strain= ΔLL∆LL
ΔRR=ΔLL+2v×ΔLL+Δρρ∆RR=∆LL+2v×∆LL+∆ρρ
∴ Gauge FactorGf=1+2v+((Δρ/ρ))εGf=1+2v+((∆ρ/ρ))ε
where
Term 1 – resistance change due to change of length
2v – resistance change due to change in area i.e. Poisson’s ratio
((Δρ/ρ))ε((∆ρ/ρ))ε – resistance change due to piezo resistive effect

The strain is usually expressed in terms of micro strain. 1 micro strain = 1 μm/m. If the change in the
value of resistivity of a material when strained is neglected, the gauge factor is:
GfGf = 1 + 2v

Q.7.b.i. Electrical Transducer- An electrical transducer is a device which is capable of converting

physical quanties into a proportional electrical quantity such as voltage or electric current. Hence it
converts any quantity to be measured into a usable electrical signal. This physical quantity which is to
be measured can be pressure, level, temperature, displacement etc. The output which is obtained from
the transducer is in the electrical form and is equivalent to the measured quantity.

Basic requirements of the Electrical transducer:The transducer circuit should have overload
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protection so that it will withstand overloads. The transducers output signal should not get affected by
environmental variations(disturbances) like temperature, vibration etc. It should give minimum error
in measurements.

Classification of Transducer- The transducer is of many types, and they can be classified by the
following criteria.

1. By transduction used.
2. as a primary and secondary transducer
3. as a passive and active transducer
4. as analogue and digital transducer
5. as the transducer and inverse transducer

1. Classification based on the Principle of Transduction

The transducer is classified by the transduction medium. The transduction medium may be resistive,
inductive or capacitive depends on the conversion process that how input transducer converts the
input signal into resistance, inductance and capacitance respectively.

2. Primary and Secondary Transducer

Primary Transducer – The transducer consists the mechanical as well as the electrical devices. The
mechanical devices of the transducer change the physical input quantities into a mechanical signal.
This mechanical device is known as the primary transducers.

Secondary Transducer – The secondary transducer converts the mechanical signal into an electrical
signal. The magnitude of the output signal depends on the input mechanical signal.

3. Passive and Active Transducer

The transducer is classified as the active and passive transducer.

Passive Transducer – The transducer which requires the power from an external supply source is
known as the passive transducer. They are also known as the external power transducer. The
capacitive, resistive and inductive transducers are the example of the passive transducer.
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Active Transducer – The transducer which does not require the external power source is known as
the active transducer. Such type of transducer develops theirs owns voltage or current, hence known
as a self-generating transducer. The output signal is obtained from the physical input quantity.

The physical quantity like velocity, temperature, force and the intensity of light is induced with the
help of the transducer. The piezoelectric crystal, photo-voltaic cell, tacho generator, thermocouples,
photovoltaic cell are the examples of the active transducers.

4. Analog and Digital Transducer

The transducer can also be classified by their output signals. The output signal of the transducer may
be continuous or discrete.

Analog Transducer – The Analog transducer changes the input quantity into a continuous function.
The strain gauge, L.V.D.T, thermocouple, thermistor are the examples of the analogue transducer.

Digital Transducer – These transducers convert an input quantity into a digital signal or in the form
of the pulse. The digital signals work on high or low power.

5. Transducer and Inverse Transducer

Transducer – The device which converts the non-electrical quantity into an electric quantity is
known as the transducer.

Inverse Transducer – The transducer which converts the electric quantity into a physical quantity,
such type of transducers is known as the inverse transducer. The transducer has high electrical input
and low non-electrical output.

ii. Platinum film is used in the construction of RTDs because it is stable, provides repeatable and
measurable results and has a broad temperature range. The way RTDs are constructed makes them
more rugged and reliable in harsh conditions which is why it can be used in industrial and critical
applications.

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