INDEX

Course No. : AGRO. – 3611 Credit : 1 (0+1)

Course Title: Practical Crop Production- II (Rabi crops) Semester: VI (New)

Ex. Title Page Date

No. No.
Introduction, aims and objectives of practical crop
1.
production – Allotment of plot and its history.
2. Study of seed production of rabi crops
Study of mechanization and resource conservation of rabi
3.
crops
Study of physical and chemical properties of the allotted plot
4.
to the students.
5. Study of package of practices for growing rabi crop (timely,
late and rainfed).
6. Preparation of calendar of operation for rabi crop
Study of preparatory, secondary tillage and seed bed
7.
preparation for rabi crop.
8. Sowing and seed treatment of rabi crop.
9. Study of integrated nutrient management of rabi crop.
10. Study of water management to rabi crop.
11. Determination of germination/emergence count of rabi crop.
Study of growth and yield contributing characters of rabi
12.
crop.
Study of integrated insect pest and diseases management in
13.
rabi crop
14. Study of inter culturing and weed management in rabi crop.
Study of integrated insect pest and diseases management in
15.
rabi crop
16. Study of crop maturity signs and harvesting of rabi crops
17. Threshing, drying, winnowing, storage and preparation of
produce for marketing of rabi crop.
18. Study of cost of cultivation and working out net returns per
student
19. Study of post-harvest technology of rabi crop
20. Summary report of practical crop production
21. Study of weekly weather record for rabi seaseon.

Date:

AGRO-3611 Page 1
 COMPLETION CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the student of T. Y. B. Sc. (Hons) Agriculture Mr./Miss

………………………………………………………Batch No. ………… Reg. No. ……….
has completed the necessary Exercise in Practical Course No. AGRO-3611 (New) Credits
0+1=1, Title – Practical Crop Production – II (Rabi Crops) for the requirements of the VI th
Semester Examination of the Academic Session 20 - 20

Date : Signature
Course Teacher

Remark: Timely/Late/ Very late submission

AGRO-3611 Page 2
 Date:

EXERCISE NO.1

INTRODUCTION, AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF PRACTICAL

CROP PRODUCTION – ALLOTMENT OF PLOT AND ITS HISTORY.

Introduction: Crop planning, raising field crops in multiple cropping systems:

Field preparation, seed, treatment, nursery raising, sowing, nutrient, water and weed
management and management of insect-pests diseases of crops, harvesting, threshing,
drying winnowing, storage and marketing of produce. The emphasis will be given to seed
production, mechanization, resource conservation and integrated nutrient, insect-pest and
disease management technologies. Preparation of balance sheet including cost of cultivation,
net returns per student as well as per team of 8-10 students.

During this semester, each student will be given about 0.02 ha. area for raising Rabi
crop either from cereals, pulses or oilseed group. The student have to carry out all field
operations starting from preparatory tillage up to threshing and preparing produce ready for
marketing. The student should also take all observations starting from germination to
harvesting of allotted crop. Also he has to study the cost of cultivation, net return per student as
well as per team of a group of students. The student’s performance in the course will be
evaluated on the basis of day to day work performed by the student on allotted land,
attendance, maintenance of record and performance during semester end practical
examination.

Aims and Objectives:

To get actual practical experience of raising field crop.
1) Application of improved technology for getting maximum production.
2) To study the operation wise labour requirement and cost of each operation.
3) To study the input requirement for cultivation of allotted crop.
4) To study the constraints encountered for cultivation of a crop under given set of field
and climatic conditions.
5) To study benefit cost ratio.
6) To develop self confidence among students.
7) To develop research attitude for the students.

AGRO-3611 Page 3
 Date:

EXERCISE NO. 1 A

ALLOTMENT OF PLOT AND HISTORY OF THE PLOT

Each student registered for course AGRO - 3611 (Practical Crop Production -II)
during VI th semester of 2019 -20 is allotted an area of 0.02 ha for raising Wheat for seed.
Each student should carry all the cultural operations on given plot, record periodical growth
observations and calculations of cost of each operations carried out.

I) History of the allotted plot :

i) Name of the college :
ii) Total area of the college :
iii) Total area of the farm :
iv) Cultivable area of the farm :
v) Name of the block of allotted plot and plot No. :
vi) Type of soil :
vii) Depth of soil :
viii) Name of the crop and variety :
ix) Allotted sub plot No. :
x) Date of allotment of the plot to the student :
xi) Previous cropping history of the plot :

Previous cropping history for last three years:

Sr. Year Crops grown Fertilizer applied /ha.

No. Rabi Rabi Summer Rabi Rabi Summer
1. 2016-17
2. 2017-18
3. 2018-19

AGRO-3611 Page 4
Division :
Plot No. :

AGRO-3611 Page 5
AGRO-3611 Page 6
 Date :

EXERCISE NO. 2

STUDY OF SEED PRODUCTION OF RABI CROPS.

What is Seed?
Definition:
Seed is a mature integumented megasporangium or mature ovule consisting of embryonic plants
together whit store food material covered by a protective coat (mega sporangium i.e. female
gametophyte –the pistils are the female reproductive organs called megasporophylly in the
flowering plants) the ovary of the carpel contains ovules (megasprorangia)
Definition of Seed technology:
Cowan (1973):
Defined as “That discipline of study having to do with seed production, maintenance, quantity
and preservation
Feistritzer (1975):
Defined seed technology as the method through which the genetic and physical characteristic of
seeds could be improved.
It involves such activities as variety development, evaluation and release seed production, seed
processing, seed storage, seed testing, seed certification, seed quality control, seed marketing etc.
Difference between Seed and Grain
The difference between seed and grain is given as below:
Sr. No Seed Grain

Any plant part used for propagation is seed. It It is final produce of grain
1
includes seeds category , rhizome , grafts etc. crops used for consumption.

Not treated with fungicide

2 Can be treated with fungicide, pesticide.
and Pesticide.

3 Embryo is important. Endosperm is important.

4 Viability is important. Viability never considers.

5 Genetic purity must. Genetic purity not necessary

5 Genetic purity must. Genetic purity not necessary

Comes under preview of

6 Comes under preview of seed acts.
food acts.

AGRO-3611 Page 7
 Role and Goal of Seed Technology in Crop Production
Role of Seed Technology:
Feistritzer (1975) outlined the few roles of improved seed.
1. Seed – a carrier of new technologies.
2. Seed – a basic tool for secured food supply.
3. Seed – The principle means to secure crop yields in less favorable production areas.
4. Seed – a medium for rapid rehabilitation of agriculture in case of natural disaster.
1. A carrier of new technologies:
The introduced of quality seed of new verities and combined with other inputs significantly
increased yield level e.g. in cereals, yield increased up to 112%, in potato – 24% & sugar beet –
142% in U. S. A. & central Europe.
In India the cultivation of high yielding verities have helped to increase food production from 52
million tones (1947) to nearly 200 million tones in 2000-2001
2. A basic tool for secured food supply:
The successful implementation of the high yield verities programme in India has led to a
remarkable increase the production.
As a result, food imports from other countries have been substantially brought down in spite of
the rapid population increase.
3. The principle means to secure crop yield in less favorable area of production:
The supply of good quality seed of improved verities, suitable to these areas is one of the crops.
Immediate contribution that seed technology can make to secure higher crop yield
Goals of Seed Technology:
The measure role of seed technology is to increase agriculture production through the spread of
good quality seed of high yielding verities.
1. Rapid Multiplication:
Increase in agricultural production through quickest spread of new verities developed (released)
by the plant breeders.
2. Timely supply:
The improve seeds of new verities must be made available well in time, so that farmer is planned
planting schedule (or showing time) without disturbed. They are able used good seed for
planning (sowing) purpose
3. Assured high quality of seeds:
Is necessary to obtain the expected dividends from the use of sees of improved verities
4. Reasonable price:
The cost of high quality seed should be within reach of the average farmer.

Principles of Quality Seed Production of Foundation and Certified Seed

Use of quality seed of improved variety of notified variety of hybrids is a basic input in
cultivation of any crops as it ensures high crop stand, vigorous and healthy crop growth and
thereby it ensures high productivity of that crop. Use of certified seed assures the cultivators in

AGRO-3611 Page 8
getting quality seed, as certified seed production is subjected to the process of seed certification,
and as per provisions of the seed Act only those seed lots which are offered for certification and
which meet minimum certification standards are certified and other lots are rejected from
certification.
Production of certified seed of any notified variety or hybrids or parental lines of hybrids
requires technical knowledge of the principles involved and timely adoption of provisions of
seed certification. It is therefore essential for the seed producer to acquaint with the principles of
certified seed production.
Certified seed production can be undertaken for foundation stage ( for varieties, and inbreds or
parental lines of hybrids) and for certified stage for only notified varieties and hybrids.
Before undertaking certified seed production either of foundation or certified stage, it is
necessary to get well acquainted with the basic principles of seed production and formalities
required to be completed.

Stages of Seed Multiplication

1. The benefits of an improved variety are not released unless enough true seed has been
produced for its commercial spread. The initial amount of pure seed which is limited in
quantity is multiplied under various stages or classes or seed these are:
2. a. Nucleus seed b. Breeders seed c. Foundation seed d. registered seed
e. certified seed
1. Nucleus seed: It is the initial amount of pure seed of an improved variety available with
plant breeder who has involved it. The nucleus seed is sent per sent pure genetically as
well as physically and is very limited in quantity.
2. Breeder’s seed: It is the seed obtained from the progeny of nucleus seed. It is directly
supervised by a breeder concern with the crop. Its genetically and physical purity to be
100 per cent.
3. Foundation seed: It is seed obtained from nucleus or breeder’s seed. It is produced on
seed multiplication farm of a state govt. or grill. Universities. Foundation seed plots are
jointly inspected by the SCA (seed certification agency), it is not as pure as the nucleus
and breeder’s seeds are. The bags are sealed with white colored label.
4. Registered seed: It is raised from nucleus, breeders or foundations seeds. Registered
seed growers are selected from progressive farmers. The maintenance of purity from
time to time. The purity is maintained through field inspections by seed certifying
agencies and seed tests. The bags are sealed with purple colored label.
5. Certified seed: It is progeny of registered or foundation seed. When the amount of seed
registered seed id supposed to be inadequate to meet farmers agency. The bags are
scaled with purple colored label.
What is Nucleus Seed
It is the initial amount of pure seed of improved variety or parental lines of a hybrid
produced under supervision of the plant breeder who has evolved that variety of hybrid.

AGRO-3611 Page 9
 The nucleus seed is genetically cent percent pure and does not contain other physical
impurities. The nucleus seed is produced strictly under isolation so as to avoid both
genetically and physical contamination. Nucleus seed should retain original vigour of the
variety or parental line.
About 500 to 1000 individual plants (IPS) which are vigorously growing and healthy are
selected from the nucleus bulk-plot before flowering starts. Observations are recorded on
each IPS for all the important morphological characters viz plant height , stem colour,
hairiness, pigmentation, growth habit, colour and shape of different plant parts, days to
flowering and maturity. The IPS which are a) Off types or b) affected by seed borne
disease are removed and discarded. The individual IPS selected are harvested and
threshed separately and their seed produce is dried, cleaned and stored in separate cloth
bags or paper bags with proper labeling. The seed of each IPS is examined for seed
characters and for oil content if it is an oil seed crop. The seed produce of each IPS is
weighed. The seed yield per IPS , 1000 (or 100) seed weight and data on other
quantitative characters more than mean+ S.E are retained as source for raising next year’s
nucleus seed and of rejected IPS is bulked with general produce.
Seed produce of IPS selected during preveious year is grown as plant to row progeny
during subsequent year. Observations are recorded in all the plants form each IPS for
important characters. The IPS which shows off types are discarded and harvested before
flowering so as to avoid contamination. 500 to 1000 vigorous growing healthy and true to
type IPS are selected from remaining progeny rows and their produce is subjected to
harvesting, processing and statistical analysis as described earlier. The produce of
selected individual (IPS) is utilized for raising plant to row progenies in the next year.
The selected plant to row progenies are harvested and processed in individual bulks.
Their seed is examined, weighted and subjected to statistical analysis for mean and S.E.
The progenies which show seed yield more than mean+ S.E are bulked together which
becomes source for breeder seed.
In case of cross pollinated crops it is essential to self IPS as well as each plant from every
bulk before flowering for preveious cross pollination.
What is Breeder Seed?
It is the progeny of nucleus seed. Generally breeder seed is produced in one stage. But if
there is greater demand for breeder seed and there is low seed multiplication ratio then
breeders seed can be produced in two stages, viz Breeder stage I and II. In such cases
breeder seed, stage I becomes source for breeder Stage II.
Breeder seed can be produced by original breeder, sponsored breeder on Agricultural
University farms and rarely on government farm. Breeder seed plots are subjected to joint
inspection by a team consisting of crop breeder from other Agricultural Universities in
the State, representative of All India Coordinated Research Projects of the crop, National
Seeds Corporation, State Seeds Corporation and Divisional Seed Certification Officer.
Breeder seed produced should meet all prescribed standards viz. genetic purity (99.9 %

AGRO-3611 Page 10
 more), physical purity (98%) . Germination (as per crop) moisture content (less than
12%). After passing the seed lot, breeder seed tags in buff colour or Golden Yellow are
signed by the concerned breeder and tagged to the breeder seed bags size of tag 12X 8
cm.
Precautions for Maintaining Genetic Purity in Seed Production
a) Control of Seed Source:
Appropriate class of seed purchased from approved source should be used for raising the seed
crop. Breeder seed used for raising foundation seed plot and foundation seed used for raising
certified seed plot. Seed must purchased from approved sources like Agril University, Agril.
Research Station or Maharashtra State Seed Corporation (MSSC).
b) Crop Requirement:
There should not be same crop in the previous season to save genetic contamination from
volunteer plants. They are unwanted plants of the same crop growing in the seed field from the
seeds that remain in the field from previous year crop.
c) Isolation:
It helps to avoid natural crossing with undesirable plants, as well as to avoid mechanical mixture
during sowing and harvesting.
There are two types of isolations.
a) Space Isolation:
Space between seed field and contaminant.
b) Time Isolation:
The flowering of contaminant and seed field should not coincide with each other. In certified
seed production programme time isolation is not permitted and space isolation must be followed
as per crop standards.
c) Rouging:
Removal of undesirable plants from seed production field is called rouging. It includes removal
of 1) Volunteer plants 2) Off types plants 3) Diseased Plants 4) Other crop plants
5) Objectionable weed plants.
Rouging is responsibility of seed grower. The rogue plants are removed before they caused
contamination for cross pollinated crops every days rouging during flowering.
Seed Certification
Seed certification is a legally sanctioned system for quality control of seed multiplication and
production and which consists the control measures are
1. It is an administrative check on the origin of propagating material for the purpose of
trueness to purity (genetic purity).
2. Field inspection: At the time of growing a crop for seed production purpose. The data
should be obtained on trueness to varietals purity, isolation of seed crop to prevent crops-
pollination, mechanical admixtures and diseases dissemination, objectionable weeds and
admixtures.

AGRO-3611 Page 11
 3. Supervision on agricultural operations i.e. intercultural operations, harvesting, storage,
transport and processing etc. for identity and quality of lots.
4. Sample inspection: For quality and to maintain genetic purity, a lab test of representative
samples drawn by the S.C.A. for determining,% of germination moisture content, weed
seed content, admixture and purity.
5. Bulk inspection: For checking homogeneity of the bulk as compared with the sample
inspected.
6. Control Plot Testing: Samples drawn from the source seed and the final seed produced
can be grown in the field along with standard samples of the variety.
The purpose of seed certification is to maintain and make available high quality seed and
propagating materials of notified plant varieties.
Phases of Seed Certification
Seed certification has five phases of these are:
1. Verification of seed source.
2. Inspection of seed crop in the field.
3. Supervision at post-harvest stages including processing and packing.
4. Seed sampling and analysis.
5. Grant of certificate, certification tag, tables and sealing.
Concepts of Seed Certification
The AOSCA (association of official seed certifying agencies) have given some fundamental
concepts of seed certification & these are:
1. Pedigree of all certified crops must be essential.
2. The integrity of certified seed growers must be recognized.
3. Field inspection must be made by through qualified field inspectors.
4. Verification trials to establish and maintain satisfactory pedigree of seed stock.
5. For keeping proper records to establish and maintain satisfactory pedigree of seed stock.
6. Standard should be maintained for purity and germination.
7. The principles of sealing seeds to protect both grower and purchase must be approved.
Steps Required for Organizing Seed Certification
The various steps are required for organizing seeds certification are:
1. Establishment and operation of seed certification agency.
2. Establishment of minimum seed certification standards.
3. Establishment of procedure for field inspection, seed processing, seed sampling and
testing, tagging and sealing etc.

Seed Certification Agency

The broad principles for forming a seed certification agency are:
a. Should not involve in production and marketing seeds.
b. It should have a autonomy body.

AGRO-3611 Page 12
 c. The seed certification standards and procedure adapted by S.C.A should be uniform. The
same standard and procedure should be adopted through out the country.
d. It is closely associated with technical institute. Its relationship with other institute should
be clearly defined.
e. Should be operating on a no-profit-no loss basis.
f. Technique staff (adequate) trained in seed certification should be maintained.
g. Prevision for creating adequate facilities and timely inspections.
h. It should be served in the interests of seed produces and buyers.
Structure of Seed Certification Agency
a. Director: The director is responsible for the all over functioning of the company. He
should be the member of secretary of the board of director and also the chairmen of
various committees framed time to time with specific problem.
b. Supervisors (seed certification officers): For each group of related species under
certification e.g. cereal seeds, vegetable seeds etc. He should the put in charge of
supervising the field inspector’s work and observes the rules and regulations, minimum
standers are met or not. He should trained seed inspectors and other personal involved in
inspection.
c. Seed Certification Inspectors: He should be a trained and technical based of the seed
certification system. During field inspection season, he must be willing to work long
hours during peak period. He should be encourage and pursuable seed growers and seed
producer to adopt new techniques and scientific finding. He should be good at public
relation and also to guide and lead farmers by his devotion to work.
Duties and responsibilities of Seed Certification Agency
1. To arrange for suitable application, inspection and report forms.
2. To identify source of breeders seed. That can be used as the basis for further
multiplication.
3. Through field inspection, that prescribes the minimum standard for isolation,
planting ratio, raguing etc.
4. To assists seed growers and producers in obtaining suitable planting seed. This is
especially in case of H.S.P.
5. To assists seed producer at the time of harvesting, drying & processing.
6. To draw a seed sample and inspect seed lots & submit such sample to the seed
testing laboratory for maintaining the prescribed seed standards.
7. To issue appropriate seed certification tags for seed lots.
8. To maintain adequate records. So that the eligibility of specific lot can be
determined in subsequent years.
9. Close working relationship between seed growers, dealers, research personals
government’s officials, etc.
10. To take appropriate corrective actions against rigorously any violation of
prescribed standards or complaints from uses of certified seeds.

AGRO-3611 Page 13
 Field Inspection in Seed Production
It is a key method in the whole process of certification for the verification of the seed quality
when the crop is standing in the field and is subjected to the vagaries of weather and exposed to
other known and unknown factors affecting its quality.
Field inspections are done by the seed certification inspector ( Field inspector ) from SSCA by
examining seed crop in the field right from sowing up to harvesting. They verify key factor like,
genetic purity, physical purity, seed health, which deteriorate seed quality in the field.
Inspection of Seed Crop in Standing Field is Field Inspection in Broad Sence:
Field Inspection is defined as inspection of standing crop in seed field by the seed certification
officer or field inspection of SSCA to confirm isolation, genetically purity and timely rouging of
contamination and other agronomical seed production practices for their fulfillment of prescribed
standards ( or ) norms of SCA.
Objective of Field Inspection:
1) Verification of seed source.
2) Verification of cropping history of land for processing season or year.
3) Verification of Isolation.
4) Checking of planting method followed i.e planting ratio, border rows, in case hybrid seed
production.
5) Rouging of off types, diseased plants and other mechanical contaminants.
6) Guidance to seed growers.

Field Inspection Report – In Seed Technology

Maharashtra State Seed Certification Agency Division /…..No.
( Seed certification report for ………………Ha.area)
1. Name of seed grower / Producer …………..Report No………
Village……………… Taluka………. District………Date of Inspection…….
2. Survey No of seed plot …………Time…………… From………. To………
3. Location of Farm…………..
4. Previous Crop: Rabi……… Rabi…………… Summer………..
5. Name of Crop ………..Variety………..
6. Sour of Seed………..Class and Quantity of Seed…………….
7. Total acreage under seed production……………..
8. Acreage of field Inspection.
9. Sowing Date…………….
10. Spacing……………..
11. Stage of seed crop during inspection………….
12. Isolation distance ( mts) : a) North ……….. b) South……………. c) East………… d)
West………….
13. Name and stage of growth of contaminants………………..
14. Field count (No of plants / heads – 100/500/1000):

AGRO-3611 Page 14
Count Off Other Affected by seed Remarks i.e Names of
No. types Crops Weeds borne diseases Contaminants

10

Total

Average

%
15. Crop Condition…………………………….
16. Quality of Seed Production work……………………..
17. Thus this crop confirm the standards of seed certification……………..
18. Estimated seed yield( Qtls/ha)……………….
19. Remarks………………………………………
20. Was the seed grower or his representative was present at inspection time……………….
Signature of Seed Grower/His Representative.

Signature of Inspector
Name :
Designation:

AGRO-3611 Page 15
 Seed Storage – Purpose and Stages
Purpose of Seed Storage:
The purpose of seed storage is to maintain the seed in good physical and physiological condition
from the time they are harvested until the time they are planted.
Stages of Seed Storage:
The seeds are considered to be in storage from the moment they reach physiological maturity
until they germinate, or until they are thrown away because they are dead or otherwise worthless.
The entire storage period can be conveniently divided into following stages.
1. Storage on plants (Physiologically maturity until harvest)
2. Harvest, until processed and stored in a warehouse.
3. In storages (Warehouses).
4. In transit ( rail wagons , trucks, carts, railway sheds , etc)
5. In retail stores.
6. On the user’s farm.
The seed quality, i.e germination and vigour, can be considerably affected at any of the stages
mentioned above , unless sound principles involved in seed storage are practiced and the seeds
properly handled.

Storage from Harvest until Processing

The period of harvesting and cleaning is frequently one of high temperatures. During this time
seeds still have high moisture content. Seed deterioration can be rather rapid during this period.
Transport from field to threshing floors, threshing floors to processing plants and at the
processing plants, involves periods of storage during which deterioration can be rapid and
serious, if the moisture content is above thirteen percent. At moisture contents above this range,
molds may grow on in the seed end heating may occur.
It is therefore, necessary to take the utmost care in handling of material after harvest. If
harvesting has been done above 13 percent moisture content, necessary arrangements for drying /
aeration, etc, of seeds are necessary to preserve seed quality. In addition, adequate care is
necessary in handling the seed materials at this stage so as to prevent mechanical mixtures and
maintain lot identity.
Seed Packaging and Handling
After processing and treating are completed seeds are packaged into containers of specified new
weight. Packaging or bagging is essentially the last operation in which seeds are handled in bulk
flow; the packaging consists of the following operations:
1. Filling of seed bags to an exact weight.
2. Placing leaflets in the seed bags regarding improved cultivation practices.
3. Attaching labels, certification tags on the seed bags, and sewing of the bags.
4. Storage / shipment of seed bags.
Equipment Used for Packaging of Seeds:
The Bagger Weigher:

AGRO-3611 Page 16
These are small machines which, when properly mounted beneath a bin, will fill and weight a
bag accurately in a single operation. Operational steps include:
a) The empty bag is suspended on the bagger weigher by a bag clamp.
b) Seed flow into the bag is begun, usually by a trip lever.
c) As seed flows into the suspended bag, a scale –type counter –balance mechanism is actuated,
so that when the proper weight of seed is in the bag, the seed flow lever is tripped and seed flow
is automatically stopped.
d) The bag now filled with the exact weight of seed is removed from the bagger weigher and is
closed.
Bagger weigher and bagging scales, used in seed packaging may be manual, semi- automatic or
automatic.
Manual Weighing:
This type of scale, usually a portable plant form is considered inefficient for volume weighing
operations because of high labour requirements and relatively low capacity, in terms of bags
filled per minute. With this scale, bags are filled to approximate weight, placed on the scale and
then ‘even weighed with a hand scoop. These scales are useful in following conditions.
a) Weighing bags of non-free flowing seeds.
b) A bagging bin is not available.
c) Labour costs are minimal.
Semi-automatic. This is the most widely used scale. The scale is attached to the bottom of a
bagging bin, and the bag is clamped to the bottom of the scale. The feed gate is opened manually
and may be closed either manually or automatically when the proper weight is attained. The
scales have a capacity to weight four to eight bags of 50 kg per minute, depending upon the seed
being packaged and the skill of the operators.
When selecting a scale of this type, the circumference and composition of bags or containers
must be considered. The office, or the bag clamp, must be smaller than the open end of the bag,
however; too small an orifices and clamp will result in seed spilling around the edge of the bag.
The bag clamps hold bag material of specific finish and thickness, therefore, the composition of
the bagging material, that is, jute, cloth, plastic, paper, etc. should be stated when ordering the
scale.
Automatic scales: Scales of this type are used primarily for small packages, E .g vegetable and
lawn seeds. In these machines the entire weighing and filling process is done automatically.
Installation is similar to the semi-automatic bagger. Some completely automated systems pick up
the empty bag, place if on a bagger, fill the bag and release the filled bag which then moves by
conveyer to a bag closer.
Regardless of the types of scales used, they should be checked regularly to determine their
accuracy, particularly if they are portable. Frequent and careful cleaning of the weighing
mechanism will decrease the number of inaccurate weighings and extend the life of the scale.

AGRO-3611 Page 17
Bag sewing machine. After an open- mouth bag is filled, the bag top must be sewed with a bag
sewing machine. Bag sewing machines are precision, high speed machines and must be operated
and maintained properly to prevent frequent break.
Seed Marketing
Seed marketing is one of the most vital components of seed technology. On it depends the size
and scope of the seed industry. Broadly, it includes such activities as production, processing,
storage, quality control and marketing of seeds. In the narrow sense, however, seed marketing
refers to the actual acquisition and selling of packed seeds, intermediate storage, delivery and
sales promotional activities. In the present context, our discussion is limited to seed marketing in
the narrow sense.
Seed Marketing Comprises the Following:
1. Demand forecasts (assessment of effective demand),
2. Marketing structure,
3. Arrangements for storage of seeds,
4. Sales promotional activities.
5. Post- sales service; and
6. Economics of seed production and seed pricing.
Demand Forecasts:
The assessment of effective seed requirement is critical to any planned seed programme. The
underlying principle in marketing demand forecasts should be that the seed supply keeps pace
with seed demand (both present and future) in terms of quantity, quality , price, place, and time.
The outcome of such an approach would be planned seed production and marketing. It would
also avoid shortage and gluts and as well ensure stable prices and profits.
In making demand forecasts, the following must be considered carefully:
a) Total cultivated acreage, seed rate, quality replacement period and assessment of total
potential seed requirement of each of the important crops.
b) Impact of extension efforts on the introduction of improved production techniques, and future
plans for promotion.
c) Current acreage under high yielding varieties and amount of seed sold in the last year.
d) Cultivator preferences for varieties, package size, kind of packing, quality and price.
e) Number and size of competitors.
f) Kinds of publicity and sales promotion those are most effective.
g) Climate of the area where seed is being marketed.
Assessment of potential effective seed demand of the market, based on total seed requirements is
of very little values, since the demand for high quality seed normally exists for the crop area
which is under good fertility and irrigated conditions. The requirements for the remaining crop
area are covered by uncontrolled production material obtained from the preveious crop
production. Furthermore, experience shows that the varietal purity and the yield potential of high
quality seed of the self pollinating varieties can be maintained by farmers during the
reproduction process, without significant deterioration for three to four generations. Therefore,

AGRO-3611 Page 18
individual farmers only need to replace seed of self –pollinating varieties every third or fourth
year. Thus, the demand for high quality seed of self –pollinated crops is normally not higher than
25 to 30 percent of the total requirement for areas under irrigated and high fertility conditions.
However, there could be some exceptions, E. g , if the climate of the region is not suitable for
retaining viability of seed from the previous crop production. The farmers of such areas, if
properly trained, can buy high quality seed each year, even of self-pollinated crops.
A rather different approach must be taken in the marketing of hybrid seeds, in which case new
seed is needed by the farmer each season. Although, the critical period may be rather difficult,
the subsequent planning is easier, particularly after sale statistics are seen to point in a certain
direction.
The dealers need to make periodic surveys of the market areas, to determine market potential at
least one season in advance. Dealer advance orders should be treated as informational material to
aid the production section in organizing an effective production programme. The dealer should,
however , hot to be held to the exact amounts of such advanced orders.
The uses of demand forecasts are many and varied. A reliable forecast is the sheet anchor of all
planning in business. Long term demand indications, in terms of quality, prices and locations,
help to make an investment decision, that is how much to invest, where to locate the production
facility, and how to organize marketing. Intermediate-range demand forecast help to make
decisions on action necessary to optimize profits by balancing production and sales. Uses of
short-term demand forecast include production planning and scheduling, distribution planning
and scheduling , determination of targets and quotas for dealers and salesmen, planned buying of
inputs, preparation of cash flow budgets, preparation of overall budgets and profits and loss
statements , modifications of prices, policies, etc.
Marketing Structure: (Establishment of Effective Channel for Seed Distribution):
The key to success in seed marketing is the establishment of effective channel of distribution.
The various channels through which seed can be marketed vary greatly according to the needs of
the seed company.
Present Status of Seed Distribution:
The types of seed distribution systems in India are:
a) Farmer to farmer distribution. This is the traditional method, whereby farmers obtain their
requirements from neighbors either on cash payment or on exchange basis. No formal marketing
organization is required for this type of distribution.
b) Distribution by co-operatives. This involves procurement of seeds by cooperatives and its
subsequent distribution. The distribution of seeds through cooperatives has often been
encouraged by the government through subsidies and guarantees.
c) Distribution by departments of Agriculture. Seeds are purchased by the governments, out of
the government funds, and are distributed district Agricultural Officers and Block Development
officers.
d) Distribution of seeds by non-government or quasi-government agencies. In this system, the
seeds are distributed through a network of seed distributors and seed dealers.

AGRO-3611 Page 19
Both the seed Review Team ( 1968) and the National Commission on Agriculture ( 1976) have
recommended that the State government should withdraw from the seed procurement and
distribution fields in a phased manner, so as to be able to concentrate on their principal function
of providing extension education in the use of high quality seeds for improving productivity.
Thus, emphasis is on the establishment of a seed marketing network to replace the role of state
government, and to establish a system that will be adequate for the anticipated increase in seed
demand. In this connection, it is considered necessary that a network of seed dealers should be
established.
Marketing Organization:
There are a number of possible ways a marketing network could be organized.
The simple and most efficient systems are to establish a central marketing cell and regional
offices in end-use areas. The retail sale could be organized either by appointing distributors/
dealers such as private dealers, cooperatives, agro-sales service centers, etc, or by opening seed
company/ corporation –owned sales points, or both as illustrated in above:
Central Marketing Cell:
1) Regional Offices
a) Sole distributors
b) Dealers (Private)
c) Dealers (Coops)
d) Dealers (Agro-Sales Services)
e) Company sale depots
a) Sole Distributors:
i) Dealers (Private)
ii) Dealers (Coops)
iii) Dealers (Agro-Sales Service)
Under such a scheme, the central marketing cell is responsible for planning, appointment of
dealers/ distributors, seed movement, marketing intelligence research, pricing, promotional
activities, financing and record keeping.

@@@@@@

AGRO-3611 Page 20
 Date :

EXERCISE NO. 3

STUDY OF MECHANIZATION AND RESOURCES CONSERVATION OF RABI

CROPS.

India

Total population: 1.21 billion (2011)

Population growth rate: 1.5% annually
Majority (69%) of people live in rural areas.
Land area: 297.3 million ha (2.4% of world) 17% of population;
Only 4.2% of world water; 1200 mm annual rainfall
Agriculture accounts for 80% of water needs; 60% from ground water.
52% workers in Agriculture: 14% of GDP;

INDIAN AGRICULTURE LABOUR FORCE BY OCCUPATION ( 478.3 MILLION)

48% in Agriculture and 52% in Industry.

INDIAN AGRICULTURAL MACHINERY

INDUSTRY
250 Medium to Large Scale Units
2,500 Small Scale Industries
15,000 Tiny Industries
1,00,000 Village level Artisans
32,000 Crore Industry, CAGR growth 5%
66% Tractors
34% Agri. Machinery

INDIAN AGRICULTURE MACHINERY INDUSTRY

OPPURTUNITIES
1.FAVOURABLE GOVERNMENT INCENTIVE POLICIES.
2.INCREASED PRODUCTION AND SALES OF TRACTORS.

Scope of Farm Mechanization

The total power availability of Maharashtra state was 0.70 kW/ ha during the year 2001 which is
less than national average of 1.35 kW/ha during the same year. The food grain production of the
state is less than the national average. There is great scope for mechanization in the state and
especially horticultural crops. Efforts are on to develop sugarcane combine for harvesting of
sugarcane as labour is not available for harvesting. Grapes are being grown and being exported.

AGRO-3611 Page 21
There is need to mechanize grape production by introducing machines for its planting,
application of biogas slurry, fertigation, irrigation, spraying and harvesting. Citrus is also grown
on large area and its needs mechanization. Cotton occupies large area efforts are being made to
develop cotton cultivars suitable for harvesting with self-propelled cotton picker. Area under
soybean is on the rise and it also needs to be mechanized. The sale of tractors has picked up in
Maharashtra since last few years

Meaning of Mechanization of Agriculture:

In G. D. Aggarwal’s words, “Farm mechanization is a term used in a very broad’ sense. It not
only includes the use of machines, whether mobile or immobile, small or large, run by power and
used for tillage operations, harvesting and thrashing but also includes power lifts for irrigation,
trucks for haulage of farm produce, processing machines, dairy appliances for cream separating,
butter making, oil pressing, cotton ginning, rice hulling, and even various electrical home
appliances like radios, irons, washing machines, vacuum cleaners and hot plates.”

According to Dr. Bhattacharjee, “Mechanization of agriculture and farming process connotes

application of machine power to work on land, usually performed by bullocks, horses and
other draught animals or by human labour.”
According to Dr. C. B. Memoria, “It (mechanization) chiefly consists in either replacing, or
assisting or doing away with both the animal and human labour in farming by mechanical power
wherever possible.”

“Mechanization may be either partial or complete. It is partial when only a part of the farm work
is done by machine. When animal or human labour is completely dispensed with by power
supplying machines, it is termed as complete.”

“Broadly speaking mechanization of agriculture has two forms mobile mechanization and the
stationary types of mechanization. The former attempts to replace animal power on which
agriculture has been based for very many centuries; while the latter aims at reducing the
drudgery of certain operations which have to be performed cither by human labour or by a
combined effort of human beings and animals.”

Benefits of Mechanization of Agriculture:

(1) It Increases Production:
Mechanization increases the rapidity and speed of work with which farming operations can be
performed. According to D. R. Bomford, “The ploughman with his three-horse am controlled
three- horse; power, when given a medium-sized crawler tractor controlled between 20 to 30
horse power. His output, there-fore, went up in the ratio of about 8: 1.”

According to B. K. S. Jain, “In the U.S.A. a laborer who formerly ploughed one acre of land with
a pair of horses is now able to account for 12 acres a day with a gasoline-driven tractor. By this

AGRO-3611 Page 22
quickening of agricultural practices the human labour required is minimized. Over a period of
three decades in U.S.A., a study revealed that one-third increase was due to the use of chemicals:
another one third due to better varieties, and wealthier seeds, while another one-third was due to
improved farm machinery.”

According to Roy D Laird, “A more recent and more spectacular development in mechanization
of agriculture has been brought in the U.S.S.R., where four times the agricultural output became
that of 1913 and grain production alone increased by 70 per cent by 1960. By 1965 Socialist
Competition, increased electrification and more machinery were supposed to induce a 100%
increase in the efficiency of agricultural labour in that country.”

(2) It Increases Efficiency and Per Man Productivity:

Mechanization raises the efficiency of labour and enhances the farm production per worker. By
its nature it reduces the quantum of labour needed to produce a unit of output. In the U.S.A., “the
amount of human labour used to produce 100 bushels of wheat dropped from 320 hours in the
year 1830 to 108 hours in 1900; by 1940 a new series of improvements has reduced labour
requirements to 47 hours.” (Bureau of Agricultural Economics).

According to Hecht and Barton, “Before the World War I. it took, about 35 man hrs. to grow and
harvest an acre of corn ; 15.2 hrs. for an acre of wheat and 15.7 hrs. for an acre of oat. In 1945-
48, the labour requirements were 23.7, 6.1 and 8.1 man hours respectively. The combined, effect
of fewer hours and more bushels per acre has resulted in more than halving labour requirements
per unit of production. The number of man-hours required in 1910-14 per 100 bushels of corn
was 135, of wheat 106 and of oat 58; in 1945- 48, the corresponding figures were 67,34 and 23
respectively.”

“It is estimated that productivity per man on farms in U.S.A. is about four and a half times that in
the U.S.S.R.” (Jusny) “In the U.S.S.R. in collective farms, production has raised labour
productivity to a high level compared with the pre- revolutionary days; now labour is three times
more productive there.” (Anisimov)

(3) Mechanization Increases the Yield of Land Per Unit of Area:

S.E. Johnson holds that “of 28 per cent increase in farm output in U.S.A., above the average of
1934-39 only about one-fourth is due to better weather, probably less than 15 per cent has
resulted from expansion of crop, land acreage and the rest, about 60 per cent is largely accounted
for by the fuller use of the improvements in crops, live stocks and machinery. Increase in the
yield of crops, due to mechanization of farms, has been traced from 40 to 50 per cent in the case
of maize; 15 to 20 per cent in Bajara and Paddy; 30 to 40 per cent in Jowar, Groundnut and
Wheat.”

(4) Mechanization Results in Lower Cost of Work.

AGRO-3611 Page 23
It has been accepted by all that one of the methods of reducing unit costs is to enlarge the size c*
the farms and go in for more intensive farming. It is found that the cost of production and the
yields can be adjusted properly if mechanization is resorted to.

(5) It Contracts the Demand for Work Animals for ploughing water lifting, harvesting,
transport etc.:
In actual operation, costs amount to little when machines are idle, whereas the cost of
maintenance of draught animals remains the same during both periods of working and idleness,
because animals have to be fed whether they are doing work or not. It is advantageous to use
tractors when a great deal of work has to be done in a short time.

(6) It Brings in other Improvements in Agricultural Technique:

In its training come improvements in the sphere of irrigation, land reclamation and the
prevention of soil erosion. The present-day dependence on the monsoon as the only irrigation of
crops in India can be obtained by a more scientific approach.

Besides, ploughing by tractor reclaims more land and thereby extends the cultivated area as the
tractor smoothens hillocks, fills in depressions and gullies and eradicate deeps-rooted weeds. It
also prevents soil erosion. Besides mechanical fertilization, contour bunding and terracing are
done by mechanical methods with the help of self-propelled graders and terraces.

(7) It Modifies Social Structure in Rural Areas:

It results in a significant modification of the social structure in rural areas. It frees the farmers
from much of the laborious, tedious, hard work on the farms. The pressure on land decreases and
the status of the farmers improves.

(8) It Leads to Commercial Agriculture:

Mechanization results in a shift from ‘subsistence farming’ to ‘commercial agriculture. This shift
occurs mainly due to the need for more land and capital to be associated with farmer in order to
reap the full technological benefits.

This in its turn gives rise two tendencies:

(i) Gradual replacement of domestic or family by commercial methods, and

(ii) Search for international markets for agricultural produce.

(9) It Solves the Problem of Labour Shortage:

In countries where human labour falls short of requirements in agriculture, use of machines can
replace human and animal power.

(10) It Releases Manpower for Non-Agricultural Purposes:

AGRO-3611 Page 24
Since the mechanization of agriculture results in the employment of lesser number of persons on
farms, surplus manpower may be available for other economic activities.

(11) It Results in Better Use of Land:

Mechanization also results in better utilization of agricultural land for “the substitution of
gasoline tractor for animal power means reduced demand. The use of machine energy, therefore,
leads to good agricultural production, to trade many crops or saleable animal products in short, to
an exchange economy and a system of land utilization in which cultivator rests on a different and
infinitely more complex basis than is found in the local self-sufficient economy.”

(12) It Increases Farm Income:

With the introduction of mechanization the farm income as well as the individual income goes
up. E. G. Nourse writes, “It accounts for the unparalleled rise of national income and with it the
standard of living, it builds cities, it raises an ever loftier superstructure of financial, commercial
and other cultural institutions; it turns loose economic agglomerates into social economies to
closely knit by a thousand lines of interdependence. It creates much of the capital surplus on
which modern economic progress is largely based. It constitutes, the lion’s share to the public
funds which support education, health and law and order. In short, not only do machine industry,
and mechanization and science render agriculture efficient, they create the very world in which
this efficient agriculture can sell its bountiful crops.”

(13) It Reduces Fodder Area and Enlarges Food Area:

“With the introduction of mechanization in agriculture the surplus animal power would be
reduced so that large areas of land required for producing fodder for it can be utilized for
producing food for human consumption. The remaining cattle population would be better
attended to and better fed under mechanized agriculture, for new and nourishing varieties of
feeding stuff would be grown in cultural (waste lands after reclaiming them for cultivation.” (Dr.
Memoria)

Case against Mechanization of Agriculture:

But the case against the use of farm machinery in India is equally strong.

Important arguments against mechanization are:

(1) Small Sized Farms:
The existence of a large farm is an essential condition for mechanization. For proper and best
utilization of agricultural machines, holdings will have to be large and should be (bund together
and not scattered in tiny plots as is the case in India. In U.S.A. the average size of a holding is
about 145 acres; in Canada it is 235 acres and in U.S.S.R. it is 1,600 acres.

Mechanization has no scope in India because of the extremely small size of holdings which arc
between 3 and 12 acres. Even these small holdings are not found together but scattered over the

AGRO-3611 Page 25
village in tiny bits. A tractor cannot be used to plough a quarter of an acre plot. This is not a
valid criticism because such farm machinery like a pump set can be installed even in a small
farm of half an acre.

(2) Surplus Agricultural Workers:

The basic defect of mechanization is that it will result in too many agricultural workers
becoming surplus. Millions of farmers will be thrown out of land and will have to be provided
alternative sources of employment.

It is impossible to provide alternative employment for millions of persons. In U.S.A. and

Canada, the real problem is shortage of labour and to overcome this difficulty, machines were
invented and used, as labour saving devices.

But India has abundant labour and there is the necessity to use this labour and not keep, it idle.
What is, therefore, useful and necessary for the Western countries, need not be so for India too.
Use of farm machinery may create unemployment only in the short period. In the long run, there
will be more employment opportunities.

(3) Surplus Cattle:

The adoption of farm machinery will throw not only men out of employment but it will render
the existing cattle population surplus and unnecessary. To cut down the existing cattle population
will be a difficult problem. But as is well known, it will indeed be beneficial for India to reduce
somehow its cattle population.

(4) Poor, Illiterate and Ignorant Farmers:

The Indian farmers are, in general, poor and, therefore, will not be able to buy expensive tractors
and other farm machines. Besides, the farmers are uneducated. They will not be able to
understand the use as well as the working of expensive farm machinery. This criticism can be
easily answered. Farmers can always join together and purchase expensive farm machinery. Or
the village co-operative society can purchase it and hire it out to farmers.

(5) Imports:
India may not be in a position to produce farm machinery on a large scale. Necessarily,
therefore, she will have to depend upon foreign countries. This is only a short period problem.

(6) No Increase in Productivity of Land:

Mechanization may not increase productivity of land. In India, the crucial problem is to increase
the productivity of land, because land is a scarce resource of the country. The increase in the
productivity of land is much more important than the increase in the productivity of labour In a
country like Japan, where mechanization of farming is not adopted, productivity per hectare has
been maximized because of intensive cultivation.

AGRO-3611 Page 26
(7) Lack of Spare Parts and Service Facilities and Shortage of Power:
There is also lack of spare parts and service facilities in the rural areas, and an acute shortage of
kerosene, petroleum and diesel oil. These need to be imported from abroad at a high cost and this
might lead to a heavy drain on foreign exchange reserve.

Scope of Mechanization of Agriculture in India:

The prospects for wholesale mechanization of agriculture are not very bright in India for
more than one reasons:
(1) We have seen above that we have surplus farm laborers who seasonally unemployed and
underemployed. Mechanization would further result in greater unemployment.

(2) The holdings are very small, while machines can be used on large farms economically and
effectively.

(3) As yet our production of tractors has not been sufficient to meet the requirements. Also we
are short of power tillers and tyres and tubes.

(4) Indian cultivators are largely ignorant and illiterate and have not yet developed the sense of
receptivity for the same.

(5) There is also lack of facility for standardized spare parts and servicing of machines.

“However the following fields of agricultural activity are the logical domain of mechanization in
India, where manual methods would be insufficient and expensive:

1. Reclamation of lands infested with deep-rooted weeds and grasses like Kams, hariali, and
doob by deep ploughing with the help of tractor driven implements.

2. Land improvements by land leveling and grading with the help of bulldozers and other heavy
machines;

3. Construction of dams and reservoirs, soil and water conservation works such as contouring,
terracing, bunding to check the menace of soil erosion:

4. Jungle clearance and opening up virgin lands for cultivation;

5. Deep ploughing, chiseling, more draining, and other operations like lifting water from great
depths in the wells;

6. Making roads on the farms, hauling farm produce, for processing of farm produce such as rice
hulling, oil extraction, sugar cane crushing and decorticating of the groundnuts, plant protection
measures like spraying, dusting and fumigation;

AGRO-3611 Page 27
7. Large co-operative or collective farms;

8. For ploughing of clayey soils, that are difficult to handle when the time for preparation
between crops, or after heavy monsoon rains and before sowing, is too short for effective results
by bullock driven implements;

9. Intensive and extensive cultivation in sparsely populated areas; and

10. Big farmer’s holding of more than 30 acres of land.”

Progress of Mechanization of Agriculture:

M.L. Darling has rightly affirmed that the plough that looks like a half open pen knife over just
scratch’s the soil, the hand sickle made more for a child than for a man, the old fashioned
winnowing fray that wodes the wind to shift the grain from the chaff and the recedes Choffer
with its waste of fodder are misplaced from their primitive but immemorial functions.” Thus it
has a deep rooted impact on the economy of the region.

Tractor is the basic mechanical input which largely determines the extent of use of allied
machinery and equipment. There was rapid progress in the number of tractor in the country. In
1961 the country had 31000 tractors which increased to 2, 52,000 in 1966. This increase is
indeed too phenomenal to be overlooked. This fact can be attributed to the incidence of this
period with the green revolution. Consequently, the number of tractors increased to 4, 55,000 in
1990 and is expected to have further increase to over, 1, 90,990 during 2000-01.

The number of tractors increased up to 7, 53,286 in 2002-03. The number of tractors have further
increased up to 28500453..Similarly the number of tube will operated with electricity increased
from 1,06,000 in 1961 to 4,55,600 in 1990 and further expected to be double of during 2000-01.
The number of electric tube-wells further increased to 10, 85,000 in 2000-01. The number of
power tiller was accorded 16018 year ending 2000-01. The number of tiller increased up to
46472 in 2005-06.

Some Suggestions:
There are practical difficulties in the way of introduction of the machines on the farms. Some of
these can be removed.

(1) The Government should provide credit facilities to those farmers who are willing to purchase
the machinery individually.

(2) Joint farming societies may be developed to serve as machinery cooperatives in the different
States.

AGRO-3611 Page 28
(3) Machine Stations of the type of M.T.S. or U.S.S.R. may be developed in different parts to
give the tractors and servicing facilities to the cultivators on subsidized rates.

(4) Cheaper types of small machines suitable for Indian conditions should be evolved. These
would help the laborer to perform his task more efficiently rather than displace him. In this
connection we would do well to remember what F.A.O. Development Paper has remarked;
“Mechanization should not be introduced in a hurry, or on a too large scale. To be successful it
should be gradually expanded and kept within proficiency standards of those who operate it.”

Report on India’s Food Crisis and Steps to Meet suggests, Special studies should be made of the
need for tractor drawn ploughs or other tillage implements, with a view to procurement and use:

(i) Where the soil areas will yield for greater increases in food production than is possible with
other tillage implements, and where the cultivators have the ability, willingness, and organization
to make effective use of the implements without significant subsidy beyond loans;

(ii) Where neglected and compacted soils of derelict village commons can be brought into use:
and

(iii) Where new land development requires heavy initial ploughing or earth moving. Even scarce
foreign exchange should be allocated for such machines where the benefits are very substantial.

“At the outset, it might appear that the scheme of overall mechanization is not feasible
under the present agrarian structure in India, for agricultural sector may not presently
invest huge sums of money; and it would be difficult to create big farms required for
mechanized agriculture compulsorily.”
Therefore, we suggest that the Government should extend the scheme gradually on the
following lines:
(i) Complete mechanization should first be extended to the state farms,

(ii) The vast, sub-marginal newly reclaimed areas should be brought under mechanization.

(iii) It should be extended over to such lands where co-operative joint farming societies have
been formed.

(iv) It should also be extend to the old co-operative farms which have enough areas in compact
blocks and have enough scope for mechanization of agriculture.

(v) Private big farmers should be induced to adopt mechanization, “for the use of more efficient
equipment is one of the principal ways by which productivity per man and per acre, and
hence living standards can be raised.”

AGRO-3611 Page 29
AGRO-3611 Page 30
AGRO-3611 Page 31
Farm Mechanization: SWOT Analysis Strengths

Equipment manufacturers No. of units

•Agricultural tractors 13
•Power tillers 2
•Irrigation pumps 600
•Plant protection equipment 300
•Combine Harvester 48
•Reapers 60
•Threshers 6000
•Seed Drills and planters 2500
•Diesel oil engines 200
•Plough, cultivators, harrows 5000
•Chaff cutter 50
•Rural artisans (hand tools >1 million

•Testing Facility at : 4 FMTTIs , 30 designated centers and BIS labs

AGRO-3611 Page 32
•Vast network of academic and R&D institutions including 100 centers for research, technology
transfer and extension

AGRO-3611 Page 33
Resource Conservation Technologies (RCTs)

Continuous use of conventional farming practices with conventional tillage and burning
crop residues has degraded the soil resource base and intensified soil degradation with
concomitant decrease in crop production capacity. Further, escalating fuel, fertilizers and other
input costs; necessitates the effective use of resources in agriculture.

Conservation agriculture (CA) consists of four principles:

(i)Minimizing mechanical soil disturbance and seeding directly into untilled soil to improve soil
organic matter (SOM) content and soil health;

(ii) Eenhancing SOM using cover crops and/or crop residues (mainly residue retention). This
protects the soil surface, conserves water and nutrients, promotes soil biological activity;

(iii) Diversification of crops in associations, sequences and rotations to enhance system

resilience that complement reduced tillage and residue retention by breaking cycles of pests and
disease

(iv) Controlled traffic that lessen soil compaction

The CA technologies involving no- or minimum-tillage with direct seeding and bed
planting, residue management and crop diversification have potential for improving productivity
and soil quality, mainly by soil organic matter build-up. Conservation agriculture systems appear
to be appealing options to achieve sustainable and intensive crop production under different
agro-ecological environments because they use available resources efficiently and maintain soil
fertility.

Ancient agriculture:- Broadcast seeding and harvesting meager yields was a common feature.

Modern agriculture:-

• Substantial yield gain through greater use of improved seeds, irrigation, chemical
fertilizer, pesticides and mechanization.
• Characterized by tillage which includes, soil loosening and leveling for seed bed
preparation, mixing fertilizer into soil, weed control and crop residue management.
• Continuous use of conventional farming practices with conventional tillage (CT) and
burning crop residues has degraded the soil resource base and intensified soil
degradation by about 67%, with concomitant decreases in crop production capacity.
• An energy intensive farming system.
• Successful in achieving targeted food demand,
• Has contributed to environmental problems in some situations such as loss of biodiversity
and soil fertility, salinization and water scarcity.

AGRO-3611 Page 34
 Today’s real agricultural challenges are resource fatigue with declining factor
productivity, decreasing human resources and their rising costs and socioeconomic changes.
Thus, there is dire need of an energy, water and labor efficient alternate system that helps to
sustain soil and environmental quality, and produce more at less cost.
The CA technologies involving no- or minimum tillage with direct seeding and bed
planting, residue management (mainly residue retention) and crop diversification have potential
for improving productivity and soil quality, mainly by soil organic matter (SOM) build-up. The
RCTs bring many possible benefits including reduced water and energy use (fossil fuels and
electricity), reduced greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, soil erosion and degradation of the
natural resource base, increased yields and farm incomes, and reduced labor shortages.
Therefore, the adoption of CA has been rapid, particularly in North America, South
America and Australia. CA avoids straw burning, improves soil organic carbon (SOC) content,
enhances input use efficiency and has the potential to reduce GHGs.
Benefits of CA:-

• Field experiments throughout the globe have shown increased SOC content under
zero-tilled soils compared to tilled soils.
• Bed planting generally saves irrigation water, labour consumption without
sacrificing crop productivity.
• Residue retention generally increases SOC content and improves productivity.
• Conservation tillage along with efficient management of irrigation, fertilizer and
pesticides may increase SOC by increasing yield and subsequent organic matter.
Need of CA: At present, the challenge for agricultural scientists is to increase food production to
meet food security needs of ever growing population of world. However, such production
increases must be accomplished sustainably, by minimizing negative environmental effects and,
equally important, providing increased income to help improve the livelihoods of those
employed in agricultural production. There are several key issues in this equation on which there
is almost unanimous consensus. The demand for food is still increasing, not only to meet food
security for a growing population, but to provide nutritional security as well. Most of the sources
of productivity growth viz. improved varieties, fertilizer, and water used in the last 40 Green
Revolution years are already being exploited. Future sources of productivity growth will be more
complex and harder to find. To maintain ecological balance for supporting life and to make the
resources available for present and future generation.
Competition for surface and groundwater resources will be more severe as domestic and
industrial needs will compete for it. The shrinking agricultural land because of urbanization and
its use for other purposes. Expansion is possible in some parts of the world, but the quality of the
new land may be less than that already in use for agriculture. Fossil fuels will be more costly,
adding to production costs directly as well as indirectly. GHGs will increase with subsequent
effects on climate, especially an increase in severe climatic events such as drought, floods, etc.
This will make the challenge more difficult and complex. One obvious way to accomplish this
sustainable food production objective is to make more efficient use of the natural resources that
are needed to produce food; this includes soils, water, air, inputs and people.

AGRO-3611 Page 35
RCTs for CA :

Zero tillage: Zero tillage (ZT) involves the use of a tillage implement that creates a narrow slot
for the seed and does not disturb or turn over the soil in the process of planting the crop. The
traditional approaches of ploughing which include 3-4 tillage operations are completely skipped.
Hence, cost of production is reduced and timely planting of crop is ensured. Evidence on yield
effects of zero tillage is highly variable. Where zero tillage is combined with mulching, a
commonly described pattern is for yields to fall initially, and then to increase over the subsequent
decade or so, eventually exceeding yields in conventional tillage-based agriculture. Wider
adoption of ZT was due to a combination of both increased yields and reduced production costs.
ZT can save US $40–50/ha compared with CT. ZT has effectively reduced the demand for water
in rice-wheat cropping systems in more than 1 million ha of area in the Indo-Gangetic Plains. at
13–33% less irrigation water was used under ZT compared with CT in wheat. Indian economy
would gain about US$1400 million over the next 30 years from adoption of ZT in rice– wheat
system of Northwestern India due to savings in tillage and herbicide costs and higher wheat
yields.
Other advantages ZT provides over CT are: improved soil health, fuel savings (75%) and
improved level of organic carbon. Reduced-tillage or NT as a CA component may increase soil
C compared with CT but these increases are often confined to near-surface layers (<10
cm).However, the potential of CA for storing C depends on antecedent soil C concentration,
cropping system, management duration, soil texture, slope and climate. In addition, ZT has a
direct mitigation effect as it converts the green house gases like CO2 into O2 in the atmosphere
and enriches soil organic matter.

Crop residue cover: Crop residues are the parts or portion of a plant or crop left in the field
after harvest, or that part of the crop which is not used domestically or sold commercially
or discarded during processing. A vast potential is available to efficiently recycle crop residues,
especially in rice-wheat belt of Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh, where it is burnt in
situ. More than 340 Mt of crop residues from various crops are produced annually of which
major quantity is contributed by rice and wheat (nearly 240 M.tons) (Rao 2014). This accounts
for nearly 6 Mt of major nutrients of which at least one third is trappable for recycling. CA
practices require a critical level of crop residues with objective, to protect the soil against
weather aggressions and water erosion, to maintain soil moisture (Lal 1997), to suppress weed
growth and to provide shelter and food for the soil biota (Blanchart et al. 2006). Crop residues
are also important source of nutrients and maintain or enhance soil chemical, physical and
biological properties and prevent land degradation. The importance of crop residue cover as part
of the CA system has been emphasized by several researchers (Govaerts et al., 2009; Hobbs et
al., 2008). Crop residue recycling in rice-wheat was found to increase rice as well as wheat
yields by 13 and 8%, decrease cost effectiveness by 5 and 3% and energy efficiency by 13 and
6%, respectively, compared to residue retrieval, whereas yield advantage was to the tune of 9 and
3% compared to residue burning (PDFSR 2011). However, decomposition rate and release of N
from residues depends on soil, climatic conditions and the C: N ratio of plant residues (Prasad
and Power, 1991). Nonetheless, there can be negative aspects to crop residue retention. For
example, Govaerts et al. (2007), in Mexico, found increased incidence of disease with retained
residue, but the benefits from increased infiltration and water availability outweighed the disease
factor.

AGRO-3611 Page 36
Cover crops: Keeping the soil covered is a fundamental principle of CA. Crop residues are left
on the soil surface, but cover crops may be needed, if the gap is too long between harvesting one
crop and establishing the next. Cover crops may fulfill additional agronomic, ecological or
economical functions in CA systems that can supplement those performed by the main
commercial crops (Hartwig and Ammon 2002; Seguy et al. 2003). CA systems with one
commercial crop such as rice or maize, relayed by or intercropped with a cover crop (Brachiaria
sp., Stylosanthes sp., Crotalaria sp. And Cajanus sp.) produces extra biomass at the end of the
rainy season which can be used either as green manure or grazed on the field (Scopel et al.
2004). Cover crops increase total biomass production that allows mulching the soil permanently
(Calegari 2006), even under humid tropical conditions where residues decompose rapidly. They
also improve the stability of the CA system, not only on the improvement of soil properties but
also for their capacity to promote an increased biodiversity in the agro-ecosystem.

Cover crops, when properly intercropped with commercial ones, can significantly
increase radiation interception by a plant canopy, during before or after the commercial crop
cycle (Picard et al. 2010). Vegetative cover also protects the soil against the impacts of
raindrops; keep soil-shaded; and maintain the highest possible moisture content. They may also
contribute to the mineral nutrition of the main crop(s) through nitrogen fixation in the case of
legumes, mulch mineralization or manure returns from animals that feed on them. Part of the
biomass they produce may contribute to farm incomes, e.g. additional grain production for
human food or as extra fodder resources. Beside their above-ground functions, cover crops fulfill
important functions below the ground. Their root systems contribute to preventing or
remediating soil compaction, tapping soil moisture from deeper horizons below the root zone of
the main crops or recycling nutrients such as nitrates, K, Ca and Mg that are easily leached to
deeper soil horizons (Barthes et al. 2005). There are various crop alternatives to be used as
vegetative cover, such as grains, legumes, root crops and oil crops.

Precision farming: Precision agriculture refers to the application of precise and correct amounts
of inputs like water, fertilizers, pesticides etc. at the correct time to the crop for increasing its
productivity and maximizing its yields. The benefits of so doing are twofold i) the cost of
producing the crop in that area can be reduced; ii) the risk of environmental pollution from
agrochemicals applied at levels greater than those required by the crop can be reduced (Earl
et al. 1996). Thus, it helps to improve input use efficiencies, economy, and sustainable use of
natural resources, because it minimizes wastage of inputs. In other words, it may also
be referred to ‘Site-Specific Farming’. The practice of precision farming is viewed as comprising
of four stages, information acquisition related to variability in environmental and biophysical
parameters, their interpretation for input application, evaluation and control. To support precision
farming, the important information technology tools are Global Positioning System (GPS),
Geographical Information System (GIS) and Simulation Modeling for Decision Support System
(DSS), remote sensing, yield monitor and variable rate technology. Global Positioning System
(GPS) provides accurate site information and is highly useful in locating the spatial variability.
Earl et al. (1996) postulated a potential benefit of £33.68 ha-1 could targeting subsoiling to
headlands for a crop of wheat in the UK. An average benefit of £38.60 ha-1 was reported by
Schmerler and Basten (1999), when wheat was grown on a farm scale trial, where both seed and
agrochemical rates were varied.

AGRO-3611 Page 37
Use of GPS and GIS systems: Wide spread adoption of SSNM technologies based on soil
testing require extensive soil sampling and analysis which could be a hindrance considering the
available infrastructure. Use of Global Positioning system (GPS) and Geographical Information
System (GIS) and mapping can provide the right support as cost effective alternative. The GPS
makes possible to record the in-field variability as geographically encoded data. Information
collected from different satellite data and referenced with the help of GPS can be integrated to
create field management strategies for chemical application, cultivation and harvest (Liaghat and
Balasundram 2010). However, GIS is a powerful set of tools for collecting, storing, retrieving at
will, transforming and displaying spatial data from the real world for a particular set of purposes
(Burrough and McDonnell 1998). These technologies enable the coupling of real-time data
collection with accurate position information, leading to the efficient manipulation and analysis
of large amounts of geospatial data. Studies conducted under AICRIP in UP, West Bengal and
Assam indicated significant variations on crop responses, soil nutrient supplies, nutrient uptake,
rice productivity and nutrient use of efficiency with sufficient yield gaps between farmers’
practices and recommended fertilizer dose. Studies on such spatial variability in farmer’s fields
are limited.
Though precision farming is very much talked about in developed countries, it is still at a
very nascent stage in developing countries, including India. Space Application Center (ISRO),
Ahmedabad has started experiment in the Central Potato Research Station at Jalahandhar, Punjab
to study the role of remote sensing in mapping the variability with respect to space and time. M S
Swaminathan Research Foundation, Chennai, in collaboration with NABARD, has adopted a
village in Dindigul district of Tamil Nadu for variable rate input application. IARI, New Delhi
has drawn up a plan to do precision farming experiments in the institutes. PDFSR, Modipuram,
Meerut (UP) in collaboration with Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering (CIAE),
Bhopal also initiated variable rate input application in different cropping systems. In coming few
years precision farming may help the Indian farmers to harvest the fruits of frontier technologies
without compromising the quality of land.
Site-specific nutrient management (SSNM): Nutrient based on response data arranged over
large domains. The SSNM provides an approach for need based feeding of crops variability. It
involves monitoring of all pathways of plant nutrient flows / supply, and calls for judicious
combination of fertilizers, bio fertilizers, organic manures, crop residues and nutrient efficient
genotypes to sustain agricultural productivity. It avoids indiscriminate use of fertilizers and
enables the farmer to dynamically adjust the fertilizer use to fill the deficit optimally between
nutrient needs of the variety and nutrient supply from natural resources, organic sources,
irrigation water etc. It aims at nutrient supply at optimal rates and times to achieve high yield and
efficiency of nutrient use by the crop. Many studies in the country, show that by adoption of
SSNM, across the locations, grain yields of more than 13 t/ha in rice-wheat system (with a
contribution of 58% rice and 42% wheat) and 12-15 t/ha in rice-rice system (with a contribution
of 48% rabi rice and 52% Rabi rice), are achievable (PDFSR 2011). It also helped in increase of
organic carbon by 55.9%. It is, therefore, pertinent to further disseminate this technology, which
has potential to enhance the productivity in the range of 3-4 t/ha – a marvelous
achievement. SSNM approach involves three steps – establishing attainable yield targets,
effectively use existing nutrient sources and application of fertilizers to fill the deficit
between demand and supply of nutrients.

AGRO-3611 Page 38
Leaf color chart (LCC): A LCC developed in Japan, is used to measure green color intensity of
rice leaves to assess the nitrogen requirements by non destructive method (Nachimuthu et al,
2007), and is being standardized with chlorophyll meter. In hybrid as well as inbred rice, N
management through LCC proved superior to locally recommended N application in three splits.
It was found possible to curtail 20-30 kg of fertilizer N/ha without sacrificing rice yield, when N
is applied as per LCC values. N application at LCC<3 in Basmati and at LCC<4 in coarse and
hybrid rice was found optimum. Moreover, in LCC-based N management, basal application of N
can be skipped without any disadvantage in terms of grain yield, and agronomic, physiological or
recovery efficiency of fertilizer N.
Laser land leveler: Laser leveling is a process of smoothening the land surface (± 2 cm) from its
average elevation using laser equipped drag buckets to achieve precision in land leveling.
Precision land leveling involves altering the fields in such a way as to create a constant slope
of 0 to 0.2%. This practice makes use of large horsepower tractors and soil movers that are
equipped with global positioning systems (GPS) and/or laser-guided instrumentation so that the
soil can be moved either by cutting or filling to create the desired slope/level. (Walker et al.
2003). A review of various studies suggested that laser land leveling in Pakistan resulted in about
25% reduction in irrigation water application and an increase of about 30% in wheat yield as
compared to conventional practices (non-laser leveled fields; Humphreys et al., 2005, 2010).
Similar increased yield and reduced irrigation water application in the case of zero tillage wheat
and laser land leveling were reported in India and China (Jat et al., 2009; Humphreys et al.,
2010). For instance, Kahlown et al. (2006) showed that the use of RCTs, including zero tillage,
laser leveling and bed and furrow planting, reduced irrigation water applications between 23 and
45% while increasing yield.
Crop rotation and cropping system: Use of crop rotations or intercropping is considered vital
in CA systems (Calegari 2001), as it offers an option for higher diversity in plant production and
thus in human and livestock nutrition, and pest/weed management that are no longer realized
through soil tillage. Legumes grown in rotation can provide a range of benefits to the agro-
ecosystem, including increases in subsequent crop yields and reductions in input costs due to
nitrogen fixation and reductions in crop diseases (Pannell, 1995); greater distribution of channels
or biopores created by diverse roots (various forms, sizes and depths); better distribution of water
and nutrients through the soil profile and increased humus formation. Nutrients that have been
leached to deeper layers and that are no longer available for the commercial crop can be
“recycled” by the crops in rotation. High-residue producing crops may sequester C than
crops with low residue input. Intensification of cropping systems such as increased number of
crops per year, double cropping, and addition of cover crops can increase soil C storage under
NT (Luo et al., 2010). Furthermore, a diversity of crops in rotation leads to a diverse soil flora
and fauna, as the roots excrete different organic substances that attract different types of bacteria
and fungi, which in turn, play an important role in the transformation of these substances into
plant available nutrients. Crop rotation also has an important phytosanitary function as it
prevents the carry over of crop specific pests and diseases from one crop to the next via crop
residues. Additionally, crop rotation helps in achieving greater biodiversity at the field and farm
level, favours a better use of natural resources, a more even distribution of labour and more
diversified farm incomes. To sustain agriculture. An effective crop rotation in a cropping system
not only helps to increase the crop productivity and soil fertility, but also improve the water use
efficiency by reducing weeds, providing conducive micro-climate for plant growth and
development, reduction in soil thermal regime and improving physical properties of the soil.
AGRO-3611 Page 39
Saxena 2008 found that weed infestation was least in pearl millet - mustard rotation as mustard
residue on decomposition release S containing volatile compounds, which were effective in
controlling weeds.
Diversification/Intensification
A shift from sole cropping to a diversified intensified farming system is highly warranted. The
increased cropping intensity/diversification is intended to minimize enhance resource
ustainability. It will be a key strategy for future gains in crop production. Short duration pulses,
oilseeds and other high value crops will find their definite niche as sequential or intercrops,
rather than replacing the major cereal crops having higher yield stability (IIFSR 2015).
Hence, an increased cropping intensity will contribute substantially to additional demands of
food and cash crops. Pigeon pea, the most important wet season grain legume crop in south Asia
has shown potential for rice crop diversification in Indo-Gangetic Plain (IGP). The introduction
of extra short duration (ESD) pigeon pea (ICPL-88039) and Furrow Irrigated Raised Bed (FIRB)
planting technique in the region has shown tremendous potential for increasing the water
productivity and economic growth of the farmers with the limited resources. Development of
new crop varieties with more efficient photosynthetic apparatus and shorter duration
would be of massive help in increasing cropping intensity (IIFSR 2015). Similarly, bio-intensive
diversified cropping systems would enable small and marginal farmers to utilize limited land and
water resources in more efficient manner.
Integrated Farming Systems
Integrated Farming Systems hold a special position in conservational agriculture as in this
system nothing is wasted, the byproduct of one system becomes the input for other. For example,
crop residues from the field can be used for animal feed, while manure from livestock can
enhance agricultural productivity by improving soil fertility as well as reducing the use of
chemical fertilizers (Gupta et al., 2012). Moreover, the system helps poor small farmers, who
have very small land holding and a few heads of livestock to diversify farm production, increase
cash income, improve quality and quantity of food produced and exploit unutilized resources.
Animals play key and multiple roles in the functioning of the farm. These not only provide meat,
milk, eggs, wool, and hides; but can be converted into prompt cash in times of need. Animals
transform plant energy into useful work: animal power is used for ploughing, transport,
marketing and water lifting for irrigation.
Rainwater harvesting
Water harvesting is a process of collecting and concentrating runoff water from a runoff area into
a run-on area, where the collected water is either directly applied to the cropping area or stored in
the soil profile for immediate use by the crop, i.e. runoff farming, or stored in an on-farm
water reservoir for future productive uses. Various methods of water-harvesting and recharging
have been and are being applied all over the world to tackle the problem. In areas where rainfall
is low and water is scarce, the local people have used simple techniques that are groundwater
recharge, creating a farm pond or tank and protective irrigation.
In-situ water harvesting: This technique involves the collection and storage of rainwater in the
soil profile by the land surface increases the amount of water entering the soil. The effective
methods of in-situ water harvesting are summer ploughing, broad bed and furrows, ridges and
furrows, random tie ridging and compartmental bunding. Insitu moisture conservation does not
confine to land shaping carried out during cropping season, it encompasses off season tillage and
contour farming as well.

AGRO-3611 Page 40
Off season tillage or summer ploughing: Proper off season tillage maintains higher stored
moisture and thereby secures optimum stand. It is done either by the country plough or by
blade harrow during non-crop season after the harvest of rabi crop depending on the amount of
rainfall. Essentially it is meant to open the soil for more water intake with rains. Enhancing the
water-use efficiency of crops Water-use- efficiency by crops can be improved by selection of
crops and cropping systems based on available water supplies and increasing seasonal
Evapotranspiration (ET). The later can be achieved by selection of irrigation method, irrigation
scheduling, tillage, mulching and fertilization
Bed planting: Bed-planting, another RCT, has the potential to conserve significant quantities of
water (30–50%) (Kukal et al., 2005). Other benefits of bed-planting include, reduced seed rates,
conserved rainwater, facilitated mechanical weed control, minimized lodging in the wheat crop
(Gupta et al.,2000); cost reduction and conservation of resources (Lichter et al., 2008).
fertilization application practices are also easily performed by trafficking in the furrow bottoms
and the fertilizers can be banded through the surface residues, reducing thereby potential nutrient
losses (Limon-Ortega et al., 2002) under permanent raised bed planting. The raised bed planting
technique also provides an opportunity for crop diversity through inclusion of different crops as
well as feasibility of inter or relay cropping, thereby opening avenues for generating alternate
sources of productivity growth through efficient use of resource base. Bed-planting is widely
adopted in the Indo- Gangetic Plains, proved to be a successful conservation technology. In
Pakistan, Akbar et al. (2007) reported about 36% water saving for broad-beds and about 10% for
narrow-beds compared to flat sowing, and 6% increased grain yield of wheat and 33% of maize.
In both cases, the furrows act as pathways for drainage during excessive rains and conserve
rainwater in dry spells (Astatke et al., 2002). However, the use of direct dry seeding on flat
and raised beds while resulting in considerable water savings generally had negative impacts on
rice yield (Choudhury et al., 2007; Humphreys et al., 2010).
Direct seeded rice (DSR): The shortages of labor and water, and soil fertility issues are causing
increasing interest in shifting from puddling and transplanting to DSR. According to Pandey and
Velasco (2005), low wages and adequate availability of water favour transplanting, whereas,
high wages and low water availability favour DSR. The recent shift from transplanting to DSR in
Southeast Asian countries has been caused by labor shortages and rising wages (Pandey and
Velasco, 2005). DSR can reduce the labor requirement by 50% compared with transplanting
(Santhi et al., 1998).The DSR system provides incentives for saving water (Humphreys et al.,
2005). In Northwest India, about 35–57% water savings have been reported in
researchexperiments in DSR sown into unpuddled soils (Singh et al., 2002). Direct-seeded and
transplanted rice grown on raised beds decreased water use by 12–60% when compared
with flooded, transplanted rice in the IGP (Gupta et al., 2003).
System of Rice Intensification (SRI): At present, SRI methods have been adopted in almost 50
countries, including major rice-producing nations such as India, China, Vietnam and the
Philippines (Uphoff, 2012). The principles of SRI originate from experiments conducted by
farmers in Madagascar to improve rice productivity for resource-poor producers. Today, SRI is
usually understood as a package of possible practices, which have to be adapted to local
conditions (Stoop, 2011). SRI produce higher yields with less water and seeds (Barah, 2009;
Zhao et al., 2009). Moreover, studies found rice under SRI to be more robust against extreme
weather events, pests, and diseases due to improved plant vigor and root strength (Stoop et al.,
2002). Alternating irrigation aims to tackle various challenges such as the loss of soil quality and

AGRO-3611 Page 41
water scarcity, whereas early transplanting and wide spacing are both meant to boost tillering
(Thakur et al., 2010). However, a few studies identified higher labor requirements of SRI as a
constraint to adoption (Senthilkumar et al., 2008). Other studies showed that higher labour inputs
occurred only in the early phase of adoption; labour requirements seem to decrease with growing
SRI experience (Barrett et al., 2004; Uphoff, 2012).
Contour farming and strip cropping : Farming on the contour creates small ridges that
slow runoff water, and it increases the rate of water infiltration, reduces the hazard of erosion and
redirects runoff from a path directly down slope to a path around the hill slope. Farming on the
contour rather than up and down the slope reduces fuel consumption and is easier. Contour
farming can reduce soil erosion by as much as 50% compared to farming up and down hills.
Where sheet and rill erosion is a concern on sloping land, the strips are laid out on the
contour or across the general slope. Where wind erosion is a concern, the strips are laid out as
closely perpendicular to the prevailing erosive wind direction as possible. Thus strip cropping
reduce sheet and rill and wind erosion; increased infiltration and available soil moisture; reduced
dust emissions into the air; improved water quality; improved visual quality of the landscape;
improved wildlife habitat; improved crop growth and soil quality.
Machinery Development and CA The real success of CA in South Asia started with the
development of second generation planters included the précised seed metering and furrow
opening system in addition to seeding in the loose and standing residue. At present four
machines are tested for seeding direct-seeded rice and wheat: double disc coulters, punch
planter/star wheel, rotary disk drill (RDD) and turbo happy seeder. Though the major emphasis
was on CA based RCTs, viz. zero/ reduced tillage, direct-seeded rice, crop residue management,
crop diversification through raised bed planting but for realizing full potential of the echnologies,
the other RCTs like new tools and techniques for nutrient management, viz. LCC, SPAD,
GreenSeeker etc., nutrient use efficient genotypes, integrated crop (ICM) and pest management
(IPM), laser aided land leveling etc. were also integrated by layer, one above the other to
‘divisible in application’ such as to provide options to the farmers as per their resource
endowments.
Future prospects
Integrating concerns of productivity, resource conservation and quality and environment is now
fundamental to sustained productivity growth. CA/RCTs offer a new paradigm for agricultural
research and development different from earlier one, which mainly aimed at achieving specific
food grains production targets. A shift in paradigm has become a necessity in view of widespread
problems of resource degradation, which accompanied past strategies to enhance production with
little concern for resource integrity. However, for realizing potential benefits, the full CA
involving all the key elements in systems perspective are to be developed and adopted at farm
level. The following researchable issues are identified for future: Availability of
machinery/equipment for promotion of RCTs is a prerequisite for achieving targets of
agricultural production. There is need to on produce suitable ZT-drills for loose straw conditions.
Standardization of metering system for seeding/planting of pulses, oil seeds, rice and wheat
needs to be worked out to have accurate seeding rate. Availability of implement at economical
cost is major constraint in promotion of bed planting of crops.
Development of low power requiring tools for tillage and crop establishment practices
with least disturbances to soil/ soil cover (in situ crop residues) especially under conditions of
small farms.

AGRO-3611 Page 42
 For alleviation of subsoil compaction due to indiscriminate movement of heavy traffic in
the field, systematic research work on controlled traffic ZT-drills needs to be initiated. Long-
term effects of mechanization and RCTs on crop, soil, biodiversity and climate in various
production systems and agro-ecologies for the profitability and sustainability of different
cropping system should be the future agenda of research under natural resource management
program.
Designing long-term experiments to study the impact of conservation agriculture on soil
health, water and nutrient use efficiency, C sequestration, GHGs emission and ecosystem
services.
Region-specific interventions for crop diversification through substitution/ intensification
and matching production technologies.
Identification and standardization of new cropping, intercropping and novel farming
system combinations including livestock and fisheries, which can be economically viable.
Developing complete package of practices for CA for prominent cropping systems in
each agro-ecological region, particularly in rainfed and dryland eco-systems.
Site-specific nutrient management/ balanced nutrient supply systems and precision input
management for intensive major cropping systems to optimize resource use and enhance
efficiencies.
Discouraging burning of residues and utilizing them gainfully for CA in improving soil
health and reducing environmental pollution. Regions where crop residues are used for animal
feed, some amount of residues should be recycled into the soil.
Development of cost-effective technologies for insitu crop residue management and
efficient application of different kinds of fertilizers and herbicides.
Promoting conservation agriculture practices especially in water harvesting, nutrient, pest
and disease management.
Developing crop varieties to produce more root biomass to improve the natural soil resource
base.
Evolving efficient water and soil management practices in addition to identification of
crops and varieties with high water use efficiency.
With the use of herbicide tolerant crops, weed resistance is becoming serious problem for
many CA farmers worldwide. Development of economically viable strategies to prevent and
manage herbicide resistance under such situation should be a major research area.Farmer’s
involvement in participatory research and demonstration trials can accelerate adoption of CA.
Improvement in coordination among various stakeholders (research, extension service, farmers,
service providers, agricultural machinery manufacturers, etc.) for transfer of
technologies will play a pivotal role in accelerating adoption of new interventions.

AGRO-3611 Page 43
 Date :

EXERCISE NO. 4

STUDY OF PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF THE ALLOTTED PLOT

TO THE STUDENTS.

Object : 1. To know the physical properties of the soil.

2. To know the chemical properties of the soil.
Introductions : Soil is defined as a natural body developed as a result of pedogenic processes
that take place during and after weathering of rocks in which plants and other forms of life are
able to grow.
Components of the soil: Soil is mainly composed of –
1. Mineral matter (45%) Obtained by disintegration and decomposition of rocks.
2. Organic matter (5%) : Obtained by decay of plant residues and animal remains and
microbial tissues.
3. Water (20-30%) Obtained from the atmosphere in the form of rains, snow, dew etc.
4. Air or gases (20-30%) Obtained partly from the atmosphere and partly as a result of
reactions and microbial activities taking place in the soil.
5. Organisms : Two types. Macro organisms like rodents, worms, insects etc, and micro
organisms like bacteria, fungi etc.
I) Physical properties of the soil: The physical properties of soil depend primarily on the
amount , size, shape and arrangement of its mineral soil particles. The important physical
properties of the soil are as under.

1) Soil Texture 2) Soil structure 3) Absolute particle density

4) Bulk density 5) pore space (Porosity) 6) Soil Colour

7) Soil water 8) Soil consistency 9) Soil temperature

1. Texture: It refers to relative amount of particles viz, sand silt and clay that are present in the
soil. The knowledge of this attribute helps also in obtaining indirect benefits in terms of
determining water retention and transmission properties of soil, in evaluating structural
condition and dispensability, workability and erodibility through wind, water. The particle
size distribution of soil may be determined by international pipette method (ISSS, 1929) pr
Hydrometer method ( Bouyoucons, 1962) .
2. Structure: The arrangement of individual soil particles with respect to each other into a
pattern is called soil structure. Soil structure can be changed by adopting various soil
management practices like tillage, manuring, crop rotation, irrigation and drainage etc. The
type of soil structures are platy, columner, prismatic, blocky crumb and granular. For
determination of soil structure the Yoder (1936) technique is followed.

AGRO-3611 Page 44
3. Absolute particle density: particle density is the mass (weight) of a unit volume of soil clods
and is expressed in metric soils varies from 2060 to 2.75 gram cm -3. The knowledge of
particle density is important in volume relationship of the soil vez, porosity, bulk density and
void ratio. Particle density determination is based on the measurement of weight of solids
and their volume. The method used is the Pycnometer method.
4. Apparent specific gravity (Bulk density): Soil bulk density is defined as the oven dry weight
of soil per unit of its bulk volume. The bulk volume comprises volume of soil and of pore
spaces. The bulk density of a soil is required to be known for (a) determining the degree of
compactness (b) calculating soil pore spaces (c) as an indicator of aeration status of soil. The
bulk density of the undisturbed soil is determined by the Tube core method and that of the
disturbed soil by the clod method.
5. Pore space (Porosity): Spaces between the soil particles which are occupied by air and water
are termed as pore spaces.
a) Macro pore spaces (Non capillary): large pores: It refers to pore spaces between
aggregates of soil particles.
b) Macro pore spaces (capillary): It refers to pore spaces between the individual particles of
aggregates. Sandy soils have lesser pore space (30 to 40) %; clayey soils have more pore
spaces (50 to 60 %)
6. Soil colour : Soils have various shades such as black, yellow, red, gray, etc.
Some soils are named by their dominant colours e.g. black cotton soil, red loams etc. The
various shades of soil colours are determined with the help of standard colour chart Munsell
colour chart.
7. Soil temperature: The temperature of soil is measured with soil thermometer. The
temperature of soil is the highest I the afternoon i. e. 15.00 hrs. There should be optimum
temperature for the germination and growth of crops. All crops practically slow down their
growth below 10 ° c and above 50 °C temperature. It is, therefore, necessary to know
whether the soil temperature is helpful to the growth of plant and micro-organisms.
8. Soil consistency: Soil consistency is defined as the resistance of soil offered against forces
that tend to deform or rupture the soil aggregate. The knowledge of consistency is required to
characterize the shear strength of soil, in terms of normal stress applied and water content of
the soil. From the practical point of view, the sticky point provides an estimate of the
maximum water content at which normal soils will scour during tillage.
9. Soil water: Water, which occupies together with air the non solid porosity of soil, is
considered to be a prime regulator of physical and chemical processes as well as biological
activities in the soil. In plant water not only constitute a major part of the plant but also
essential for photosynthesis, in the maintenance of cell turgidity, besides acting as a solvent
nutrient carrier. The water content of soil is determined by gravimetric method.
II) Chemical properties of soil:

AGRO-3611 Page 45
1. Buffering capacity of soil: it is a property of distinct resistance to a change in the pH of the
soil solution. The buffering capacity of soil depends on its cation exchange capacity. Higher
the CEC, the greater will be the buffering capacity.
2. Soil reaction (pH): The acidity, neutrality or alkalinity of a soil is measured in terms of
hydrogen ion activity. The negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion activity is called the pH.
Most agricultural soils have a pH varying from 4.5 to 8.5 The method of determination of
pH may be either colorimetric or potentiometric method.
3. Cation exchange capacity (CEC): The capacity of negatively charged clays and organic
matter to absorb cations by simple physical attractive forces is called the cation exchange
capacity. The CEC of a soil together with exchangeable bases provides a measure for
evaluating the fertility status of soil. The CEC of soil is determined either by Distillation
method or Ammonium saturation method.
4. Organic matter: The term soil organic matter refers the whole non mineral fraction of soil
and consists of essentially a series of products which range from decayed plant and animal
tissues to fairly amorphous brown to black material normally defined soil humus. In addition
to these organic constituents decayed plant and animal tissues. Soil organic matter contains
living and dead microbial tissues. The organic matter content of soil is estimated from the
organic carbon, determined by using Titrimetric ( Walkley and Black, 1934) or colorimetric (
Datta et al. 1962) method.
5. Available ‘N’: The available ‘N’ in soil refers to a fraction of the total N which is converted
into forms accessible to the plants. This constitutes on an averages only 0.5 to 2.5 % of the
total N in a soil. The available N may be determined by extract method (Alkaline potassium
permanganate method) or ( Incubatian method, 1962).
6. Available phosphorus: The term available phosphorus refers to the inorganic form
occurring in the soil solution, which is almost exclusively “ Orthophosphate”. The method
most commonly used for determination is either Brays I method or the Olsen’s method.
7. Available potassium: Water soluble and exchangeable k is most accessible to the plants.
Available ‘k’ can be separated into that immediately abailable which is the water soluble and
exchangeable and that potentially available or fixed. The available potassium is determined
by Ammonium Acetate Extraction method.
Observations:
A) Physical properties of the allotted plot
Sr. Properties Values
No.
1. Texture
Sand
Silt
Clay Textural class
2. Structure
3. True or absolute density (Particle density)

AGRO-3611 Page 46
4 Apparent specific gravity ( Bulk density)
5 Total porosity %
6 Soil colour
7 Soil consistency
8 Soil temperature °C
9 Soil water
Maximum water holding capacity field
Field capacity
capacity permanent wilting point Available water
capacity

Chemical properties of soil from the allotted plot

Sr. Chemical property Analysis of the allotted plot
No.
1. Soil pH
2. Electrical carbon
3. Organic carbon
4. Available N ( Kg/ha)
5. Available ‘p’ (kg/ha)
6. Available ‘P’ ( kg/ha)
7. Ca Co3 %
8. Sulphur %
9. Fe ( Iron)
10. Manganese
11. Zinc
12. Copper

@@@@@@

AGRO-3611 Page 47
 Date :

EXERCISE NO. 5

STUDY OF PACKAGE OF PRACTICES FOR GROWING RABI CROPS.

(TIMELY LATE AND RAIN-FED )

Sr. No. Crop Varieties Soli Climate Seed bed Sowing time
Preparation
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
1. Wheat

Seed Spacing Seed treatments Manures & Inter-culture Plant protection Harvesting &
Rate Fertilizers Threshing &
kg/ha Yield Qt/ha
8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

AGRO-3611 Page 48
Sr. No. Crop Varieties Soli Climate Seed bed Sowing time
Preparation
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
2. Rabi
Sorghum

Seed Spacing Seed treatments Manures & Inter-culture Plant protection Harvesting &
Rate Fertilizers Threshing &
kg/ha Yield Qt/ha
8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

AGRO-3611 Page 49
Sr. No. Crop Varieties Soli Climate Seed bed Sowing time
Preparation
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
3. Oat

Seed Spacing Seed treatments Manures & Inter-culture Plant protection Harvesting &
Rate Fertilizers Threshing &
kg/ha Yield Qt/ha
8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

AGRO-3611 Page 50
Sr. No. Crop Varieties Soli Climate Seed bed Sowing time
Preparation
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
4. Maize

Seed Spacing Seed treatments Manures & Inter-culture Plant protection Harvesting &
Rate Fertilizers Threshing &
kg/ha Yield Qt/ha
8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

AGRO-3611 Page 51
Sr. No. Crop Varieties Soli Climate Seed bed Sowing time
Preparation
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
5. Barely

Seed Spacing Seed treatments Manures & Inter-culture Plant protection Harvesting &
Rate Fertilizers Threshing &
kg/ha Yield Qt/ha
8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

AGRO-3611 Page 52
Sr. No. Crop Varieties Soli Climate Seed bed Sowing time
Preparation
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
6. Safflower

Seed Spacing Seed treatments Manures & Inter-culture Plant protection Harvesting &
Rate Fertilizers Threshing &
kg/ha Yield Qt/ha
8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

AGRO-3611 Page 53
Sr. No. Crop Varieties Soli Climate Seed bed Sowing time
Preparation
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
7. Sunflower

Seed Spacing Seed treatments Manures & Inter-culture Plant protection Harvesting &
Rate Fertilizers Threshing &
kg/ha Yield Qt/ha
8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

AGRO-3611 Page 54
Sr. No. Crop Varieties Soli Climate Seed bed Sowing time
Preparation
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
8. Mustard

Seed Spacing Seed treatments Manures & Inter-culture Plant protection Harvesting &
Rate Fertilizers Threshing &
kg/ha Yield Qt/ha
8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

AGRO-3611 Page 55
Sr. No. Crop Varieties Soli Climate Seed bed Sowing time
Preparation
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
9. Gram

Seed Spacing Seed treatments Manures & Inter-culture Plant protection Harvesting &
Rate Fertilizers Threshing &
kg/ha Yield Qt/ha
8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

AGRO-3611 Page 56
Sr. No. Crop Varieties Soli Climate Seed bed Sowing time
Preparation
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
10. Lentil

Seed Spacing Seed treatments Manures & Inter-culture Plant protection Harvesting &
Rate Fertilizers Threshing &
kg/ha Yield Qt/ha
8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

AGRO-3611 Page 57
Sr. No. Crop Varieties Soli Climate Seed bed Sowing time
Preparation
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
11. Fodder
crops
Sorghum,
Pearl millet,
Maize, and
Cowpea
Grasses-
Marvel
grass,
Napier grass

Seed Spacing Seed treatments Manures & Inter-culture Plant protection Harvesting &
Rate Fertilizers Threshing &
kg/ha Yield Qt/ha
8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

AGRO-3611 Page 58
 Date :
EXERCISE NO.6

PREPARATION OF CALENDAR OF OPERATION FOR RABI WHEAT

Objects:
1. To study the various operations required for wheat crop.
2. To know the labour unit required for various operations to be carried in Wheat crop.
3. To know the input – requirement for cultivation of crop.
4. To make timely arrangement of inputs and labourers for carrying out various operations
in crop.
5. To know the cost require for various operations.
Definition:
It is statement of work schedule indicating the types of operations to be carried out in
all farm crops during a specified period.
Method of preparation of calendar of operation: (Steps to be followed)
1. Prepare a list of crops to be grown on the farm.
2. List out chronologically all operations separately for each crop.
3. Fix up the time limit for each operation for various crops to be done month
wise.
4. Fix up the priority of operations crop wise.
5. Estimate the manual and bullock power required for each crop.
6. All operations starting from preparatory tillage to threshing and winnowing for
all crops should be included.
7. It should be in such a way that all operations scattered throughout the year and
there should not be slack season.

AGRO-3611 Page 59
Problem: Prepare a calendar of operation for growing wheat crop during rabi season on an
area of one hectare.
Calendar of operations for Wheat: ( Area 1-0 ha)
Sr. Month Weeks Tentative Operations to be carried out Labour unit
No. No. date M F B
Ploughing
Clod crushing
Harrowing – I
Harrowing – II
Scattering manures
Harrowing – III
Scattering manures
Harrowing – III
Collecting of stubles
Harrowing
Planking
Preparation of saras/
Ridges & furrows
Application of basal close
Sowing of seed
Preparation of water
Channels
Gap filling
Thinning
Weeding- I
Top dressing
Hoeing – II
Irrigation – I
If necessary
Spraying of insecticides if
Necessary
Spraying of fungicides if
necessary
Irrigation – II if necessary
Harvesting
Threshing
Cleaning & drying
Storing

@@@@@@

AGRO-3611 Page 60
 Date :
EXERCISE NO.7

STUDY OF PREPAROTORY, SECONDARY TILLAGE AND SEED BED

PREPARATION FOR RABI CROP

Tillage

Tillage operations in various forms have been practiced from the very inception of
growing plants. Primitive man used tools to disturb the soils for placing the seeds. The word
tillage is derived from ‘Anglo-Saxon’ words Tilian and Teolian, meaning ‘to plough and
prepare soil for seed to sow, to cultivate and to raise crops’. Jethrotull, who is considered as
father of tillage suggested that thorough ploughing is necessary so as to make the soil into fine
particles. Tillage is the mechanical manipulation of soil with tools and implements for
obtaining conditions ideal for seed germination, seedling establishment and growth of crops.
Tilth is the physical condition of soil obtained out of tillage (or) it is the result of tillage. The
tilth may be a coarse tilth, fine tilth or moderate tilth.

Objectives of tillage

The main objectives of tillage are,

• To prepare a good seed bed which helps the germination of seeds.
• To create conditions in the soil suited for better growth of crops.
• To control the weeds effectively.
• To make the soil capable for absorbing more rain water.
• To mix up the manure and fertilizers uniformly in the soil.
• To aerate the soil.
• To provide adequate seed-soil contact to permit water flow to seed and seedling roots.
• To remove the hard pan and to increase the soil depth.
To achieve these objectives, the soil is disturbed / opened up and turned over.
Types of tillage: Tillage operations may be grouped into 1. On season tillage 2. Off-season
tillage
1. On-season tillage Tillage operations that are done for raising crops in the same season or at
the onset of the crop season are known as on-season tillage. They may be preparatory
cultivation and after cultivation.
A. Preparatory tillage: This refers to tillage operations that are done to prepare the field for
raising crops. It consists of deep opening and loosening of the soil to bring about a desirable
tilth as well as to incorporate or uproot weeds and crop stubble when the soil is in a workable
condition.
Types of preparatory tillage
a. Primary tillage
b. Secondary tillage

a. Primary tillage: The tillage operation that is done after the harvest of crop to bring the land
under cultivation is known as primary tillage or ploughing. Ploughing is the opening of

AGRO-3611 Page 61
compact soil with the help of different ploughs. Country plough, mould board plough, bose
plough, tractor and power tiller drawn implements are used for primary tillage.
b. Secondary tillage: The tillage operations that are performed on the soil after primary
tillage to bring a good soil tilth are known as secondary tillage. Secondary tillage consists of
lighter or finer operation which is done to clean the soil, break the clods and incorporate the
manure and fertilizers. Harrowing and planking is done to serve those purposes.
Planking is done to crush the hard clods, level the soil surface and to compact the soil lightly.
Harrows, cultivators, Guntakas and spade are used for secondary tillage.
c. Layout of seed bed:This is also one of the components of preparatory tillage. Leveling
board, buck scrapers etc. are used for leveling and markers are used for layout of seedbed.
B. After cultivation (Inter tillage): The tillage operations that are carried out in the standing
crop after the sowing or planting and prior to the harvesting of the crop plants are called after
tillage. This is also called as inter cultivation or post seeding/ planting cultivation. It includes
harrowing, hoeing, weeding, earthing up, drilling or side dressing of fertilizers etc. Spade, hoe,
weeders etc. are used for inter cultivation.
2. Off-season tillage: Tillage operations done for conditioning the soil suitably for the
forthcoming main season crop are called off-season tillage. Off season tillage may be, post
harvest tillage, summer tillage, winter tillage and fallow tillage. Special purpose tillage: Tillage
operations intended to serve special purposes are said to be special purpose tillage. They are,
a. . Sub-soiling: To break the hard pan beneath the plough layer, special tillage operation
(chiseling) is performed to reduce compaction. Sub-soiling is essential and once in four to five
years where heavy machineries are used for field operations, seeding, harvesting and
transporting. Advantages of sub-soiling are, greater volume of soil may be obtained for
cultivation of crops, excess water may percolate downward to recharge the permanent water
table, reduce runoff and soil erosion and roots of crop plants can penetrate deeper to extract
moisture from the water table.
b. Clean tillage: It refers to working of the soil of the entire field in such a way no living plant
is left undisturbed. It is practiced to control weeds, soil borne pathogen and pests.
c. Blind tillage: It refers to tillage done after seeding or planting the crop (in a sterile soil)
either at the pre-emergence stage of the crop plants or while they are in the early stages of
growth so that crop plants (sugarcane, potato etc.) do not get damaged, but, extra plants and
broad leaved weeds are uprooted.
d. Dry tillage: Dry tillage is practiced for crops that are sown or planted in dry land condition
having sufficient moisture for germination of seeds. This is suitable for crops like broadcasted
rice, jute, wheat, oilseed crops, pulses, potato and vegetable crops. Dry tillage is done in a soil
having sufficient moisture (21-23%). The soil becomes more porous and soft due to dry tillage.
Besides, the water holding capacity of the soil and aeration are increased. These conditions are
more favourable for soil micro-organisms.
e. Wet tillage or puddling: The tillage operation that is done in a land with standing water is
called wet tillage or puddling. Puddling operation consists of ploughing repeatedly in standing

AGRO-3611 Page 62
water until the soil becomes soft and muddy. Puddling creates an impervious layer below the
surface to reduce deep percolation losses of water and to provide soft seed bed for planting
rice. Puddling is done in both the directions for the incorporation of green manures and weeds.
Wet tillage destroys the soil structure and the soil particles that are separated during puddling
settle later. Wet tillage is the only means of land preparation for transplanting semi-aquatic
crop plant such as rice. Planking after wet tillage makes the soil level and compact. Puddling
hastens transplanting operation as well as establishment of seedlings. Wet land ploughs or
worn out dry land ploughs are normally used for wet tillage.
Depth of ploughing
The desirable depth of ploughing is 12 to 20 cm for field crops. The ploughing depth
varies with effective root zone of the crop. The depth of ploughing is 10-20 cm for shallow
rooted crops and 15-30 cm for deep rooted crops. Number of ploughing Number of ploughing
depends on soil conditions, time available for cultivation between two crops and type of
cropping systems. Zero tillage is practiced in rice fallow pulses. Minimum number of
ploughing is taken up at optimum moisture level to bring favourable tilth depending on need of
the crop
Time of ploughing
The optimum soil moisture content for tillage is 60% of field capacity. Modern
concepts in tillage: Conventional tillage involves primary tillage to break open and turn the soil
followed by secondary tillage to obtain seed bed for sowing or planting. With the introduction
of herbicides in intensive farming systems, the concept of tillage has been changed. Continuous
use of heavy ploughs create hard pan in the subsoil, results in poor infiltration. It is more
susceptible to run-off and erosion. It is capital intensive and increase soil degradation. To avoid
these ill effects, modern concepts on tillage is in rule.
1. Minimum tillage: It aims at reducing tillage operations to the minimum necessity for
ensuring a good seed bed. The advantages of minimum tillage over conventional tillage are,
• The cost and time for field preparation is reduced by reducing the number of field operations.
• Soil compaction is comparatively less.
• Soil structure is not destroyed.
• Water loss through runoff and erosion is minimum.
• Water storage in the plough layer is increased.
Tillage can be reduced in 2 ways
1. By omitting operations which do not give much benefit when compared to the cost.
2. By combining agricultural operations like seeding and fertilizer application.
The minimum tillage systems can be grouped into the following categories,
1. Row zone tillage Primary tillage is done with mould board plough in the entire area of the
field; secondary tillage operations like discing and harrowing are reduced and done only in row
zone.

AGRO-3611 Page 63
2. Plough plant tillage After the primary tillage, a special planter is used for sowing. In one run
over the field, the row zone is pulverized and seeds are sown by the planter
3. Wheel track tillage Primary ploughing is done as usual. Tractor is used for sowing; the
wheels of the tractor pulverize the row zone in which planting is done.
In all these systems, primary tillage is as usual. However, secondary tillage is replaced by
direct sowing in which sown seed is covered in the row zone with the equipment used for
sowing.
2. Zero tillage (No tillage): In this, new crop is planted in the residues of the previous crop
without any prior soil tillage or seed bed preparation and it is possible when all the weeds are
controlled by the use of herbicides. Zero tillage is applicable for soils with a coarse textured
surface horizon, good internal drainage, high biological activity of soil fauna, favourable initial
soil structure and an adequate quantity of crop residue as mulch. These conditions are generally
found in Alfisols, Oxisols and Ultisols in the humid and sub-humid tropics.
Till planting : Till planting is one method of practicing zero tillage. A wide sweep and trash
bar clears a strip over the previous crop row and planter opens a narrow strip into which seeds
are planted and covered. Here, herbicide functions are extended. Before sowing, the vegetation
present has to be destroyed for which broad spectrum non selective herbicides like glyposate,
paraquat and diquat are used.
Advantages
• Zero tilled soils are homogenous in structure with more number of earthworms.
• Organic matter content increases due to less mineralization.
• Surface run-off is reduced due to presence of mulch. Disadvantages
• Higher amount of nitrogen has to be applied for mineralization of organic matter in zero
tillage. • Perennial weeds may be a problem.
• High number of volunteer plants and buildup of pests.
3. Stubble mulch tillage or stubble mulch farming
Soil is protected at all times either by growing a crop or by leaving the crop residues on
the surface during fallow periods. Sweeps or blades are generally used to cut the soil up to 12
to 15 cm depth in the first operation after harvest and depth of cut is reduced during subsequent
operations. When large amount of residues are present, a disc type implement is used for the
first operation to incorporate some of the residues into the soil. This hastens the decomposition
but still keeps enough residues on top soil.
Two methods for sowing crops in stubble mulch tillage are,
1. Similar to zero tillage, a wide sweep and trash bars are used to clear a strip and a narrow
planter shoe opens a narrow furrow into which seeds are placed.
2. A narrow chisel of 5-10 cm width is worked through the soil at a depth of 15-30 cm leaving
all plant residues on the surface. The chisel shatters the tillage pans and surface crusts. Planting
is done with special planters.
AGRO-3611 Page 64
Disadvantages of stubble mulch farming
• The residues left on the surface interfere with seed bed preparation and sowing operations.
• The traditional tillage and sowing implements or equipments are not suitable under these
conditions.
4. Conservation tillage: The major objective is to conserve soil and soil moisture. It is a
system of tillage in which organic residues are not inverted into the soil such that they remain
on surface as protective cover against erosion and evaporation losses of soil moisture. If
stubble forms the protective cover on the surface, it is usually referred to as stubble mulch
tillage. The residues left on soil surface interfere with seed bed preparation and sowing
operations. It is a year round system of managing plant residue with implements that undercut
residues, losses the soil and kills the weeds.
Advantages
• Energy conservation through reduced tillage operations
• Improve the soil physical properties.
• Reduce the water runoff from fields.
Main field preparation:
Tillage operations are generally classified in to two, preparatory cultivation and after
cultivation. The preparatory cultivation or tillage is operations that are done before the
cultivation. This preparatory cultivation is generally called as main field preparation. The main
field preparation involves three processes, viz., primary tillage, secondary tillage and lay-out
for sowing. Some of the important primary tillage implements are country plough, mould board
plough, disc plough, chisel plough etc. Cultivators and harrows are generally used for
secondary tillage purpose. However, in practical means, the first two (primary and secondary
tillages) may not have any key difference, since; both operations are mainly carried out with
same implement. Country plough and cultivators are used for both the purposes. After
thorough ploughing, the field modified in to suitable way for planting such as ridges and
furrows or beds and channels or pit according to the need of the crops. Such field modifications
are mandatory for better crop production.

AGRO-3611 Page 65
 Date:
EXERCISE NO.8

SOWING AND SEED TREATMENT OF RABI CROP

Seed treatment: The process of application of a thin coat of insecticide, fungicide or bio-
fertilizers over seeds.
Objects of seed treatments:

1. Control of diseases 2. Convenience in sowing 3. Quick germination

4. Increasing nitrogen fixation in leguminous plants 5. Protection against insects and pests
6. Inducing earliness 7. Inducing variation 8. For better yields

After considering objectives of seed treatment, a good quality seed from reliable source
should be selected and suitable seed treatment be given.

1. Control of Diseases:
Seed of different crops are treated as a preventive measure either with any one
mercurial compound (1%), thiram, brine water solution, hot water treatment and solar heat
treatment for control various diseases in different crops before sowing. These control measures
are given in the following table.
Sr. No. Crop Seed treatment Control of disease
1. Wheat Thiram@2.5-3.0g/kg of seed Flag smut, foot rot
Solar heat treatment Loose smut
2. Sorghum Thiram@3.0g/kg of seed Head smut Grain and
Sulphur (300 mesh fine powder loose smut
4g/kg of seed). Brine solution (3%) Ergot
3. Barley Thiram@2.5-3.0g/kg of seed Solar Brown spot, Blast,
heat treatment stem rot, Bacterial
leaf blight, Blast
4. Chickpea Thiram@2.5-3.0g/kg of seed Solar Fungal disease (Wilt)
heat treatment
5. Sugarcane Hot water treatment – Grassy shoot, Red rot
Temp of hot water 50o C for 2 hrs. and Ratoon stunting.
Or 52oC for ½ hrs.
Hot air treatment – air temp. 52oC
for 6 hrs.
Moist air – 54oC for 4 hrs.
Aerated steam 50o C for 2 hrs.

2. Convenience in Sowing:
For uniform distribution of seeds of mustard and seasmum are mixed with equal
quantity of fine sand before sowing.

AGRO-3611 Page 66
3. Quick germination:
the seeds are soaked in cold water before sowing, however, soaked seeds should not be
placed in dry soil.

4. Increasing nitrogen fixation:

1) Use specific culture for specific crop.
2) Store the culture in a cool and dry palce.
3) Dissolve 125g jaggery in 1.25 liter water, boil it and stir the solution.
4) Allow it to cool down for 30 minutes.
5) Then mix one packet of culture (250g) stir it well and make a slurry.
6) Take 10 kg Seed, spread it on clean and firm ground and sprinkle the solution
(slurry) of culture on seed and rub the seeds with gentle hand.
7) Do not expose the seed directly to the sun.
8) Sow the treated seed immediately and cover it by moist soil.
9) Use the culture before expiry date.
Observations:
1. Name of the crop
2. Area to be sown
3. Quantity of seed required
4. Quantity of Rhizobium culture required
5. Market price of Rhizobium culture (Rs)
6. Market pieced of Jaggery / Gum (Rs)
7. Labour required and their charges

1. Calculate the cost of seed treatment with Rhizobium culture for chickpea for unit are (1
heactare area)
2. Calculate the cost of seed treatment with thirum for wheat / sorghum/ safflower.

@@@@@@

AGRO-3611 Page 67
 Date :
EXERCISE NO.9

STUDY OF INTEGRATED NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT OF RABI CROP

Object: To know time, method and quantity of manures and fertilizers required to be applied
for rabbi / summer crops.

I) Time of Application of Manures and Fertilizers:

Manures should be applied before sowing so that preliminary decomposition takes
place. There should be sufficient moisture in the soil for proper decomposition of organic
manures. The crop has three or four critical growth stages when its water and nutrients
requirements should be adequately met for satisfactory growth.
a) Germination and early growth stage.
b) Advance tillering or grand growth or branching stage.
c) Peak flowering and fruiting stage.

Nitrogen is required throughout the growing period of crop. Nitrogen requirement is

moderate in the beginning and increases rapidly as the crop enters in grand growth stage and
fruiting stage and reduces thereafter.

Phosphorus is required more in early growth period of crop while Potash is required
throughout the growing period but in small quantities.

Nitrogen is mobile and can more rapidly in any direction within the soil. Further ‘N’ is
lost due to leaching and volatilization and hence ‘N’ is applied in soil with split doses.
Phosphorous and potassium as they become available slowly and get fixed in the soil at later
stage and hence they are applied in single dose. (basally)

II) Method of Fertilizers Application:

Manures should be broadcasted uniformly before last harrowing so that it can be mixed
well into the soil. The nitrogenous fertilizers are applied either by broadcasting, drilling or
foliar sprays. Phosphoric and potassic fertilizers are usually applied by localized placement.

Top Dressing: Application of fertilizers in standing crop is known as ‘Top Dressing’ The most
of the rabi crops are fertilized at sowing only and no splitting of ‘N’ due to limitation of soil
moisture. However, under irrigated conditions ‘N’ is in two – three doses. Generally, top
dressing is done by broadcasting, band placement or side dressing. When small quantity of
nitrogen or micronutrient is to be applied, foliar application should be followed.

AGRO-3611 Page 68
Recommended dose of manures and fertilizers to rabi/summer crops.

Sr. Crops Recommended Time of application (N. Remarks

No doses P. K. kg/ha)
Manur N.P.K. Basal dose Top Time
es (kg/ha) dressing
(t/ha)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
I CEREALS
1. Wheat
Irrigated 10-15 120:60:60 60:60:60 60:00:00 Top dressing of
A) timely sown N at 18/21 DAS
a)Dwarf mexican 10-15 100:50:50 50:50:50 50:00:00 - do-
120:60:60 60:60:60 60:00:00
b) Tall Niphad 10-15 75:50:50 37.5:50:50 37.5:00:00 - do-
c)Under limited 10-15 60:30:00 60:30:00 30:00:00 - do-
irrigation
B) Late sown 10-15 80:40:40 40:40:40 40:00:00 - do-
C) Rainfed 5-6 40:20:00 40:20:00 00:00:00

2. Sorghum (rabi)
A) Irrigated
hybrids
i) Deep soils 8-12 100:50:50 50:50:50 50:00:00 Top dressing of
120:60:60 60:60:60 60:00:00 N at 30 DAS
ii) Medium soils 8-12 80:40:40 40:40:40 40:00:00 Top dressing of
N at 30 DAS
B) Rainfed
i) Deep soils 6-8 50:25:00 50:25:00 00:00:00
ii) Light soils 6-8 25:12:05 12:12.5:00 00:00:00

3. Barley
A) Irrigated 8-10 40:20:20 20:20:20 20:00:00 Top dressing of
50:25:25 25:25:25 25:00:00 N at 25 to 30
DAS
B) Rainfed 5-6 30:20:20 30:20:20

II PULSES
1. Chickpea
A) Irrigated 6-7 25:50:00 25:50:00
B)Assured 6-7 25:40:00 20:40:00
Rainfed
C) Rainfed 5-6 25:50:00 12.5:25:00 12.5:25:0
2. Peas 10-12 25:40:00 25:40:00
3. Lentil 3-5 20:50:00 20:50:00
4. French bean 3-5 25:50:00 25:50:00

AGRO-3611 Page 69
III OIL SEEDS
1. Safflower
A) Irrigated 5-6 75:50:00 37.5:50:00 37.5:00:00 Top dressing of
N at 30 DAS
B) Rainfed 5-6 50:25:00 50:25:00

2. Linseed
A) Irrigated 3-5 60:30:00 30:30:00 30:00:00 Top dressing of
N at 40 to 45
DAS
B) Rainfed 3-5 25:25:00 25:25:00

3. Mustard
A) Irrigated 3-5 75:50:00 37.5:50:00 37.5:50:00 Top dressing of
N at 45 DAS
B) Rainfed 3-5 50:25:00 50:25:00

4. Sunflower
A) Irrigated 5-6 60:30:30 30:30:30 30:00:00 Topdressing at
30 DAS
B) Rainfed
i) Deep soils 5-6 50:25:00 50:25:00
ii) Medium soils 5-6 40:20:00 40:20:00

5. Castor
A) Irrigated 5-6 60:40:40 30:40:40 30:00:00 Topdressing at
30 DAS
B) Rainfed 5-6 60:40:00 30:00:00

IV FORAGECROP
1. Lucerne 20 30:150:40 15:100:40 15:50:00 Aftercuts
2. Maize 120:40:40 60:40:40 60:00:00 Topdressing
3. Oat 120:30:00 60:30:00 60:00:00 Topdressing
4. Berseem 20 35:120:40 20:80:40 15:40:00 Aftercuts

AGRO-3611 Page 70
V COMMERCIAL CROPS
1. Sugarcane
A) Adsali 20-25 400:170:170 40:85:85 160:00:00 6-8 weeks after
planting
40:00:00 12-16 weeks
after planting
160:85:85 At earthing up
B) Per seasonal 20-25 340:170:170 34:85:85 136:00:00 6-8 weeks after
planting
34:00:00 12-16 weeks
after planting
100:30:30 At earthing up
C) Suru 20-25 250:115:115 25:85:85 100:00:00 6-8 weeks after
planting
25:00:00 12-16 weeks
after planting
100:30:30 At earthing up
D) Ratoon 250:115:115 75:115:115 75:00:00 After 2 months
100:00:00 At earthing up

2. Sugar beet 20-30 120:80:100 40:80:100 40:00:00 Top dressing of

N at 30 DAP
40:00:00 Top dressing of
N at 60 DAS
3. Potato 20-30 120:80:120 60:80:90 60:30:00 At earthing up
4. Tobacco

AGRO-3611 Page 71
Assignment

Example 1:

Calculate the quantity of fertilizers required for one hectare wheat crop when
recommended dose is 120 kg, 60kg, P2O5 and 60 kg K2O/ha by using urea, single super
phosphate and muriate of potash.

Example 2:

Calculate the quantity of individual fertilizers required for hybrid sorghum CSH-15R
grown on 120m x 90m are by using urea, fertilizer mixture (18:18:10) and muriate of potash.
(Dose – 120:60:60 NPK/ha.)

Example 3:

Calculate the quantity of individual fertilizers for Summer groundnut to be grown on

100 x 40 m2 The recommended dose is 25 kg N and 50 kg P2O5/ha through DAP (18:46) and
urea.

AGRO-3611 Page 72
 Date :
EXERCISE NO.10

STUDY OF WATER MANAGEMENT OF RABI CROP

Object: To know water requirement and scheduling of irrigation to rabi crops.

Water is one of the important essential factor for the crop production. Plants need it
continuously during their life. Water is required for photosynthesis, respiration, absorption,
translocation and utilization of mineral, nutrients, cell division etc. Both its shortage or excess
affects the growth, development and its yield.

Water Requirement:
The term, water requirement includes the amount of water for meeting the needs of
evaporation, transpiration and metabolic activities (consumptive use), losses during the
application of irrigation water and water needed for special operation such as land preparation.
WR = E + T + MA = Cu (include loss + spe. requirement)

Irrigation Requirement:
The quantity of water required to be applied for successful growth of the crops,
exclusive of precipitation, ground water contribution and other natural resources.
IR= WR – Cu (Exclusive P + Gw + NR)

CROPS RESPONES TO WATER AT DIFEERENT GROWTH STAGES:

It has been observed that water requirement of crops vary with the stage of crop growth
with respect to moisture.

Critical Growth Stage:

It is the stage of crop growth when the plants are most sensitive to shortage of water or
it is a period during which yield of crop is affected severely due to inadequate or shortage of
moisture. Each crop has certain critical stage or stages at which if there is shortage of moisture,
yield is reduced drastically.

Table: Critical growth stages and water requirement of rabi crops.

S Name of No. of Total water Stage of crop Days after
N the crop irrigation requirement sowing
(ha cm)
1. Wheat 4-5 40 1) Crown root initiation 18-21
2) Tillering 35-42
3) Flowering 60-65
4) Grain filling 80-85
2. Rabi 3 39-41 1) Grand growth 28-30
Sorghum 2) Flowering 70-75
3) Grain filling 90-95

AGRO-3611 Page 73
3. Sunflower 4 30-35 1) Seedling 15-20
2) Capitulum initiation 30-35
3) Flowering 45-50
4) Grain filling 60-65
4. Safflower 2 25-30 1) Grand growth 25-30
2) Flowering 50-60
5. Chickpea 2 25-30 1) Branching 30-35
2) Pod filling 60-65
6. Pea 2-3 30-35 1) Flowering 35-40
2) Pod filling 70-75
7. Field been 2-3 30-35 1) Flowering 45-50
2) Pod filling 65-70
8. Lentil 2-3 30-35 1) Flowering 45-50
2) Grain filling 70-75
9. Linseed 2-3 25-30 1) Flowering 55-60
2) Grain filling 75-80
10. Mustard 2-3 25-30 1) Flowering 45-50
2) Pod filling 65-70
11. Foragecros 4-6 13-20 15 to 20 days interval --
12. Potato 8-10 50 6 to 8 days interval --
13. Sugar beet 4 50 10 to 20 days interval --
14. Barley 2-3 35-40 1) Tillering 25-30
2) Flowering 60-65
3) Grain filling 75-80
15. Sugarcane
Suru 25 225 75 mm IW/CPE or in kharif –
12-14, winter – 18-20 and ---
smummer – 8-10 days interval
Adsali 38-40 250-300 75 mm IW/CPE or in kharif –
15, Rabi –20 and smummer – ---
10 days interval
Ratoon 18-19 210 50 mm IW /CPE in kharif
season- 12-13 days interval
---
Rabi – 18-19 days interval
Summer 8-9 days inverval

AGRO-3611 Page 74
 Date :
EXERCISE NO.11

DETERMINATION OF GERMINATION/ EMERGENCE COUNT OF RABI CROP.

Objects:

1. To know the germination percentage of seed.

2. To know the emergence percentage of the seedlings.

3. To know the plant population.

Germination means the resumption of growth by the embryo and development of young
seedling from the seed.

Emergence means actually emerging the seedling above and out of the soil surface and
which will be able to produce a normal plant under favorable conditions.

Optimum plant populations/ ha is one of the important factor for obtaining good yield.
The farmer should know the germination percentage of seed before sowing the crop for
increasing the seed rate according to the germination percentage for getting optimum plant
population./ ha is one of the important factor for obtaining good yield. The farmer should know
the germination percentage of seed before sowing the crop for increasing the seed rate
according to the germination percentage for getting optimum plant population.

Methods for determination of germination

A) Paper method B) Sand method C) Petridish method

A) Paper Method:

In this method blotting paper is used. The paper is soaked in water for 2 to 4 hours to
moisten it evenly and to remove water soluble toxic substances. Paper may be used for seed
germination in one of the following ways.

1) TP – Top of paper
2) BP – Between paper
3) PP – Pleater paper

When seed are germinated first count of germination may be taken after 4 days. Final
count may be taken 8 to 10 days. Germination percentage is calculated by following
formula.

Germination % = Actual no. of germinated seed x 100

No. of seed put for germination

AGRO-3611 Page 75
B) Sand Method:

Sand is used as substratum (medium) for testing germination. Seeds are sown in an
uniform layer of moist sand at 1 to 2 cm. depth. The required amount of water is added. Sand
boxes are watered daily till germination. The number of seeds which germinate from day to
day should be counted and removed and the total sprouting from the 48 hours from the first
sprouting may be taken as germination percentage.

C) Perti-dish Method:

In this method Perti-dishes whit moist filter paper are used. The seeds are put in one or
more layers of papers in the Petri-dishes.

D) Emergence percentage:

Emergence percentage is determined after sowing the seeds in the field when the
emergence of seedlings completely takes place.

After sowing the crop, when the complete germination taken place the number of plants
emerged in the plot area counted actually or in one square meter area or in one running meter
length. On the basis of theoretical plant population and actual emerged plant population,
emergence % is calculated.

Observations and Calculations:

1. Date of sowing :
2. variety :
3. Date of Emergence :
4. Plot Size :
5. Length of Plot :
6. Breadth of Plot :
7. Spacing between two rows :
8. Spacing between two plants :
9. Calculate theoretical plant population
a. Per Plot :
b. Per ha. :
10. Actual no of seedlings emerged
a. Per Plot :
b. Per ha. :
11. Emergence percentage
a. Per Plot :
b. Per ha. :

AGRO-3611 Page 76
 Date :
EXERCISE NO.12

STUDY OF GROWTH AND YIELD CONTRIBUTING CHARACTERS OF RABI

CROP

Object: 1. To know important growth stages/phases and yield attributes of crops.

2. To know the various critical growth stages of rabi crops.

Material: Meter scale, pocket lens etc.

Plants like other organisms grow in stages. The requirement of plant nutrients and
moisture for growth, varies from crop to crop and stage to stage of the crop. Amongst various
growth stages, some stages are critical meaning thereby that the plants are very much sensitive
to the supply of vital elements in that particular stage. It is therefore, necessary to know various
growth stages, their occurrence so that the supply of vital elements can be made available
during the critical growth stages.
The yield of crop depends on the growth of the crop viz., increase in the height, spread
number of leaves, number of branches/ tillers, dry matter and other yield contributing
characters (Size of earhead, number of pods, etc.) For recording periodical observations select
sample plants randomly (10% of the population) and tag them. At the time of periodical
observations note the growth stages of various crops. A particular growth stage is said to have
been reached when 50% of the plants indicate that stage.

AGRO-3611 Page 77
A) Periodical growth observation
Sr. Name of Sowing Emergence Crop 60 days
No. crop date date stage
Height Spread No of
cm cm leaves
I Cereals
1
2
3
4
5
II Pulses
1
2
3
4
5
III Oilseeds
1
2
3
4
5
IV Sugarcane
1
2
3
4
5

AGRO-3611 Page 78
B) Observations at harvest
Sr. Crop Harvesting Duration Plant Plant Length Width No of Ear
No. date days population height cm cm head/pods

AGRO-3611 Page 79
 Date:
EXERCISE NO.13

STUDY OF INTERCULTURING AND WEED MANAGEMENT IN RABI CROP

Interculturing: Tillage operation which is carried out in standing crop is known as

interculturing of intercultivation. It includes gap filling, thinning, hoeing, weeding, mulching,
top dressing and earthing up etc.

Objects of interculturing: To remove and destroy the weeds.

To make the soil loose for proper aeration.
To increase infiltration.
To regulate the soil temperature.
To prevent cracking of the soil.
To serve the purpose of earthling up.
The intercultivation or interculturing is done by hand tools like weeding hook, hoes,
entire blade hoe, slit blade hoe and by using manual or bullock power cultivators

a) Hoeing in Sorghum / Wheat / Safflower / Sunflower

Observations:
Name of the crop and its variety :
Date of sowing :
Date of hoeing :
Spacing :
Age of crop at hoeing :
Implement used :
2
Area covered = Length x Breadth (M ) :
Number of students worked :
Time required (hrs.) :
Assignment:
Calculate labour unit for hoeing with man power and bullock power separately.

b) Weeding in Sugarcane / Sorghum / Wheat

Observations:
Name of the crop and its variety :
Date of sowing :
Date of hoeing :
Spacing :
Age of crop at hoeing :
Implement used :
Area covered = Length x Breadth (M2) :
Number of students worked :
Time required (hrs.) :
Enlist weeds observed with their Local :
name and scientific name
Assignment:
Calculate labour unit for weeding.

AGRO-3611 Page 80
c) Earthing up in Sugarcane:

Putting or hilling the soil at the base of sugarcane plant is known as earthing up.

Objects of earthing up:

1. To loose and aerate the soil

2. To give support to avoid lodging.
3. To prune the old roots.
4. To avoid direct contact of water to plants.
5. To suppress the late tillers.
6. To control stem borer.
7. To control weeds

In sugarcane, light earthing up (“Bal Badhani” or “ Tagarni”) is done when crop attains
the age of 3.5 to 4 months. At light earthing up the application of third

When the crop is 5 to 5.5 months old (2-3 internodes) final earthing up is done after
application of last dose of fertilizers.

Observations:
Name of the crop and its variety :
Date of Planting :
Spacing :
Date of earthing up : Light / Final
Age of crop at weeding : Light / Final
Implement used :
Mean no. of plants per running (m) :
Mean no. of plants per square (m) :
Plant population per ha. :
Area covered = Length x Breadth (M2) :
Time required (hrs.) :
Labour employed :

Assignment:
Calculate the labour unin for earthing up in sugarcane with bullock power.

WEED MANAGEMENT IN RABI CROPS

Object: To know the different weed management practices in rabi crops.

Weeds can be controlled by different methods viz. preventive measures, control

measures, (mechanical, cultural, chemical and biological) and integrated weed management
approach.
They are adopted well in advance of occurrence of weed to avoid further spread of
weeds.

AGRO-3611 Page 81
 Use clean seed, well decomposed FYM/compost.
Destruction of weed before flowering.

Cleaning of implements are machines before handling. Nursery stock should be free
from weeds.

Observations:
Name of the crop and its variety :
Date of sowing :
Date of weeding :
Age of crop at weeding :
Type of weeds observed (monocot and :
dicot)
Fresh weight of weds in one square- :
meter
Labour wages (Rs. 50.00 per day) :
Area covered (weeding) :
Time required for weeding :
Number of labours engaged :

Weed control measures in rabi /summer crops

Sr. Crop Critical Weeding Application of herbicide

No. Period of / Hoeing
weed and W H Name Rate Time of application
crop (a.i.Kg or
competiti lit./ha)
on (days)
1. Wheat 30 2 1 Isoproturon 1.0 Post emergence 25-30
DAS
2, 4-D 1.0 to 1.25 30 to 40 DAS if
necessary

2. Rabi 40 2 2 Atrazine 2,4-D 0.5 Pre-emergence 30 to 40

Sorghum 1.0 DAS
Fluchloralin 1.0 PPI/Pre-emerg.

3. Safflower 30 1 2 Alachlor 1.0 Pre-emergence

Pendimethalin 0.75 PPI/Pre-amerg

4. Sunflower 30 1 2 Alachlor 1.5 Pre-emergence

Pendimethalin 1.0 PPI/ Pre-emergence
Pendimethailin 1.0 PPI/Pre-emergence

5. Sugarcane 60-75 2 3-4 Atrazine 2.5 Pre- emergence

2,4-D 1.0 to 1.5 25 to 30 DAS

6. Ptato 20-40 1 2 Atrazine 0.5 Pre- emergence

Alachlor 1.0 to 1.5 Pre- emergence

AGRO-3611 Page 82
Calculate unit cost of hand weeding and intensity of weeds by using

Monocot - %
Dicot - %
And individual weeds.

A) Efficiency of herbicide / Weedicide can be assessed by calculating weed control efficiency

on the basis of grain yield of crop.

X--Y
Weed indeed (%) = --------------------------------------------- X 100
X
Where

X = Crop yield of weed free plot. (Hand weeded plot)

Y = Crop yield of treatment plot.*
* - Both should be expressed in same unit.
Lesser the weed index better is the efficiency of herbicide.

Example : 1

A weed free plot of sorghum has given yield of 1000 kg/ha. Where as atrazine and
simazine treated plots have given yields of 900 and 800 kg/ha, respectively. Calculate the weed
index and suggest which is the better herbicide from these two herbicides.

Weed Control Efficiency is calculated on the basis of dry matter production of weeds:

X--Y
Weed Control efficiency (%) = ----------------------------------------- X 100
X
Where

X = Dry matter production of weed in no weeds plots (control)

Y = Dry matter production of weeds in treated plots.
Higher the weed control efficiency better is the herbicide.

Example : 2

The weed control experiment in wheat was conducted. The dry weight of weeds in
control plot was 1500 kg ha whereas, in Dicamba and 2,4-D amine it was 1250 and 1300 kg ha
respectively. Find out which herbicide is better amongst two.

AGRO-3611 Page 83
 Date:
EXERCISE NO.14

STUDY OF INTEGRATED INSECT PEST AND DISEASES MANAGEMENT IN RABI CROP

Objects:
1. To study the integrated pest and disease management in rabi crops.
2. To know the various methods of pest and disease management in rabi crops
3. To know the pests and diseases observed in rabi crops

Integrated Pest Management strategy / module:

Sorghum

• Disposal of previous crop residues stubbles pisya, blossom before start of mansoon

• Select healthy seeds of resistant / tolerant varieties hybrids – CSH-9, 16,17 & 18,
varieties / CSV- 15, PVK - 400, PVK- 800 sowing of under maturity cultivars in zone
of 8 to 10 villages.

• Sowing time – immediately after start of mansoon preferably before 7th July

• Seed treatment : If sowing is delayed imidacloprid 10gm/ kg seeds

• If seed treatment not done – endosulfan @ 350 ml in 250 liters of water /ha

• If necessary repeat the spraying after 10 days.

• 1st spray 7-8 days after field emergence 2nd spray 10 days later.

• If, the stem borer infestation reaches to 10% spray with 5% NSKE.

• If, infestation of aphid, delphacids or aphids is observed spray the crop with 5% NSKE
or methyl demeton 25% EC@ 0.02%

• If, infestation of mites is noticed apply vertimec, 2ml or sulphur 80 WP 25 gm in 10

liters of water dusting with 300 mesh sulphur dust @ 25kg/ha

• On earhead emergence if infestation of midge is observed dusting carbaryl 10% @ 20

Kg/ha or endosulfan 35 EC 700ml/500 lits of water/ha

• At grain filing stage, collection and destruction of earhead caterpillars, spraying with
NSKE 5% or carbaryl 50 WP or quinalphos 1000 ml per 500 lit of water/ha.

• Egg parasitoids such as Trichogramma and tetrastichus, larval parasitoids, such as

Cotesia, Bracon, Erioborao and predators lady bird beetle, green lace wing, carabid
and spider should be conserved. Predatory bugs and syrphid flies are also helpful
bioagents.

AGRO-3611 Page 84
 • Destruction of crop residues and deep summer ploughing exposes and destroys various
insects and their stages.

• Disposal of kutta, Bhusa, Pisa by feeding to cattle’s burning before start of mansoon.

Wheat/Maize

Management practices: for stem borer

1) Removal and destruction of stubbles after harvest of the crop to kill hibernating larval
stages.
2) Remove affected shoots/dead hearts and burn them.
3) Spaying with 0.2% carbaryl immediately after the incidence is noticed.
4) Use of Pheromone raps 10 Traps per acre
For Termite:
1) Locate termitoria (mounds) and destroy queen by digging out the termitoria or
fumigating with fumigants like CS 2 methylbromide /(CS 2 + chloroform mixture @ 250
ml/mound).
2) Wheat seed treatment before sowing, with 160 ml chlorpyriphos emulsion in 1 litre of
water, spraying on thinly spread out 40 Kgs seeds with a water emulsion of
chlorpyriphos remains effective for the crop season.
3) Termite damage in standing crop can be minimized by application of 5 litres lindane
20EC/ha. into irrigation water or field spreading or 1 litre of lindane mixed with stand
or soil followed by light irrigation.
4) Keep the crop healthy and vigorous. Shortage of water leading to initial drying of the
plant, may lead to termite infestation. Hence it is very necessary to keep the crop
healthy and vigorous.
For Rats:

1. Mechanical control:
i) Hunting: It consists of engaging parties of persons who dig out rat burrows and kill the rats.
ii) Trapping: Trapping the rats and later disposing them off is one of the oldest methods of rat
control. Rats can be caught by traps containing attractive food laid near their burrows.
iii) Flooding: The flooding burrows used to force the rats out during day time when they can
be killed mechanically.
iv) Electronic rodent deterrent: In recent years, ultrasonic sounds have been sued for
repelling rats and mice from godown. Sound frequency of 20 Khz prevent rats from
feeding and reproducing.
2) Chemical control: Chemicals used for the control of rodents are called 'rodenticides' they
include-

AGRO-3611 Page 85
i) Zinc phosphide poison bait: (2% bait by wt.) The bait should be prepared by mixing 1 part
zinc phosphide 80% with 49 part crushed grains and little quantity of any edible oil (sweet oil).
A spoonful of bait wrapped in a paper packet should be inserted deep in every live burrow with
the help of bamboo stick and the opening of the burrow should be closed with grass and mud.
1kg of bait is sufficient for treating 200 burrows. The bait when consumed, the hydrochloric
acid (HCL) Present in the gastric juice reacts with it and phosphine gas is evolved which is
rapidly absorbed in the system and cause death.
It is a single dose poison or Acute poison. Prebaiting is required before poison baiting
for 2-3 days to habituate rats for feeding on poison bait.
ii) Warfarin: This is an anticoagulant type of rodenticide. In the market it is available as
Rodafarin 'C'. After entering into the body of rats it stops secretion of prothombin which is
necessary for cloting of blood. The bait should be prepared by mixing 1 part 0.5% warfarin
with 19 parts of roasted and crushed gains of bajra or wheat and little quantity of edible oil.
iii) Bromadiolone bait (Roban/ Moosh moosh): Ready to use bait. Anticoagulant
rodenticide. Single dose is sufficient to kill the rat. The bait is prepared by mixing 1 part
0.005% Bromadiolone cakes are also available.
iv) Aluminium phosphide: It is used for fumigation of rat burrows. It is sold as 'Celphos'
tablets. A 1/2 tablets of 3g could be dropped in the burrow opening and holes closed by wet
earh. The tablets in contact with moisture, liberates phosphine gas that kills the rats in
burrows.
Gram:

Management Practices:
(1) Ploughing the field after harvest the crop would destroy the pupae, nearly by 70%
(2) Hand picking of caterpillars in the initial stage of attack.
3. Use of Pheromone raps 10 Traps per acre (Helilure)
(4) NPV of H. armigera @ 250 LE/ha (Prepare the stock solution of 250 LE and add in 500
Litres of water and spray for 1 ha)
(5) Spraying with 5% NSKE. (5) Spraying the crop with 0.05% endosulfan/
formothion/quinalphos/ phosalone OR dusting with phenthoate 2D/ quinalphos 1.5 D/
Phosalone 4D/ malathion 5D/ methyl parathion 2D @ 20 Kg/ ha as soon as 5% pods are
damaged, or 2 larvae per metre row are noticed. (ETL)
Safflower:

AGRO-3611 Page 86
Management Practices: (Aphides, Jassids and Semiloopers)
1. Early sowing in the first week of October. In drought prone areas sowing of crop in the
second week of September is recommended.
2. Spraying the crop with 0.02 % phosphamidon / 0.03% dimethoate / thiometon / acephate/
0.05% quinalphos/ fenthion/ 0.01/ carbaryl/ malathion OR dusting with phosalone 4D/ methyl
parathion 2D @ 20 kg/ has as soon as incidence is noticed.
3. Spraying with Lecanicillium lecanii or Metarhizium anisopliae 6gm/lit
4. Use of Yellow sticky traps

AGRO-3611 Page 87
 Date:
EXERCISE NO.15

STUDY OF CROP MATURITY SIGNS, HARVESTING OF RABI CROP

Objects:
4. To know the signs of maturity of different rabi crops.
5. To know the methods of harvesting and threshing of different rabi crops.
Different crops shows the different sign of maturity.
Signs of maturity:
A) Cereals:
If the earhead is pressed, the grains come out from the earhead,
It the grains is pressed under teeth, it will break into pieces.
Yellowing of peduncle, stem and leaves.
Easily breaking of the earheads at the peduncle.
Crop gives a peculiar sound when the wind blown.
Moisture per cent in the grains drops down.
Grains cease development and gaining in dry weight
B) Pulses and Oilseeds:
The leaves turn yellow and start dropping.
The pods become dry and if they are shaked in hand give peculiar sound.
Grains become hard and if pressed under teeth they break down into pieces.
In groundnut, pods feel tough, more than 50% inner portion becomes blackish and
kernels are well developed.

METHODS OF HARVESTING:
Cutting the plants close to the ground: Cereal crops like sorghum, wheat, paddy,
barely pulses like chickpea, peas and oilseed crops like safflower, linseed, mustard are cut
close to the ground by sharp sickle and allowed to dry in the field for some period.
Pulling the plants by hand: Sorghum, groundnut may be harvested by pulling or
uprooting the plants by hand.
Picking the pods: Pods of the pulses like pea, green gram etc. are picked when they are
green for vegetable purpose or at full maturity for grain purpose.
Digging: Errect and semi spreading groundnut, potato is harvested by digging with
Kudali, if they are grown on small scale.
Harvesting with implement: Spreading type of groundnut, potato, sugarbeet may be
harvested by harrowing or ploughing or potato digger.
Nipping the earheads: Hybrid sorghum and sunflower usually harvested by nipping
the earheads or disc and cutting the plants afterwards.

AGRO-3611 Page 88
 Use of combine harvester: This is the heavy power machinery used for harvesting,
threshing, cleaning and bagging of produce at a time e.g. wheat, safflower.

Observations:
Wheat / Sorghum / Paddy :
Name of the crop and its variety :
Date of sowing :
Date of harvesting :
Duration of crop :
Harvesting method used :
Plant height (cm) :
Length / girth of earhead (cm) :
Number of grains per panicle :
Area of plot harvested length x Breadth (M2) :
Labour required :
Time required :
Plant population per running meter or Per :
square meter
Row spacing (cm) :

b) Harvesting of important forage crops

Objects:
To know the proper stage of forage crop for harvest.
To know the proper age of the crop at harvest.

The aim of growing forage crops is to secure a continuous supply of a maximum

amount of fodder with high feeding value. Forage crops show wide differences among
themselves in nutritive value. i.g. in the relative percentage and relative digestibility of
corresponding stage of growth. It may be said in general that there is a progressive
deterioration in the quality of forage plants with the advancing maturity and the percentage of
nutritive constituents diminish with ripening. The proteins and mineral are reduced with the
advanced age while that of carbohydrates and fats do not show the same degree of
deterioration.
Harvesting of maize/ sorghum for forage:
Cereal forage crops for green forage are generally harvested at 50% flowering stage
(about 60 to 70 days) except pearl millet which is harvested at flag leaf stage. Cereal should be
cut for hay when the grain is in the soft to medium dough stage. Maize and sorghum are also
ideal crops for silage. The stage of maturity for silage making in sorghum is in dough stage /
silky stage in maize.
Harvesting of legumes for forage:
Legume forage crops like Lucerne and berseem are harvested at half bloom stage for
green forge. The best time to harvest the Lucerne and berseem for hay is at early bloom stage.
When the hay of very high is between early bloom and full bloom stage. When the hay of very
high quality is required Lucerne is some times harvested before flowering stage.

AGRO-3611 Page 89
 Legumes are also widely used for silage making and should be harvested at 50%
flowering stage. Delay in harvesting of legumes result in loss of green leaves.
Observation:
Name of crop and its variety :
Date of sowing :
Date of harvesting :
Age and stage of crop :
Mean plant height (cm) :
Mean number of green leaves / plant :
Area harvested length x breadth (M2) :
Green fodder yield obtain per plot and per :
hectare (kg)
Labour required Time required :

Calculate lab our unit for harvesting of forage crops.

AGRO-3611 Page 90
 Date:
EXERCISE NO.16

THRESHING, DRYING, WINNOWING, STORGE AND PREPARATION OF

PRODUCE FOR MARKETING OF RABI CROP.

Objects:- To know the methods of threshing of rabi crops.

Different crops have the different threshing methods
I) THRESHING: The process of separating grains from ear heads is known as threshing.
Threshing of cereals, pulses and oil seeds is commonly carried out either by beating the
produce, trampling under the feet of bullocks or with the help of hand/ power driven threshers.
II)WINNOWING: It is the process of separating grains from the threshed material or bhoosa.
Winnowing is done by using natural or artificial wind (Winnowing fan). When threshing
machines are used, winnowing is done simultaneously with threshing.
HARVEST INDEX(H.I.): In most of the cultivated crops only a part of plant is of economic
value. It is that part of biomass which converted into economic product is called as economic
yield and its relationship to total or biological yield is expressed as a coefficient of
effectiveness or “harvest index". However, in forage crops the total dry matter or all the
biomass has economic importance

Economic yield (E. Y.)

Harvest Index (H.I.) (%) = ----------------------------------------- X 100
Biological yield (B. Y.)

*- Both should be expressed in same unit.

PREPARATION OF PRODUCE FOR MARKETING:

Before marketing or storing the grains are dried in bright sunshine. Again cleaning and
grading is adopted. The produce is filled in gunny bags or bins and then stored in rat proof go
down.

AGRO-3611 Page 91
Observations:
Name of the crop and its variety :
Date of harvesting :
Date of threshing and method used :
Period required for drying :
Area of the plot harvested Length x breadth (M2) :
Weight of produce per plot (kg) :
Weight of earheads per plot (kg) :
Weight of grains per plot (kg) :
Weight of straw per plot (kg) :
Weight of bhusa per plot (kg) :
Labour required :
Time required :
Calculate labour unit for threshing

Calculate harvest index (H.I.) of wheat crop from following data.

Grain yield of wheat (q) :
Straw yield (q) :

AGRO-3611 Page 92
 Date:
EXERCISE NO.17

STUDY OF COST OF CULTIVATION AND WORKING OUT NET RETURNS PER

STUDENT

Objects:-
1. To know method of working out the cost of cultivation.
2. To know the whether the crop is in profit or in loss.
Cost of Production: It is calculated by taking into account the total cost incurred on the
operations and materials from the preparatory tillage to the marketing of the farm produce, i.e.
the cost incurred on the operations right from preparatory tillage, cost of seed manures,
fertilizers, Interculturing, irrigation charges, plant protections measures, harvesting, threshing
and cleaning etc.
Cost of cultivation: Cost of cultivation includes cost of production plus supervision chages
interest on working capital, rent of land and hired charges.
Cultivation sheet is a farm record in which all the field operations like preparatory seed,
sowing, manures and fertilizers, irrigations, plant protection measures, harvesting, threshing
and preparing the produce for marketing etc. are recorded from daily labour sheet.
Preparatory tillage: The charges or cost required for preparatory tillage operations i.e.
ploughing, cold crushing, harrowing, leveling, collection of stubbles, preparation of irrigation
layouts etc.
Manures and fertilizers: The cost of manures, fertilizers and the cost incurred on
transportation application etc.
Seed and sowing: Cost of the seed, cost incurred on sowing and the cost of growing seedlings
and transplanting are taken into account.
Irrigation charges: Irrigation charges are worked out depending upon the season, duration of
the crops, depth of irrigation, sources of irrigation. The number of irritations given to particular
crop and charges per irrigations are considered while calculating irrigation charges.
After care: Expenditure incurred on gap filling, thinning hoeing, weeding, cost of insecticides/
pesticides, weedicides and their application, watching of the birds etc. are considered
Harvesting and Preparation for market: Charges required for harvesting, threshing and
preparing the farm produce for market.
Marketing: Marketing charges are calculated by considering the labour required for grading,
transporting the produce to the market, taxes, octroi etc.
Supervision charges: These are calculated at the rate of 10% of the cost of production.
Interest on working capital: It is calculated @ 15% to 18% on the total cost of production for
½ life of the crop.
Land rent: Rent of land is amount of rent paid.
Hired charges for implements: It involves the hired charges paid for implements, sprayers,
dusters etc.

AGRO-3611 Page 93
COST OF CULTIVATION OF IRRIGATED WHEAT:
Plot Number 2-B Area – 0.50 ha. Variety H. D. 2189

Sr. Operation Labour / plot Cost (Rs.)

No. required
M W B
I Preparatory
a) Ploughing (1) 5 - 10 1250
b) Harrowing (1) ½ - 1 125
c) Cold crushing (1) ½ - 1 125
d) Harrowing (2) 1 - 2 250
e) Collection of stubbles - 5 - 250
f) Planking ½ - 1 125
Total 7½ 5 15 2125

II Seed and Sowing

a) Cost of seed @ Rs. 16/kg for 50 kg - - - 800
b) Sowing with two bowled seed drill 1 1 1 200
c) Covering the seed ½ - 1 125
d) Preparation of Saras, water channel 3 - 1 250
Total 4½ 1 3 1375

III Manure and fertilizers

a) Cost of FYM 5t @ Rs. 300/t - - - 1500
b) Transport of FYM 2 - 2 300
c) Spreading of FYM - 2 - 100
d) Cost of Urea – 132 Kg @ Rs. 4.75/ kg - - - 627
e) Cost of S. S. P. – 188 kg @ Rs. 3.02/ kg - - - 560
f) Planking - - - 288
g) Top dressing - 1 - 50
Total 2 3 2 3373

IV After care
a) Gap filling - 1 - 50
b) Hoeing (2) 2 - 2 300
c) Weeding - 6 - 300
d) Irrigation (6) 5 - - 250
e) Irrigation charges @ Rs. 100/irrigation
- - - 600
for 6 irrigations
Total 7 7 2 1500

V Plant protection
a) Seed treatment of thirum @3g /kg for 50 - - - 25
kg -150 g –cost Rs. 17/100
b) Treating seed with thirum - ¼ - 12
c) Spraying (2) cost of dithane M-45-2 kg - - - 100
@ Rs. 110/500g.
d) Labour charges fro sprayings (2) 2 1 - 150

AGRO-3611 Page 94
 e) Foliar spray of urea (2%) 2 - - 440
Total 4 1¼ - 727

VI Harvesting and Threshing

a) Harvesting 2 8 - 500
b) Typing the bundles and transport
c) Threshing and winnowing - - - 1000
d) Drying, cleaning, bagging 2 1 - 150
Total (6) 4 9 - 1650
VII Land revenue, less & other taxes
VIII Depreciation on implements of machinery
IX Interest on working capital @ 14% annum
for complete growth period
Cost’ A
X I) Rental value of Land (1/6 of the toal
gross value)
Cost ‘B
Total cost of cultivation
XI Estimated receipts
a) Yield main produce
b) Yield by produce
XII Net profit/ Income = Value of gross
produce – Cost of Cultivation
XIII Per Q Cost of Cultivation = Cost of
Cultivation / Qty. of main Produce
XIV Benefit : Cost ratio = Gross returns -------
Cost of cultivation

AGRO-3611 Page 95
 Date :

EXERCISE NO.18

STUDY OF POST-HARVEST TECHNOLOGY OF RABI CROP.

AGRO-3611 Page 96
 Date:
EXERCISE NO.19

SUMMARY REPORT OF PRACTICAL CROP PRODUCTION

AGRO-3611 Page 97
 Date:
EXERCISE NO.20

STUDY OF WEEKLY WEATHER RECORD FOR RABI SEASON.

APPENDIX – I

Weekly weather record for mean, maximum, minimum temperature, rainfall, number of
rainy days and humidity during the semester VI of 2019-20 at RCSM College of Agriculture,
Kolhapur.

Month Met. Temperature Rainfall Rainy Humidity % at

Week (mm) day
Maxi. Mini. Morning Evening
No.
7.30 hrs. 14.30 hrs.

AGRO-3611 Page 98