Food Microbiology Biology Dept.

Al-Farabi University College

(Forth Class) Prof. Dr. Abdulwahid Al-Shaibani

Lecture 7 (8 Pages)
Mycotoxins
Mycotoxins are natural chemical substances (secondary metabolites) produced
by fungi (molds) growing as contaminants on some food crops, in particular
cereals, nuts and fruits. Mycotoxicoses is the poisoning by mycotoxin.
Mycotoxins are toxic and undesirable if found in foods and animal feeds due to
causing various adverse effects on humans and animals health. They can affect
the immune system, nervous system, liver, kidneys, and blood, and some
mycotoxins are known to be carcinogens (cancer-causing). A wide range of
adverse and toxic effects in animals are produced by mycotoxin in addition to
being food borne hazards to humans.
There is a major difference between the toxic metabolites of fungi and those
of most bacteria associated with food poisoning. Despite that the chemistry of
fungal toxins may be very complex, they are relatively low molecular weight
compounds, while the bacterial toxins are macromolecules (such as polypeptides,
proteins or lipopolysaccharides) with high molecular weight.
Occurrence and Exposure to Mycotoxins:
The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimates that 25% of
the overall world’s food crops (including cereals, nuts, fruit and vegetables) are
affected by mycotoxins. Many foods and feeds including corn, wheat, barley,
rice, oats, nuts, milk, cheese, peanuts and cottonseed can become contaminated
with mycotoxins since they can form in commodities before harvest, during the
time between harvesting and drying, and in storage.

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 Mycotoxins can enter the human and animal food chains by direct
contamination when the food has been contaminated by toxigenic fungi while
growing or after harvest, or indirect contamination, for example in milk from
cows fed with contaminated food. Exposure of consumers to mycotoxins is
mainly via plant foods. However, an additional potential exposure may be via
foods of animal origin such as milk, cheese and meat, as a result of consumption
of contaminated feed by food animals. This illustrates the need to control levels
of mycotoxins in animal feed as well as food.
The chemical and biological properties of the mycotoxins and their toxic
effects are extremely variable. Mycotoxins have been reported to be
carcinogenic, tremorogenic, haemorrhagic, teratogenic (‫ تسبب تشوهات خلقية‬,‫)ماسخة‬,
and dermatitis to a wide range of organisms and to cause hepatic carcinoma in
humans. More than a 100 species of filamentous fungi are known to cause toxic
responses under naturally occurring conditions by producing mycotoxins.
Most Common Types of Mycotoxins:
More than 300 mycotoxins are known, of which about 20 are serious
contaminants of crops used in human foods and animal feeds. Mycotoxin
contamination of foods and feeds depends highly on environmental conditions
that lead to mold growth and toxin production.
The most common mycotoxins are aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, T-2 toxin and
zearalenone. Some mycotoxins or their derivatives are used as antibiotics, growth
promotants, and other kinds of drugs (used as chemical warfare agent due to their
pharmacological activity).
1-Aflatoxin (It is the most common mycotoxin):
Aflatoxins B1, B2, G1 and G2 are produced by three species of the mold
genus Aspergillus (A. flavus /A+fla+toxin), A. parasiticus and A. nomius), and

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some species of mold genra (Penicillium, Rhizopus, Mucor) in addition
Streptomyces, which contaminate plants and plant products.
Milk contamination by Aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) might occur in 2 ways, directly
due to intake of contaminated feeds by animals that might pass into the milk, or
indirectly following contamination of milk and milk products with fungi.
However, it should be noted that Aflatoxin M1 is a metabolite of Aflatoxin
B1, and therefore the possibilities of any direct carryover of AFM1 from feed to
milk could be ruled out.
Significance: Aflatoxins are of economic and health importance due of their
ability to contaminate foods and feeds, particularly cereals, nuts and oilseeds.
Significant (Pathogenicity) of Aflatoxins are:
(1) Reducing the immune system.
(2) Increasing the chances of infection.
(3) Targets the liver reducing its function causing death.
Symptoms of Aflatoxins are:
(1) Reducing feed intake.
(2) Reducing milk production.
(3) Increasing somatic cell counts.
2-Ochratoxin-A (OTA):
Ochratoxin-A (OTA; molecular weight 403.8) is the 2nd most important
mycotoxin produced by the fungi Aspergillus ochraceus and Penicillium
verrucosum. Isolates of Aspergillus niger and A. carbonarius are capable of
producing OTA. OTA generally appear during storage of fresh produce (in
cereals, coffee, cocoa, dried fruit, spices) and occasionally in the field on grapes.
It may also be present in some of the internal organs (particularly blood and
kidneys) of animals that have been fed on contaminated feeds.

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Significance: Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a nephrotoxic (‫)سام للكلية‬, hepatotoxic and
teratogenic mycotoxin produced by storage molds of a variety of commodities.
Exposure to low concentrations of this toxin causes morphological and
functional changes in kidney and liver of several domestic and experimental
animals.
3-Fusariotoxins (Fusarium toxins):
Fungi belonging to the genus Fusarium are associated with the production
of toxic substances of considerable concern to livestock and poultry producers
called Fusariotoxins; they include mainly Deoxynivalenol, T-2toxin, Zearalenone
HT-2 toxin and Diacetoxyscirpenol (DAS).
Zearalenone (ZEN), also known as RAL and F-2 mycotoxin, is a
potent estrogenic metabolite produced by some species of Fusarium (F.
graminearum, F. culmorum, F. cerealis) and Gibberella species. Zearalenone is
heat-stable and is found in a number of cereal crops, such
as corn, barley, oats, wheat, rice, and sorghum. Zearalenone is the primary toxin,
causing: (1) Infertility, (2) Abortion or (3) Other genetic problems.
4-Alternaria toxins:
They are mycotoxins produced by species of the mold Alternaria. They
commonly occur during the pre-and post-harvest stages of fruits and vegetables.
The most important toxin-producing species is Alternaria alternata, which
usually contaminates cereals, sunflower seeds, olives, and fruits. Some
Alternaria species are well known for the production of toxic secondary
metabolites, some of which are powerful mycotoxins that have been implicated in
the development of cancer in mammals.

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5-Ergot Toxin: (Produced by Claviceps purpurea):
- It is the first mycotoxins recognized as affecting human beings. Many
Russians died during World War II from eating moldy grains.
- Sclerotia of species belong to genus Claviceps produce ergot alkaloids.
- A sclerotium (is a dark-colored, hard mycelial mass that establishes itself on
the seed or kernel of the plant).
- Ergot reduces the yield because seeds or kernels are replaced by sclerotia.
- Ergot is produced by the mold Claviceps purpurea, which can cause ergotism
(a disease causes severe liver damage, hemorrhaging, and some fatalities) in
humans and other mammals who consume grains contaminated with its fruiting
structure (ergot sclerotium)..
-Apart from Claviceps, ergot alkaloids are also produced as secondary
metabolites by fungal species belonging to Penicillium, Aspergillus, and
Rhizopus).

Claviceps purpurea
6-Patulin
It is a mycotoxin produced by a variety of molds, in particular,
Penicillium expansum. Despite that patulin is most commonly found in rotting

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apples, it is also in other foods such as grains, fruits, and vegetables. While not
considered a particularly potent toxin, a number of studies have shown patulin to
be genotoxic, which may lead to cancer. Patulin has shown antimicrobial
properties against some microorganisms. It is heat-stable, so it is not destroyed
by pasteurization or thermal denaturation. Patulin (molecular weight: 145.1) is
mainly associated with surface-injured fruits, and has also become important to
apple processors as a method for monitoring the quality of apple juices and
concentrates. The presence of high amounts of patulin indicates that moldy
apples were used in the production of the juices. Patulin is being considered as a
“possible toxin” in Europe and New Zealand and is regarded as the most
dangerous mycotoxin in fruits, particularly apples, pears, and their products.
7-Citrinin (Produced by Penicillium citrinum):

Citrinin acts as a nephrotoxin .It causes mycotoxic nephropathy in

livestock and has been implicated as a cause of Balkan nephropathy (referred to
as "yellow rice disease") in humans. Citrinin is used as a reagent in biological
research. It induces mitochondrial permeability pore opening and inhibits
respiration. It has been found on human foods, such as grains and cheese. Citrinin
(molecular weight: 250.25) often occurs as a common contaminant of food and
feed (fruits, barley, corn, cheese, dietary supplements). Barley, as well as other
cereals employed for producing beer has been reported to be a good substrate for
the growth of many toxigenic fungi capable of producing Citrinin.
Production of Mycotoxins:
Several factors influence mold development, including moisture,
temperature, aeration and substrate. Moisture is probably the most important of
these factors but the type of mold and whether or not a toxin is produced will
depend on the interplay of all these factors. Physical damage, such as breakage

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and stress cracks in grain, will increase the likelihood of fungal growth. High
moisture corn, especially if ground, is highly susceptible to fungal invasion and
toxin formation. To prevent production of the toxin on harvested products, care
should be taken to prevent physical damage at harvest and to reduce the moisture
level soon after harvesting. Rapid ensiling (‫ )تخزين األعالف‬or the addition of organic
acids will aid in preventing the formation of additional mycotoxin.

Diagnosis of Mycotoxins:
Fungal growth may occur, without the production of mycotoxins. A
“blacklight” can be used to detect the presence of mold growth on grain and is
satisfactory for use as an initial test (for aflatoxin). It must be realized, however,
that this checks only for the presence of mold growth and even if this test is
positive, it doesn’t mean that a toxin is present. Culture of mold or even isolation
of specific molds from feeds means very little. The specific toxin must be
isolated and/or its toxicity demonstrated.
Mycotoxin assays are generally directed toward specific compounds. Toxins
that are not specifically looked for in the testing will be missed. The diagnostic
problem is further aggravated by wide variations among samples of the same feed
and sensitivities of animals. There are also interactions between the mycotoxins
and other stresses on the animals. These factors make it very difficult to
recommend “safe” concentrations in the feed.
Some mycotoxins can be identified in the rumen contents or urine. But often
guidelines for diagnostic levels have not been established. The suspect feed is a
better source for sampling but recognize that mold
growth (and toxin production) can be very spotty.

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 Alternaria
Aspergillus flavus

Penicillium Aspergillus niger

Fusarium