Unit - 5 (2)

Statistical Quality Control

Content
• Statistical Quality Control concept

• The concept of variations

• Variables and Attributes

• The Normal curve

• Process capability
 Statistical Quality Control
▪ A quality control system performs inspection, testing and analysis to ensure that the quality of products
produced is as per the laid down quality standards. When statistical techniques are employed to control,
improve and maintain quality or to solve quality problems then it is called “Statistical Quality
Control”.

▪ The following statistical tools are generally used for the purpose of quality control.

✔ Frequency Distribution.

✔ Control Chart.

✔ Acceptance Sampling.

✔ Analysis of the data.

Statistical Quality Control
Benefits of SQC:

▪ Rapid and efficient inspection.

▪ Reduction of scrap.

▪ Easy detection of faults.

▪ Adherence to specifications.

▪ Increases output and reduces waste.

▪ Efficient utilization of personnel.

▪ Better customer relations.

▪ Elimination of bottleneck etc.

The Concept of Variation
▪ The concept of variation states that no two components will be perfectly identical even if extreme care is
taken to make them identical in some respect.

▪ The concept of variation is also defined as the difference between an ideal and an actual situation.
Variation is most often encountered as a change in data, expected outcomes, or slight changes in
production quality.

▪ Variation is a fact of nature. Manufacturing process is not exception to this. Whether we want to control
the dimensions of a part, weight or any other quality characteristic of manufactured product, variation is
bound to occur.
The Concept of Variation
▪ For example, suppose that an operator of certain caliber at a given work station is responsible for
producing shafts of 25 mm nominal diameter. He is supplied with machine in a certain physical
conditions, materials with relatively constant characteristics. However, regardless of how hard he tries,
there will be some variation in the diameters of the shafts he produces. The reason for this is that there
are certain forces at play over which he has no control. In general, we say that there are random
variations in the operating characteristics of the equipment, in the raw materials or in the operators’ skill
which will cause random variations in the diameter of the shafts.

▪ The variations may be small as expressed in microns. But whether small or large, variations exist in the
parts manufactured in all production processes.
The Concept of Variation
Types of variation: The variations can be classified into three broad categories for the purpose of analysis.

▪ Variation with in the part itself.

▪ Variations among the parts produced at the same period of time.

▪ Variations among the parts produced at the different period of time.

Reasons of variations:

▪ Tool wear ▪ Faulty jigs and fixtures.

▪ Machine Vibrations ▪ Poor quality of raw materials

▪ Loose bearing ▪ Carelessness of the operator

▪ Play between nut and screw ▪ Measuring errors.

Variables and Attributes
Variables: When a record is made of an actual measured quality characteristics such as a dimension
expressed in hundredths of mm, the quality is said to be expressed in variables. It is also known as
Continuous data i.e. a variable is something that you can measure like thickness, weight etc. and can
assume any value over some interval. For example sample of 20 spindles taken from a lot may have
diameters which varies from 25 to 25.99 mm, any individual spindle may have diameter between these
values. Example of variables are:

▪ A dimension of a part measured.

▪ Hardness in Rockwell unit.

▪ Temperature in degree centigrade

▪ Tensile strength in N/mm2.

Variables and Attributes
Attribute: When a record shows only the number of article conforming and the number of articles failing
to conform to any specified requirements, it is said to be recorded by attributes i.e. an attribute is a binary
property like cut or not cut, drilled or not drilled, a part fits a gauge or it does not etc. It is also known as
Discrete data. This method simply notes the presence or absence of quality characteristics in the part
examined.

Example of attributes (Discrete data):

▪ The number of defective pieces found in a sample. Notes: A useful thumb rule would be to say that data

▪ Surface finish of furniture.
▪ Cracks in sheets by spot welds etc.
obtained by counting are discrete [attribute] while data
obtained by actual measurement are continuous
[variable] or all qualitative characteristics are known as
attribute and those characteristics that can be quantified
and measurable are known as variables.
The Normal Distribution
▪ In the frequency distribution, if the number of observations are increased considerably, then the number
of cells will increase and the width of cell will become smaller and smaller. The series of steps that
constitutes the top line of the histogram will then approach a smooth curve. The height of the curve at
any point is proportional to the frequency at that point and the area under it between any two limits is
proportional to the frequency of occurrences within these limits. Such curve is called “Normal curve”.
▪ The normal curve is the special type of density curve that is bell shaped. Hence, sometimes it is called
as bell curve. The normal distribution is the most important probability distribution in statistics because
many continuous data in nature and psychology displays this bell-shaped curve when compiled and
graphed.
▪ For example, if we randomly sampled 100 individuals we would expect to see a normal distribution
frequency curve for many continuous variables. Its shape arises from various data such as IQ, height,
weight, volume, blood pressure etc.
The Normal Distribution
▪ Most of the continuous data values in a normal
distribution tend to cluster around the mean, and
the further a value is from the mean, the less
likely it is to occur. The tails are asymptotic,
which means that they approach but never quite
meet the horizontal axis (i.e. x-axis).
▪ For a perfectly normal distribution the mean,
median and mode will be equal or the same
value, visually represented by the peak of the
curve.
The Normal Distribution
▪ Population Mean: The mean controls the position
of the distribution. For changing the position of ND
curve we need to shift population mean (μ).
▪ Population Standard Deviation: The standard
deviation controls the spread of the distribution. A
smaller standard deviation indicates that the data is
tightly clustered around the mean and the normal
distribution will be taller. A larger standard
deviation indicates that the data is spread out around
the mean and the normal distribution will be flatter
and wider. One division in normal distribution is one
σ.
The Normal Distribution
Important points about Normal distribution (ND):
▪ The normal distribution is a continuous probability distribution that is symmetrical on both sides of the
mean, so the right side of the center is a mirror image of the left side.
▪ The normal distribution is unimodal i.e. the distribution has single peak or having one mode.
▪ The area under the normal distribution curve represents probability and the total area under the curve
sums to one.
▪ The parameter population mean (μ) characterizes the position of the normal distribution.
▪ The parameter population standard deviation (σ) characterizes the spread of the normal distribution.
▪ The above parameters can be represented as X ~ N(μ, σ) i.e. variable X follows Normal distribution
(ND) that has population mean (μ) and population standard deviation (σ).
▪ Normal distributions become more apparent (i.e. perfect), the finer the level of measurement and the
larger the sample from a population.
The Normal Distribution
▪ Theoretically the ND curve extends from -∞ (minus infinity) to +∞ (plus infinity). However for all
practical purposes we can consider normal curve as extending only 3σ values to the left and 3σ value to
the right of the mean (x̄ ± 3σ).
▪ The most commonly quoted limits in connection with the curve are as follows:

Specification Limit Percent of total area within specified limit

x̄ ± 0.6745σ 50.00

x̄ ± σ 68.27

x̄ ± 2σ 95.45

x̄ ± 3σ 99.73
The Empirical Rule Formula (68-95-99.7 Rule)
▪ The empirical rule in statistics allows researchers to determine the proportion of values that what
percentage of data falls within a certain number of standard deviations from the mean. The empirical
rule is often referred to as the three-sigma rule or the 68-95-99.7 rule.

✔ 68% of the data falls within one standard

deviation of the mean.
✔ 95% of the data falls within two standard
deviations of the mean.
✔ 99.7% of the data falls within
three standard deviations of the mean.
The Empirical Rule Formula (68-95-99.7 Rule)
▪ 68% of data falls within the first standard deviation from the mean. This means there is a 68%
probability of randomly selecting a score between -1 and +1 standard deviations from the mean.
The Empirical Rule Formula (68-95-99.7 Rule)
▪ 95% of the values fall within two standard deviations from the mean. This means there is a 95%
probability of randomly selecting a score between -2 and +2 standard deviations from the mean.
The Empirical Rule Formula (68-95-99.7 Rule)
▪ 99.7% of data will fall within three standard deviations from the mean. This means there is a 99.7%
probability of randomly selecting a score between -3 and +3 standard deviations from the mean.
Six Sigma Concept
▪ Six Sigma is a disciplined, statistical-based, data-driven approach and continuous improvement
methodology for eliminating defects in a product, process or service. It was developed by Motorola
and Bill Smith in the early 1980’s.
▪ Six Sigma is also known as zero defect. But practically zero defect never equals to 0 because 100%
efficiency is not possible.
Six Sigma Concept
Six Sigma Concept
Process Capability
▪ An “in-control” process can produce bad or
out-of-specification product. Manufacturing processes
must meet or be able to achieve product specifications.
Further, product specifications must be based on
customers requirements.
▪ Process capability is defined as the ability of the process
to meet the design specification for a product or service.

▪ Process capability is the repeatability and consistency of a manufacturing process relative to the
customer requirements in terms of specification limits of a product parameter. This measure is used to
objectively measure the degree to which your process is or is not meeting the requirements.
Process Capability
▪ Design Specification:

Customer Requirement Specification

International Tennis
federation (ITF)

Tennis
ball

Diameter of ball should be 6.56 cm to 6.86 cm

Process Capability
▪ Design Specification:

Reject Accept Reject

Diameter of balls
(in cm)
LSL USL
6.56 6.86
Process Capability
▪ Design Specification:

Reject Accept Reject

Diameter of balls
(in cm)
LSL USL
6.56 6.86
Process Capability
Nominal
Value or
Base value

LSL USL
Process Capability
E.g. A company has to produce shaft having nominal value of 250 mm. The LSL and USL decided by the
customer is 240 mm and 260 mm respectively.
Now company will find the process distribution or the population distribution.

Process
distribution or
population
distribution

232 250 268

Process Capability
Key question:
Is our process capable of producing 99.73% of its products within design specification limits?

LSL USL

It means our process

is not capable
because it produces
defective products Defective products

232 240 250 260 268

Process Capability Ratio
Process Capability Ratio
Process Capability Ratio

LSL USL
Process Capability Ratio

LSL USL
Process Capability Ratio

LSL USL