CHAPTER 2

RELATED STUDY

Researchers have long been interested in the eating behaviors of college students.
According to research, college-age students are developing bad eating habits now that could later
harm their health as adults (Lockwood & Wohl, 2012). Influencing the lifestyle decisions of
college-age students is crucial since nutrition has a cumulative effect throughout the lifespan and
is closely related to four of the top 10 causes of death in adults (Byrd-Bredbenner, Moe, Berning,
& Kelley, 2016). The literature makes it very obvious that changing behavior requires more than
just nutrition knowledge. Nutrition education is successful across all demographics, according to
research, but it has a greater impact when combined with behavior change strategies (Contento,
2011; Contento, Randell, & Basch, 2002). Nutrition instruction must be combined with behavior
change abilities or goal-setting techniques in order for lifestyle changes to happen (Contento,
2011; Contento et al., 2002; Lockwood & Wohl, 2012).

Students go through a lot of change during their college years, and the food habits they
develop might have a lasting impact on their future health. College students' diets are known to
lower the risk of cancer and heart disease since they contain more calories per serving than they
do nutrients (Ha & Caine-Bish, 2009; Racette et al., 2005; Sealey-Potts et al., 2009). To
encourage college students to eat more fruits and vegetables, Ha and Caine-Bish (2009) created
an intervention that combined conventional nutrition teaching 19 materials with interactive
activities. Social cognitive theory, the theory employed for this intervention, is predicated on the
idea that students use the course materials as a framework to develop new eating habits and long-
term lifestyle changes (Ha & Caine-Bish, 2009). Eighty students took a basic nutrition education
course, which resulted in increases in fruit and vegetable consumption of 50% and 22%,
respectively (Ha & Caine-Bish, 2009). Students continuously evaluated their behaviors and goals
throughout the course utilizing the principles of social cognitive theory by exposing them to
information and practical experiences such as recipes, taste-testing, goal setting, helpful
suggestions for dining out, and interactive technology. Students proposed that the texts' content
should include specific information relevant to college lifestyle and eating options. Dietary
consumption was examined using three-day food diaries, one of several well established standard
procedures for measuring data from dietary intake (Lee & Neiman, 2013). (Brown et al., 2014;
Hingle et al., 2013). It is advised to conduct long-term studies of this intervention to compare its
impact on short-term and long-term lifestyle modifications. With nutrition education, nutrition
interventions can be either short-term or long-term. The time frame is typically four months or
sixteen weeks when taken in conjunction with college nutrition education courses. An
intervention that makes use of several resources may be successful. In order to boost fruit and
vegetable consumption among 18 to 24 year olds in Mid-Western college students, Richards,
Kattleman, and Ren (2006) used newsletters, motivational interviewing, computer tools, and a
nutrition website. According to the transtheoretical approach, changing one's behavior is a
process that happens gradually (Contento, 2011).
 Nutritional interventions are treatments based on nutritional processes. This may include
dietary changes or simply nutritional education. Studies support dietary interventions that focus
on increasing fruit and vegetable consumption among college students because of their
effectiveness in reducing health risks in adulthood (Brown et al., 2014; Ha & Caine -Bish, 2009;
Richards et al., 2006). Change is a process. It doesn't happen overnight. Some have a quick
change process, others have a long and complicated process. There are many behavior change
theories used in research. Although the literature claims that nutrition education is effective, it
has also been shown to be more effective when combined with behavior modification techniques
(Contento, 2011; Contento et al., 2002). College students actually benefit from mindfulness as a
behavior-modifying technique: being aware of what is happening both inside and outside the
body (Contento, 2011). Mindful eating is the technique of influencing how a person eats by
controlling the environment, lighting, atmosphere, food choices, and even eating partners
(Contento, 2011). The transition from high school to college is stressful and puts students at
increased risk for unhealthy behaviors such as alcohol use, drugs and unbalanced diets.Araas
(2008) found that colleges with high levels of mindfulness1 Graders correlated with higher self-
efficacy, which indicated a lower risk of developing health problems. These findings are useful
both for student academic services on college campuses and for this study, as they show that
mindfulness and self-efficacy programs can improve students' health habits, stress levels, and
coping skills. Potentially important (Araas, 2008). Araas (2008) successfully demonstrated that
mindfulness is a useful behavior change tool for college students and a tool to consider in future
work and behavior change with college students. Wellness education through 16-week standard
college courses is the most common form of nutrition education for college students. The
purpose of health education is to spread knowledge and lead to behavior change. Lockwood and
Wohl (2012) argued that health education alone does not appear to promote behavior change.
The knowledge of students 23 is increased through health education. “Behavioral change is the
result of education being combined with specific behavioral skills, psychological variables (such
as improved self-efficacy, motivation, and positive attitudes), and behavioral change variables
(such as self-reflection, persistence, and goal attainment).’(Lockwood) & Wohl, 2012, p. 630).
The results of this study showed significant increases in both physical activity and eating
behavior (Lockwood & Wohl, 2012). Ruthig, Marrone, Hladkyj, and Robinson-Epp (2011)
conducted a survey of college students, which he assessed three times a year. We asked about
baseline, 6 and 12 months, and about diet, exercise, tobacco, alcohol consumption, and sleep.
Women reported more stress, unhealthy diet, and less exercise than men. Women's stress
decreased over time and exercise levels increased (Ruthig et al., 2011). Overall, men and women
reported differences in all health perceptions assessed diet, stress, and exercise and health
behavior. Reported health perceptions were directly related to changes in school performance
(Ruthig et al., 2011).

Most college students are in a very important stage that can have a positive or negative
impact on their health later in life. It makes sense to see Although there is no universally
accepted age range to represent adolescence, the World Health Organization (WHO) has chosen
an age range from her 10 years to her 19 years (Bennett, 1984). During puberty, linear thrust
contributes about 15% of final adult height and 50% of adult weight, and adolescents acquire
50% of skeletal mass (Nostein, 1984; Elizabeth and Felix, 1988). ). Teenagers also have a strong
desire to exercise independence and make their own decisions. Food selection is probably one of
the first goals (Lois and Gail, 1986). Adolescence is therefore a critical period from a nutritional
perspective, and many studies have focused on dietary habits during adolescence. have been
identified (Better Health Commission, 1987). A major problem is the prevalence of underweight,
especially among girls, which is attributed to eating disorders in an increasing number of
teenagers.Vulnerability to peer pressure and media advertising Gender is one of the factors
associated with eating disorders. Societal attitudes toward the body, our society's emphasis on
overwhelming beauty, and our preoccupation with appearance have resulted in mild body image
disorders in nonobese individuals (Bruch, 1973). Kaufmann et al. (1974) suggested that body
image is the primary basis for modifying the diet for weight loss or weight gain.At the same
time, the precursors to nutrition-related diseases in adulthood are established at this stage.
Precursors of coronary heart disease such as obesity, smoking, hypertension and
hypercholesterolemia have also been found in this group. College students are in a period of
accelerated growth and rapid physical changes, making young people vulnerable to malnutrition.
It is also a period of behavioral change in adults, and most behaviors developed during this
period are likely to be retained later in life (Bennett, 1984). It is becoming increasingly clear that
the causes of some diet-related illnesses are early in life, and that the most effective preventive
measures are likely to be directed at younger age groups. A time when other lifestyle variables
were not set. Several of these studies attempt to establish correlations between dietary variables
and specific diseases. Bughurst et al. (1980) Positive associations between dietary variables
(including total energy, percent energy from carbohydrate, protein and total fat intake) and risk
factor status for coronary artery disease in a group of Australian undergraduates. I found Another
study in the United States (Slattery, et al., 1990) examined food consumption trends and
subsequent prostate cancer risk among adolescents and adults. Their results indicate that diet
during adolescence may act as a tumor initiator, while food intake during adulthood may
promote tumor development. A better understanding of dietary habits and food intake may aid in
the study of specific diet-related diseases and in planning nutritional education to improve the
health of this group. Changing health behaviors addresses not only nutritional issues but also
physical activity patterns. College students transitioning from adolescence to adulthood must
establish lifelong pattern changes to prevent overweight- or obesity-related health conditions.

College students transitioning from adolescence to adulthood must establish lifelong

pattern changes to prevent overweight- or obesity-related health conditions. Small, Bailey-Davis,
Morgan, and Maggs (2012) conducted a study of college students that assessed their eating and
exercise patterns based on their living situation (on campus or off campus). Students living on
campus had access to dining facilities with “all you can eat” cafeteria-style meals and several
fitness facilities. Results show a decrease in fruit and vegetable consumption and physical
activity among students living off-campus (Small et al., 2012). Availability, access, and cost may
reduce fruit and vegetable consumption for students living off-campus. Encouraging a meal plan
with healthy food options for all students and limiting high-calorie foods from the meal plan is
one way to encourage behavior change. Providing students with access to college fitness
facilities (either for free or at a student rate) can help drive behavioral change around physical
activity. Establishing behavioral changes during college is beneficial because it can continue into
adulthood. Behavioral changes can have lasting effects not only on your physical health, but also
on your emotional health. Improving health habits often improves self-esteem (Woekel et al.,
2013). Wekel et al. (2013) completed a study to determine whether Lifetime Fitness for Health
classes help students develop healthy behaviors and positive self-awareness. Students
participated in lectures and labs focused on physical activity, nutrition, and self-image. Results of
this study found that participation in the curriculum Lifetime Fitness for Health (Woekel et al.,
2013) provided students with both knowledge and confidence in physical activity and eating
behaviors. A link between physical activity and diet has also been found. 25 Moreover, these
behaviors increased self-esteem for these activities (Woekel et al., 2013). In this study, a subject
population was enrolled in a college nutrition class using behavior-modifying techniques that
resulted in significant behavioral changes. As previously reported, barriers to long-term success
with proper diet and exercise may be related to off-campus living, time commitment, and food
availability (Small et al., 2012; Woekel et al., 2013). How to successfully address this issue for
students living off-campus remains an area of future teaching and research.

Eating habits or eating habits are the repetitive execution of meal-related behavioral
sequences in which individuals or groups directly or indirectly select, prepare, or consume food
as part of cultural, social, and religious practices. (Diehl and Leitzmann, 1985) . There are many
determinants of diet. Individual differences in personality, psychological makeup, attitudes,
knowledge and beliefs about food, nutrition, and health have been assumed (Murcott, 1985).
Food choices reflect responses to social stress, cultural pressure, educational and other personal
factors, and environmental factors. Other independent variables such as satiety, tolerance, taste,
familiarity, health beliefs, price, convenience, prestige, and knowledge when the food is
available in the market and economically accessible to decision makers. determinants of food
selection (Reaburn et al., 1979). College students, as a large group of the young population, have
eating habits that are important to nutritionists. including students' tendency to adhere to the
Joule diet or avoid certain types of nutritious foods (Stasch, 1970; Jakobovits et al., 1977; Khan
and Lipke, 1982; Hernon et al., 1986). Year). Multiple factors associated with these practices
were identified. For example, gender, age, weight, body image perceptions, educational
background, place of residence, previous education, previous eating experiences/patterns
established prior to attending college, duration of study, and enrollment. Meal plans (O'Leary
and Lee, 1975; Gottschalk et al., 1977; Jakobovits et al., 1977; Vickery et al., Miller et al., 1980;
1985; HemonetaL, 1986; Beerman, 1991). Many studies have been conducted on various aspects
of food intake by college students. Some researchers have suggested that low activity levels may
lead to low energy intake among university students, while many investigations have also been
done on the nutrient intake of the students. Most of these results were consistent, highlighting
low intakes of calcium, iron, and folacin ( Ostrom and Labuza, 1977; Jakobovits et al., 1977;
Driskell et al., 1979; Nowak, etal., 1988; Worthington, etal., 1988; Hoffman, 1989 Fcx) Practices
of young adults reflect past habits and may very well represent practices which will, in turn, be
passed onto a new generation (Stasch, 1970). University or tertiary students, as well as
adolescents, are among the target groups identified by nutrition educators and basic nutrition
education courses are available in many tertiary institutions in Australia ( Health For All
Committee, 1989). To study the dietary intake of an individual, it is necessary to be able to
determine both types and amounts of food consumed and specific nutrients in that food. In
general, individual dietary data may be collected by recording present intake or recalling past
intake, while Gibson (1990) classified two major groups of methods according to quantitative or
non-quantitative: (1) quantitative dietary consumption methods - consist of recalls or records,
designed to measure the quantity of the individual foods consumed over a set period; (2) dietary
history and the food frequency questionnaire, both obtain information on the patterns of food use
during a longer, less precisely defined past time period. 24-hour recalls, probable food records,
and weighed food records are among the first quantitative methods. In the 24-hour recall,
participants are asked to describe the amount and type of food and drink they have consumed in
the past 24 hours. By analyzing this information, you can get intake and nutrient estimates.

A single 24-hour recall is optimal for assessing average food and nutrient intake in large
groups, except for people with poor memory (e.g., the elderly) and young children (Young, 1981
Gibson, 1990). Gibson (1990) also concludes that this method is fast, easy to use, relatively
inexpensive, and less burdensome for respondents, resulting in higher adherence. Because it is
retrospective, it is less likely to distort 'normal' eating behavior than recording methods (Marr,
J.W., 1977). One of his 24-hour callbacks may exclude foods that are not frequently consumed.
Your success depends on:
The subject's memory, the respondent's ability to provide an accurate estimate of the
portion consumed, the respondent's level of motivation, and the interviewer's tenacity (Acheson
et al., 1980). The seasonal factor is a limitation because this method only looks at certain days
and not all foods are readily available at that time of year in some places.The day-of-week effect
and day-to-day variability are subject to 24-hour recall. It also exists in law (Widdowson, 1947).
Several studies have shown that absolute intakes of energy, protein, total fat, total carbohydrates,
and other nutrients are similar using the meal frequency, 24-hour food diary, and 24-hour food
reminder methods. (U.S. Department of Health, Education and Human Services, 1979;
Woodward et al., 1981; Baghurst & Record, 1983). In a study of college students, this method
was used to examine snacking, other eating habits, and nutrient intake (Khan & Lipke, 1982). A
study of the interrelationships between dietary intake, nutritional knowledge, and risk factors for
coronary artery disease in 350 Adelaide undergraduates (Baghurst, et al., 1980) used a 7-day
reminder format and a frequency format. Dietary intake was collected using information. A 24-
hour recall procedure was used to assess the nutritional status of American college-age students,
followed by two consecutive days of nutritional records. Food modeling and cross-checking
were performed to establish the data (Driskell, et al., 1979). Data from 24-hour recalls have been
reported to provide estimates of population-average nutrient intakes similar to those from 7-day
recordings (Young, et al., 1952; Chalmers, 1952). Beal, 1967). Nutrition recording is the most
widely used research report on college student nutrition practices. A record of all food and drink
(including snacks) consumed from 1 to 7 days. Amounts are estimated by home measurements
and nutrient intakes are calculated using food composition data. Considering the margin of safety
in calculating the RDI, it is considered that less than 75% of the RDI is potentially inadequate for
an individual (Guthrie, 1986 & Hoffman, 1989).