The effect of the spatial positioning of a healthy food in a

pictorial-style menu on the food choice of BSBA Marketing

Management Students
Aubrey Lammatao, Reizel Graganta, Hannah Caparas,
Trisha Lucas, and Ria Gelomio
University of the East-Manila, College of Arts and Sciences, Department of
Behavioral Sciences
____________________________________________________________________________

Abstract

Introduction

Food choice is complex, and it is influenced by various factors, each on different

levels. Two factors that influence food choice at an individual level are food preference

and nutrition knowledge. Nutrition knowledge is defined as knowledge about the

different aspects of nutrition (e.g. nutrients, dietary guidelines) and their relationship to

health. Although associations between nutrition knowledge and food choice are

generally small, knowledge is a variable factor, with a certain level of knowledge which

is essential to make healthy choices (Schreiber, M., Bucher, T., Collins, C., Dohle, S.,

2020).

The eating behavior of individuals changes overtime as generation passes by.

One study produced results that stated, millennials eating habits are very different from

previous generations. 52% adopts healthy eating habits by consuming more vegetables

and organic foods. (Sacca, 2018). While 69% of millennials eat out at fast-casual
restaurants compared to 62% for Gen X and 43% of baby boomers according to the

findings of Morgan Stanley (Lutz, 2015). There are some things that millennials are

seeking when it comes to dining out thus affects their eating habits, (1) convenience,

which involves online ordering, home delivery and heat-and-eat options at grocery

stores. (2) transparency and responsibility, wherein they consider healthy food as

natural and organic compared to being low-fat. Also, 80% wants to know where their

food is grown, or its origin. (3) trendiness and experience, interest in popular meals are

high and also the sharing of experiences from eating and posting photos of food

consumed on social media also affects the peer's food choice (Dizon, 2019).

With the overview of generations' eating habits, the idea would be present to

have a basis for their food choices and eating habits. There was evidence that stated,

millennials considered healthy foods and this study explored the effect of spatial

positioning of a healthy food cue. Unlike some menus wherein there are categories and

healthy and unhealthy food were presented separately, the condition used in this study

is presenting the healthy food with unhealthy foods in a pictorial-style menu. This study

aims to investigate how the spatial positioning of healthy food will affect the food choice

of an individual and will also look out on other factors that might affect it.

Though there is also an abundance of palatable, high-energy-dense food-related

cues, which causes a major contribution to poor dietary choices and other effects like

increased obesity rates, research studies the strategies and other ways to help promote

healthier food choices. Also, there is a shift of focus from changing an individual's eating

behavior to the change of food environment for the promotion of healthier dietary

choices.
 For the local setting, this study will be able to observe its differences from the

foreign study and cite factors that cause the difference in dietary choices like social

norms. According to the study of Stok, F. M., de Vet, E., de Ridder, D. T. D., & de Wit, J.

B. F. (2016) that norms are crucial; often socially shaped. Social norms constitute an

important source of influence on the individual members of social groups, affecting

people’s goals experiences and behaviors. It is important to note that social norms are

only one of multiple forms of social influence on food choice.

According to Vallejo, (2018) Filipino teenagers nowadays are prone to improper

food and nutrients intake due to a malpractice of food preferences and habits. During

this transition stage wherein teenagers will become adults, the body needs an increased

amount of nutrients, but it is also the period which teenagers creates major changes in

their dietary lifestyles such as to start dieting or skipping meals, which may be due to

peer pressure or body image consciousness, meeting society’s standards and more

factors which will definitely affect their eating behavior which will eventually lead to

either too much or lack of food intake that causes obesity or malnutrition.

Food preference or choice is how individuals select the food they want to eat,

which consists of different aspects which leads to their preference such as taste

preference, sensory attributes, cost, availability, convenience, cognitive restraint, and

cultural familiarity. While Food or eating habits refers to the manner and reasons as to

why people eat, what food they consume, with whom or where they eat. These factors

mostly affect the dietary lifestyle of Filipino teenagers as the food is always available in

the Philippines.
 Theoretical Framework

The nudge theory, developed by Cass Einstein and Richard Thaler in 2008 with a

book entitled Nudge: Improving Decisions About Health, Wealth and Happiness. This

theory is a combination of Psychology and Economics which is called, Behavioral

Economics. It is known to be defined as a system of gentle encouragements based on

advanced knowledge of the decision-making process, which suggests positive

reinforcement and indirect suggestion can influence people’s decisions and action

without them realizing. Libertarian Paternalism is an idea wherein something is

changed, added or removed to affect behavior but also respects the freedom of choice

at the same time. It is small changes which results to a big influence on behavior, and

the change in human behavior will occur if it provides possibilities or hindrances to

achieve goals (Opp, 2019).

The nudge theory is widely accepted already, and it is becoming more popular to

experts since the book was published. It is known to be simple, low cost, and an

effective way to modify behavior. This links to the idea of Choice Architecture, which no

information was presented but a change in the environment is occurring for forming

different ways wherein choices can be presented to impact people’s decision-making.

80% of human behavior is automatic which causes people to respond to cues or the

Choice Architecture, in the Nudge Theory (Kelly, 2015). Therefore, this is any attempt at

influencing people’s judgment, choice or behavior in a predictable way due to biases,

cognitive boundaries, habits, routines and also for rational self-declared interest

(Hansen, 2016). According to Professor Kelly, this approach could be used for

microenvironments like the school canteens to help increase students’ healthy options
and it can also be used for macro applications like preventing chronic diseases but

currently needs more researches for supporting data and evidences.

The decision of an individual may be affected by different factors present in a

situation. The Theory of Reasoned Action by Fishbein & Ajzen in 1980, attempted to

present data to form a concrete and logical explanations for the chosen actions and

decisions made by individuals. Defining the theory of reasoned action, it is about the

intentions of a person which leads to the decision or action made. This decision or

action engaged will produce a behavior which will form a person’s attitudes and

perception. With regards to the behavior, it is necessary to control it to form intentions

and also in engaging in specific actions. Intentions in which refers to an individual’s plan

of action.

Under this theory, there is another concept involved which is the Theory of

Planned Behavior. To further explain these concepts, the behavioral beliefs produces

attitudes while normative beliefs produces subjective norms and control beliefs

produces a perceived behavioral control. Then, after this process, the produced

concepts will form the intentions which will lead and cause the forming of an individual’s

behavior. Therefore, it can be concluded that a person forms belief depending on the

outcome of a certain behavior which later on will contribute in the formation of one’s

attitude and these influences the decision making and the actions done by an individual.

(Heller, et al., 2013).

Hypothesis

Definition of variables
 Research Paradigm

The following research paradigm was used to examine the effect of spatial positioning

of a healthy food in a pictorial style menu on the food choice of BSBA Management

students.

Independent Variable Figure 1. The variables of the

Dependent Variable
Spatial Positioning Food Choice
study. The study employed a

between subject design. The independent variable is spatial positioning. While the

dependent variable is the food choice as shown on the figures above.

Methods

2.1. Participants

The participants of this study composed of 80 students particularly female marketing

students from University of the East. They are ages from 18-22 (M = 22.16 SD = 4.29)

and for the controlled group had an average BMI of 22. 52 kg (SD = 5.03) while in the
treatment condition was 22.05 kg (SD = 4.05). Eligibility criteria included liking most

food, intolerances, and no allergies (Kemps et al.,2016). Participants were instructed to

fast for 2hr before testing. Participants received a token for participation.

2.2. Materials

2.2.1. Menus

Photographs of three unhealthy foods (mojos, mozzarella sticks, and nachos)

and a chicken salad which is the healthy food were positioned in a horizontal line to

create the pictorial - style menus. The four photographs were used to create three 8.5 x

11 paper pictorial menus. In the middle condition, the chicken salad was presented in

the middle of the unhealthier foods, In the end condition, the chicken salad was

presented beside the unhealthier foods (fourth from the left in the line) In the separate

condition, the chicken salad was presented 5 cm to the left of the unhealthy foods.

2.2.2. Food choice task

The instructions were given by the experimenter, the participants were asked to

imagine that they were at a fast food outlet and deciding on the food that was on the

menu (having the same price) to have as their meal. The experimenter showed the

menu and gave them a questionnaire to write their chosen dish that was shown and for

the Revised Restraint Scale. Food choice was classified as "healthy" (if the chicken

salad was chosen) or "unhealthy" (if anything else was chosen).

2.2.3. Dietary Restraint

A questionnaire about the Dietary Restraint (self-describing dieting) was

answered by the participants and assessed with the Revised Restraint Scale. This is a
10-item questionnaire with questions “How often are you dieting?” which are rated on 4-

or 5-point scales.

2.3 Procedure

The testing place was at the SFC building of the University of the East.

Participants under experimental group were given a pictorial style menu in three

different spatial positioning, from that they were able to choose their selected food.

Afterwards, they were provided a questionnaire containing the informed consent

attached to the questionnaires and their profile (BMI), selected food which was ranked

in a 9-point scale and questions regarding their eating habits and weight fluctuation

(Revised Dietary Restraint). Participants in control group were instructed to imagine that

they were eating in a fast food chain having a main dish and they only have to do is to

choose their side dish which they mostly ordered in a fast food chain. Next, same

questionnaires were given and answered by the participants under the treatment

condition. The debriefing form were given after the participants answer the

questionnaires same as the token.

2.4. Data Analysis

Food choice was analyzed using Chi-Square test for it is the most appropriate

and familiar for the experimenters to use in testing the significance. The experimenters

also make use of mean to see the Body mass index average of female participants, and

standard deviation to tell how measurements in a group are spread out from the

average.

Scope and Limitations

 This present experimental research mainly focused on the effects of the spatial

positioning of a healthy food on food choice from a pictorial style menu. It investigates

how spatial positioning affects one's decision regarding their food choice. The selection

of the participants was limited to the students taking up BSBA Major in Marketing

Management under the department of College of Business Administration in University

of the East Manila and it doesn't include all the courses in UE. Also, the selection of

participants was only limited, particular participants of this study were only female

students it doesn’t include male students. Other unmeasured factors like possible

absence of real-world pictorial menus that typically have many more food options. Also,

factors like letting the participants consume their chosen food from the menu was not

included in this study.

Results

Table I: BMI of the Participants

Table 1 shows the Body Mass Index of the participants under treatment and

controlled conditions. The controlled group had an average BMI of 22. 52 kg while in the

treatment condition was 22.05 kg. The result showed that most participants in both

controlled and treatment conditions have a normal body mass index.

 Table II. Food Choice of Participants in Treatment Condition

Table II shows the food choice of the participants in treatment condition. The

participants’ preferably selected healthy food which is chicken salad when it was

separated among the unhealthy foods, whereas the most common food choice of the

participants was considered as unhealthy food which was Mojos. Also, as shown in the

table above, the p value (p=.072) is greater than the designated alpha level of (.05),

which indicated that spatial positioning has no significant effect in the healthy food

choice of the female BSBA marketing management students.

Table III: Food Choice of Participants in Controlled Condition

 Table III shows the food choice of participants in controlled condition. Most

participants in controlled condition selected food were considered as healthy which had

the higher frequency. Also, as shown in the table above, the p value (p=.010) is less

than the designated alpha level of (.05), which signified that there is a significant

difference in the food choice of the BSBA marketing management students between the

treatment condition and control condition.

 Table 4: Dietary Restraint Scale in Controlled Condition

Weight Fluctuation
  N Min Max Mean Interpretation Std. Dev.
Q2: What is the
maximum amount
of weight you 20 4 5 4.65 0-4 0.48936
have ever lost in
one month?
Q3: What is your
maximum weight
20 2 5 4.05 1-1.2 0.68633
gain within a
week?
Q4: In a typical
week, how much
20 2 5 4.35 1-1.2 0.87509
does your weight
fluctuate?
Q11: How many
pounds over your
desired weight 20 1 5 3.35 6--10 1.1821
were you at your
maximum weight?
Concern for Dieting
Q1: How often are
20 2 5 3.45 Sometimes 1.09904
you dieting?
Q5: Would a
weight fluctuation
of 5lbs affect the 20 3 5 4.05 Slightly 0.75915
way you live your
life?
Q6: Do you eat
sensibly in front of
20 2 5 3.3 Often 1.12858
others and
splurge alone?
Q7: Do you give
too much time and 20 1 4 1.6 Always 0.75394
thought to food?
Q8: Do you have
feelings of guilt 20 1 5 2.65 Often 1.7252
after overeating?
Q9: How
conscious are you
20 1 5 3.4 Moderately 0.88258
of what you're
eating?
Q10: What is your
maximum weight 20 45 77 56.9   9.61851
ever?
Valid N (listwise) 20         
 The results showed the Dietary Restraint Scale in Controlled Condition. This also
displayed the weighted average of each item in the questionnaire.

Table 5: Dietary Restraint Scale in Treatment Condition

Weight Fluctuation

  N Min Max Mean Interpretation Std. Dev

Q2: What is the
maximum amount
6
of weight you 2 5 4.4833 5--9 0.67627
0
have ever lost in
one month?
Q3: What is your
maximum weight 6
2 5 3.95 1-1.2 0.81146
gain within a 0
week?
Q4: In a typical
week, how much 6
2 5 4.1833 1-1.2 0.85354
does your weight 0
fluctuate?
Q11: How many
pounds over your
6
desired weight 1 5 3.6 1--5 1.12295
0
were you at your
maximum weight?
Concern for Dieting
Q1: How often are 6
1 5 3.5333 Rarely 1.04908
you dieting? 0
Q5: Would a
weight fluctuation
6
of 5lbs affect the 1 5 3.8667 Slightly 0.83294
0
way you live your
life?
Q6: Do you eat
sensibly in front of 6
1 5 3.3833 Often 1.15115
others and splurge 0
alone?
 Q7: Do you give
6
too much time and 1 5 2.1167 Often 1.09066
0
thought to food?

Q8: Do you have

6
feelings of guilt 1 5 2.5333 Often 1.4897
0
after overeating?
Q9: How
conscious are you 6
1 5 3.4667 Moderately 0.94719
of what you're 0
eating?
Q10: What is your
6
maximum weight 40 95 58.7167   12.0593
0
ever?
6
Valid N (listwise)          
0

The results showed the Dietary Restraint Scale in Controlled Condition. This also
displayed the weighted average of each item in the questionnaire.

Discussion

Eating behaviors and Body Mass Index (BMI) are closely linked across the

lifespan (French, SA. et. al, 2012) The BMI was included in the study to know if it is

a contributing factor that affects the food choice of the participants. According to the

study, in terms of getting the Body Mass Index, the more food approaching and less

food avoidant eating behaviors were mainly a consequence of a high BMI in

childhood, rather than the reverse direction. For emotional overeating, a bi-

directional relationship was found, indicating that emotional overeating was both a

predictor and a consequence of a relatively high BMI. (Derks et. al, 2018).

The findings of the treatment condition showed that the highest number of times

the healthy food (Chicken Salad) was chosen is when it is presented in the Separate

treatment condition. This indicates that the Separate condition is the most effective

compared to the two other conditions which are the end and middle. While the

control group without any treatment condition given, participants declared their

preferred or most ordered side dish, and results showed that there is a higher

number of healthy foods indicated compared to unhealthy foods. As the Separate

condition presented the healthy food separate from the unhealthy foods, it became

more noticeable and distinct in some way, which others may think that it belongs to a

different category. Also, it appeared to be competing rather than complementing the

unhealthy foods (Keegan, E., Kemps, E., Prichard, I., Polivy, J., Herman, C. P., &

Tiggemann, M., 2019).

. According to some studies that most of the College students are at risk for

making poor dietary choices that can cause them a significant health problem.

(Brown, O’Connor, and Savaiano. 2017). Though a lot of participants have chosen

the unhealthy option, the frequency of choice of the healthy option is much more

given attention and emphasis as it shows the effect of spatial positioning used for

the nudge in the food choice. It showed that the nudging was effective to some of

the participants which are those who selected the Chicken Salad, and it supports the

importance of the spatial positioning of a healthy food cue.

 A review about the positional manipulation of food products such as its order

and proximity can influence food choices. This study, which produced a high

success rate to test the nudge effect wherein sixteen out of eighteen studies which

the food position/order was manipulated, indicated a positive effect on the food

choice which means that nudging was effective for participants to have a healthier

food choice/options (Bucher, et al., 2016). Consumption of food and drink was less

to children, when it is presented in smaller portions, packages and tableware

compared to when it is in larger portions and distribution which is a nudging strategy

for children’s dietary behavior (Lycett, et al., 2017).

Female participants are only tested for this study as they are known to be more

conscious about their health compared to the male population. Females are much

more active in exploring health-related information, choosing healthy options, and

efforts to examine products carefully. They are more involved and engaged to these

things which makes them informed and are better decision makers than males in the

dietary lifestyle (Ek, 2013). While for the local setting, a study was conducted to

determine the awareness and adherence to the food-based dietary guidelines

among household meal planners in the Philippines. The results pointed that

respondents had limited adherence to the dietary guidelines and that there is a need

to strengthen the knowledge and information of Filipinos on the dietary guidelines

which could help them have a healthy lifestyle (Capanzana, et al., 2017).

Conclusion
 The study had found out that spatial positioning has no significant effect on the

food choice of the BSBA Marketing students. However, healthy food was more

selected when it was placed in a separated position. There is a significant difference

between the treatment condition and controlled condition. In addition, the dietary

restraint scale does not reflect the decision made by the participants in choosing

food.

Recommendations

References

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Appendices

A. Letter of request of approval

 B. Copy of the Informed consent
C. Copy of Debriefing form
D. Sample Questionnaire
E. Certificate of Validation of Experimental Procedures and Statistical Treatment of
Data
F. The Menus presented for the treatment condition
G. Proof of Actual Experimentation

Appendix A
Letter of the request for approval
Appendix B
Copy of the Informed Consent

INFORMED CONSENT FORM

Research Participation and Consent Form

TITLE: Which SIDE dish are you?

PURPOSE OF THIS STUDY: The purpose of this research study is to further understand
what food is most preferred by people nowadays. The study should take approximately 10
minutes. If you have questions at any time, please approach the experimenter/s.

DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AND YOUR INVOLVEMENT: If you decide to be in this

research study, you will be asked to sign this consent form after you read it. You will be asked
to select a food of your choice in a presented menu and complete some questionnaires after
the experimenter/s has given the signal to do it.

RISKS AND DISCOMFORTS: The risks are not greater than the risks associated with daily
living. You will answer your questionnaire about your selected food. If any of the questions
make you uncomfortable, you may skip them or any others that you do not wish to answer. At
the end of the data collection, you will be able to have the full nature of the study explained to
you. If you have additional questions, you will be able to ask them at this time.

BENEFITS TO YOU AND OTHERS: The study is likely to yield knowledge to further society's
understanding of the processes under study.

COSTS: There are NO COSTS for participating in this study other than the time you will
spend on the tasks.

CONFIDENTIALITY: Data is being collected only for research purposes. We will not tell
anyone the answers you give us; however, information from the study and the consent form
signed by you may be looked at or copied for research or legal purposes by University of the
East-Manila. What we find from this study may be presented at meetings or published in
papers, but your name will not ever be used in these presentations or papers.
QUESTIONS: In the future, you may have questions about your participation in this study. If
you have any questions, contact Ms. Aubrey Lammatao (Research Leader of the group)
Department of Psychology, University of the East-Manila at breyyyjyc@gmail.com and phone
number, 09392935243.

CONSENT
I understand that the University of the East-Manila, College of Business and Administration
has approved this study. I have been given the chance to read this consent form. I
understand the information about this study. Questions that I wanted to ask about the study
have been answered. My signature says that I am willing to participate in this study. If you
choose to participate, you may stop at any time without any penalty. I will receive a copy of
the consent form once I have agreed to participate.

I understand the information about the study and I AGREE to participate in the
study. By signing, I am giving my consent to participate in this study.

____________________________________ ____________________
Signature over Printed Name Date

Appendix C

Copy of Debriefing Form

Debriefing

Title: “The Effect of Spatial Positioning of a Healthy Food in a Pictorial-Style Menu on the
Food Choice of BSBA Marketing Management Students”.

Information about the study:

This study explored the effects of spatial positioning of a healthy food on the food choice as it
gives cue due to different lay outs of the menu.
There are three conditions presented which shows different spatial positioning of the healthy
food which are the middle, end and separate. One condition was presented to each
participant.

Objective of the study:

Promote the healthy lifestyle choices by using strategies for the lay out of the menu and give
cues to give a "nudge" to the participant which would lead to selecting the healthy option.
This may help marketing management students find the strategy related to spatial positioning
and/or the nudge theory which will be used for future application for their chosen field.

Theoretical framework of the study:

Nudge is a concept in behavioral science, political theory and behavioral economics which
proposes positive reinforcement and indirect suggestions as ways to influence the behavior
and decision making of groups or individuals.

Thank you for participating!

Appendix D

Sample Questionnaire

University of the East – Manila

2219 C.M. Recto Ave, Sampaloc, Manila 1008
Tel. No. (632) 735-5471

SELECTED FOOD: _____________________________

Note: Please check your answer.

BMI: _____________ HEIGHT: ____________ WEIGHT: ____________

 Revised Dietary Restraint (Herman & Polivy, 1980)

The following questions refer to your normal eating pattern and weight fluctuations. Please
answer accordingly.

1. How often are you dieting? (circle one)

Never Rarely Sometimes Usually Always

2. What is the maximum amount of weight (in pounds) you have ever lost in one month?
(Circle one)
0-4 5-9 10-14 15-19 20+

3. What is your maximum weight gain within a week? (Circle one)

0-1 1.1-2 2.1-3 3.1-5 5.1+

4. In a typical week, how much does your weight fluctuate? (Circle one)
0-1 1.1-2 2.1-3 3.1-5 5.1+

5. Would a weight fluctuation of 5 lbs. affect the way you live your life? (Circle one)
Not at all Slightly Moderately Very much

6. Do you eat sensibly in front of others and splurge alone? (Circle one)
Never Rarely Often Always

7. Do you give too much time and thought to food? (Circle one)
Never Rarely Often Always

8. Do you have feelings of guilt after overeating? (Circle one)

Never Rarely Often Always

9. How conscious are you of what you're eating? (Circle one)

Not at all Slightly Moderately Very much

10. What is your maximum weight ever? ___________

11. How many pounds over your desired weight were you at your rnaximum weight? (Circle
one)
0-1 1-5 6-10 1 1-20 21+
 Appendix E
Certificate of Validation of Experimental Procedures and
Statistical Treatment of Data

Appendix F
The Menus presented for the treatment condition

Middle Condition
 End Condition

Separate Condition
 Appendix G
Proof of Actual Experimentation