Commented Project Documentation - Edited

GSM based low Voltage Distribution line fault detection and location
Addis Ababa University

Addis Ababa Institute of Technology
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Stream: Electrical Power Focus Area
GSM based low voltage Distribution line fault detection and location
A thesis Submitted to Addis Ababa Institute of Technology,

School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Addis Ababa University
In partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Degree of
Bachelor of Science in Electrical Engineering (Electrical Power Engineering)
By: Name ID No
1) TesfahunWalie ENR/4811/04
2) Temesgen Taye ENR/6233/04
Advisor Name: Ato Amare Assefa (M.sc)
Date of submission: 17, June 2016

Declaration
This is to certify that the project entitled “GSM based low voltage transmission line fault detection and
location done by Temesgen Taye and TesfahunWalie under the supervision of Ato Amare Assefa
complies with the regulations of the University and meets the accepted standards with respect to
originality and quality.
Name: Temesgen Taye
Signature: ____________
Name: Tesfahun Walie
Signature: ____________
Place: Addis Ababa
This thesis has been submitted for examination with my approval as a university advisor.
Advisor’s Name Signature
Amare Assefa (M.sc) ______________________
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, AAiT, AAU Page 1

List of contents
List of figures .......................................................................................................................................................... II
List of tables ............................................................................................................................................................ II
Acknowledgement.................................................................................................................................................. III
Abstract .................................................................................................................................................................. IV
Abbreviations and Acronyms .................................................................................................................................. V
Chapter-One ............................................................................................................................................................ 1
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Problem Statement ..................................................................................................................................... 3
1.3 Objective ..................................................................................................................................................... 4
1.4 Motivation ..................................................................................................................................................... 4
1.5. Significance of the project............................................................................................................................ 5
1.6. Scope of the project ...................................................................................................................................... 5
Chapter-Two ........................................................................................................................................................... 6
Theoretical Background and Review of Literature ................................................................................................. 6
2.1 Overview of Fault Location Techniques ....................................................................................................... 6
2.2 Overview of impedance based fault detection and location. ......................................................................... 7
2.3 Thesis Overview............................................................................................................................................ 8
2.4 Theoretical review of fault types ................................................................................................................... 8
2.4.1 Single line –to-ground fault.................................................................................................................... 9
2.4.2 Single line-to line fault ......................................................................................................................... 10
2.4.3 Double line –to – ground fault ............................................................................................................. 10
2.4.4 Three phase –to- ground fault .............................................................................................................. 11
Chapter-Three ....................................................................................................................................................... 13
Methodology ......................................................................................................................................................... 13
Chapter-Four ......................................................................................................................................................... 16
Design and Simulation .......................................................................................................................................... 16
4.1 System design and Design Requirements ................................................................................................... 16
4.2 Specification of used components ............................................................................................................... 19
4.3. Circuit diagram connection of the system component on Proteus ............................................................. 22
4.4 Proteus simulation and result for single phase line to ground fault ............................................................ 23
I
4.5 Components configuration and result of hardware implementation......................................................... 27

Component Description of the prototype .............................................................................................................. 28
Chapter -Five Conclusion and Recommendation................................................................................................. 35
5.1 Conclusion................................................................................................................................................... 35
5.2. Recommendation........................................................................................................................................ 36
References ............................................................................................................................................................. 36
Appendixes............................................................................................................................................................ 38
Appendix I: Arduino Code for Current and Voltage Measurement .................................................................. 38
Appendix II : Voltage sensor – calibration......................................................................................................... 41
Appendix III : Current sensor – calibration........................................................................................................ 42
List of figures
Figure 1 simple power system with fault ............................................................................................................... 2
Figure 2: Single line-to-ground fault at phase b ...................................................................................................... 9
Figure 3: Single line –to- line fault at phase b and phase c ................................................................................... 10
Figure 4: Double line –to- ground fault at phase b and phase c to ground............................................................ 10
Figure 5: Three phase to ground fault ................................................................................................................... 11
Figure 6: Interfacing of CT with Arduino ............................................................................................................. 14
Figure 7: Block diagram of GSM base low voltage transmission line fault detection and location ..................... 15
Figure 8: flow chart of the system ......................................................................................................................... 16
Figure 9: SCT-013-000 current transformer ......................................................................................................... 20
Figure 10: CT Sensor and VT sensor Circuit Schematic ................................................................................... 21
Figure 11: Circuit diagram of PT sensor .............................................................................................................. 22
Figure 12: circuit connection of the component of the system in Proteus ............................................................ 23
Figure 13: simulation result of the fault at 100m .................................................................................................. 24
Figure 14: simulation result of the fault line at 300m ........................................................................................... 25
Figure 15: simulation result of the fault at 500m .................................................................................................. 26
Figure 16 : hardware connection of the system..................................................................................................... 27
Figure 17 : GSM modem..................................................................................................................................... 31
Figure 18: Voltage sensor and current sensor ratio testing using variac .............................................................. 32
Figure 19: SMS Texting result of transmission line fault at 300m ........................................................................ 33
Figure 20: SMS Texting result of a transmission line fault at 500m .................................................................... 34
List of tables
Table 1: summary of the value of voltage and current of shunt fault type ............................................................ 12
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, AAiT, AAU Page II

Acknowledgement
First and foremost, we would like to give special thanks and glory to the Omnipotent, Omnipresent, and the
Omniscient Almighty God who is the wonderful source of our strength. He gave us the grace, wisdom, good
health and guided us in all the ways of our life.
We would like to acknowledge and extend our deepest gratitude to our Advisor, Ato AmareAssefa (MS.c). His
valuable and academically essential guidance, hints, motivation, ideas, support and constructive comments were
so much beneficial. His experienced and well-rounded mentorship was indeed paramount. Throughout our
project work, we have received so much help from him and completing this project work would have been all
the most difficult were it not for his support. . Also encouraging & advising us throughout the duration of the
project.
Finally, we would like to thank all our friends (too many to list here but you know who you are!) whom we
respect and love dearly. Thank you for the constant encouragement during this semester.
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, AAiT, AAU Page III

Abstract
The main aim of this project is to develop SMS based transmission line fault location that can increase
the reliability of electric power to customers by minimizing the maintenance time of the power outages
due to transmission line faults using an accurate fault location method for low voltage overhead
transmission lines depending on the available information at the locator location.
Transmission Line fault is the most common fault; they may be triggered by lightning strokes, fall of
trees across the lines, and other mechanical means. These faults must be addressed as soon as they
occurred to assure continuity of electric power supply. Thus, it is necessary to detect the fault as early
as possible.
This project presents a fault detection and location technique for low voltage overhead transmission
line using one end impedance based fault detection and location on GSM based. TheGSM(Global
system of mobile communication) based transmission line fault detection is designed to detect the low
voltage transmission line fault for the EEP workers to easily recognize the current condition of the
transmission linethrough SMS texting.
The proposed system helps to detect the low voltage transmission line faults continuously and hence to
guard the fault of transmission line due to the constraints such as unsymmetrical and symmetrical types
of faults mainly short circuit faults. If any of this does occur, then the EEP workers can easily detect
the fault and maintenance will be done within a short period of time. Therefore,the proposed system
will provide the solution for the problem complain of the society (customers) due to outage of power
within a short period of time.
Keywords: Fault location; Impedance based methods; GSM modem
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, AAiT, AAU Page IV

Abbreviations and Acronyms

A =area of the conductor
AAC = all aluminum conductor
AB =phase A to phase B fault
ABC = phase A to B to C fault
ABG = phase A to B to ground fault
AC =phase A to phase C fault
ACG = phase A to C to ground fault
BC =phase B to phase C fault
BCG =phase B to phase C to ground fault
BG =phase B to ground fault
CG =phase C to ground fault
D = distance
GSM = Global system mobile communication
L =inductance
LG =Line-to-ground fault
LL = Line-to-line fault
LLG =Double line-to-ground fault
LLLG =Three line-to-ground fault
M = meter
mm^2 = millimeter
SMS= short message service
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, AAiT, AAU Page V

Rac = alternating current resistance
Rdc =direct current resistance
R = resistance
X =reactance
 =resistivity
 =ohm
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, AAiT, AAU Page VI

Chapter-One
Introduction
1.1 Introduction
When the overhead line insulation of a system breaks down or a conducting object comes in touch
with a live point, a short circuit or fault occurs. Faults can arise from several varieties of different
factors like, Lightning, wires blowing together in the wind, Animals or plants in contact with the wires.
In practice, low insulation strength is not regarded as a fault until it is detectable, either very high
current or lowest impedance between conductors, or between conductors and earth.
There are two types of faults in power system; symmetrical fault and asymmetrical fault. In
symmetrical fault, the system is remaining balanced. While in asymmetrical fault, the systems become
unbalanced. Generally short circuit faults are categorized into five different types of faults:
1. LG faults –AG, BG, CG; the most frequently occurred types of fault
2. LL faults –AB, AC, BC
3. LLG faults –ABG, ACG, BCG
4. LLL faults –ABC
5. LLLG faults –ABCG
1. Symmetrical (Balanced) faults: It’s a fault involving all three phases. In balanced fault, the system
remains balanced. It’s very rare to occur and easy to analysis. Out of these five the LLL and LLLG
faults are symmetrical faults.
2. Asymmetrical (Unbalanced) faults: it is a fault involving one or two phases. The majority of the
faults are unsymmetrical, system is no longer balanced and it is very common but difficult to analysis.
The most occurring type of unsymmetrical fault is single line to ground fault (SLG).This Type of fault
occurs when one conductor falls to ground or contacts the neutral wire .It might be the result of falling
trees due to high pressure of wind. The second most occurring type of unsymmetrical faults is the line
to line (LL) fault which is a result of two conductors being short circuited. For example if a tree branch
GSM based low voltage transmission line fault detection and location Page 1
fall on top of the two of the power lines, LL fault will be occurred. Third type of unsymmetrical fault is
the double line to ground fault which can be a result of a tree falling on two of the power line or other
causes. Fourth and least occurring type of fault is the balanced (symmetrical) three phase fault, which
can occur by a contact between the three power lines in many different forms.
Fault Location
Fault location and distance estimation is very important issue in power system engineering in order to
clear fault quickly and restore power supply as soon as possible with minimum interruption. This is
necessary for reliable operation of power equipment and satisfaction of customer. Many fault location
techniques have been proposed in open literature. Among these techniques, the impedance method
fault detectionto estimate one-ended fault location method using GSM modem is proposed for this
paper as shown below. The approach is very attractive as it doesn’t require communication both from
sending and receiving end to obtain the results.
Sending end receiving end
L
Load
Transformer
Fault
Figure 1 simple power system with fault
Fault occurrence can be easily detected with abrupt increase in current of the line due to high current
during fault. The voltage and current value changes abruptly during the fault and phase imbalance also
occurs. The method requires continuous inspection of the line voltage and current values in each phase.
The phase with abrupt increase in current denotes that the phase is faulty. This paper proposes GSM
based transmission line fault detection using line impedance method fault detecting and locating
method.
The fundamental component of voltage and current of each phase is continuously fed to the current
sensor and voltage sensor which gives the impedance value in each phase. When fault occurs in the
system, current gets abrupt increase due to short circuit path for current. This change of value is
detected and the faulty phases are identified with the help of Arduino microcontroller. As the change in
value is large and occurs only in those phases in which fault occurs.
For this purpose, 220V, 50Hz single phase low voltage transmission line is simulated using Proteus.
Short circuit faults with different locations are simulated.Impedance based method works on the values
of currents and voltages during the fault to estimate an apparent impedance (or reactance) that is
directly associated to a distance to the fault. The impedance drops from range of thousands to hundreds
and current increases from range of hundreds to thousands during fault condition depending on the
fault resistance and distance to fault.
Performance of fault location methods for power distribution systems has been compared. The
analyzed methods use only measurements of voltage and current at the distribution transformer.
The selected methods have been implemented, tested and compared in a simulated network. The paper
reports the results for several scenarios defined by significant values of the fault location and
impedance.
Finally,this work consists of six chapters, Chapter- one introduction, Chapter- two Theoretical
Background and Review of Literature, Chapter-ThreeMethodology, and chapter -Four Design and
Simulation, Chapter-fiveConclusion and Recommendation.
1.2Problem Statement
A frequent power interruption in Ethiopia is the main problem. This is due transmission line as well as
distribution line faults.In overhead distribution line, there are different types of fault occurrence due to
manmade and environmental reasons. The location of these faults has to be quickly identified and
effective maintenance must undertake, unless the customer like (residential, industries, governmental
and non-governmental organizations) will suffer power discontinuity which leads to customer
dissatisfaction and unnecessary expenditure of money to buy fuel and other energy options. This is
why mostly Customers have many complains for EEP workers through medias and service phones
about the electric power interruption. On the other side, the utility company will have to spend extra
money and manpower in order to find the location of the faulted area.So, more or less the utility
company will suffer customer compliance, unnecessary expenditure of time and money in order to find
the location of the fault. On the customer’s side, customers invest their priceless time to announce the

fault occurred in their location for the EEP workers. Hence, in our country (Ethiopia), there is
difficulty of detecting the faults in simplest way and shortest time due to lack of advanced technology.
To overcome this problem, advancedtechnologies have to be applied in transmission lineand

distribution line faults detection. Thus, the proposed method of this project will provide some solution
for the problem of the fault location detection which shows how to implement fault location by using
GSM based fault detection on impedance method.
1.3Objective
The main objective of this project is to develop GSM based low voltage transmission line faults
detection. The overall objectives can be summarized in the following points;
 To study and analyze types of low voltage transmission line faults.

 To identify frequently occurred types of low voltage transmission line faults.
 To develop SMS texting system using GSM modem that shows the location.
 To implement the modeled system with prototype or hardware if possible (To design, build and
test a prototype fault location system in the laboratory).
 To draw the necessary recommendations and conclusions
1.4 Motivation
When a fault occurs in transmission line, unless it is severe it is not easy to identify. But gradually this
minor fault can lead to damage different infrastructures and can turn havoc to human life. It may also
initiate fire. Due to transmission line fault power interruption occurs frequently. Consequently, home
activities that use electric system, small enterprises and even large industries(companies) will stop
until the customers announce the fault for EEP workers and maintenance takes place .Hence at
Present day in Ethiopia, we do not have a system in hand that would let us know in real time once a
fault occurs. Matter of concern is that since we do not have a real time system, this leads to damage the
underlying equipment’s connected and turns out to be a threat to human around. In order to avoid such
incidents to the maximum extent, maintenance or checking of the transmission lines are generally

carried out on a frequent basis. This leads to increased manpower requirement to search whether there
is a transmission line faults or not.
That is why we encourage to solve the problem using GSM (Global system mobile with texting
SMS) based low voltage transmission line fault detection. This system of transmission line fault
detection simplifies the difficulty of identifying whether the fault is happening or not for a specific
location. Hence, from the information we have, customers were tired to inform them (for EEP workers)
that the fault was happening in their location and there is a time delay to solve the problem. To
overcome these problems, we are proposing a GSM based low voltage transmission line fault detection
system.
Whenever the preset threshold is crossed, the GSM communication system instantly initiates a
message to be sent to the area lineman and the control station stating the fault happening on the low
voltage transmission line. This helps to minimize the time delay to maintenance and to minimize
customers complain. Thus, we are motivated to develop a GSM based low voltage transmission line
fault detection system.
1.5. Significance of the project

This project is used to achieve goal of socio economic development through proper management of
Electricity. Since without electric power it is difficult to accelerate any satisfied Work, it is mandatory
to look at possible approaches which will help to minimize electric power outage in the distribution
networks. As the searching time of the faulty transmission line location decreased, the maintenance
time increase significantly. Therefore, the reliability of the electric power increases which lead for the
socio-economic development of the country.
1.6. Scope of the project

This project is restricted only to indicate the location of the low voltage transmission lines of the short
circuit faults through SMS texting. Therefore, this project cannot address the problems of searching all
types of fault location of the transmission line.

Chapter-Two
Theoretical Background and Review of Literature

2.1 Overview of Fault Location Techniques
The modern electric power system is a large and complex network that consists of thousands of
transmission and distribution lines. With a growing demand of electricity, this number is increasing.
Transmission and distribution lines experience faults that are caused by severe weather, animals and
equipment malfunction, etc. Most of the faults are temporary and can be removed by devices like
automatic reclose. Temporary faults do not affect power supply permanently and generally require no
human operations. Others are permanent faults when maintenance crews are sent to the fault location
to repair the damage and restore the power supply. Since customers in today’s society are more
sensitive to power outages, the modern power system is required to be safer and more reliable.
Therefore, an estimation of fault location with reasonable accuracy can greatly help the engineers
identify the fault equipment and speed up the recovery of power supply. Nowadays, many protective
relays installed on the transmission and distribution lines are able to automatically estimate the fault
location of the protected line by processing certain signals. Based on the signal used, fault location
techniques are classified into three different categories [1]:
1. Techniques based on fundamental-frequency of voltages and currents
2. Techniques based on high-frequency travelling waves generated by faults
3. Artificial intelligence approaches
1. Fault location techniques using fundamental-frequency components, also known as

impedance-based fault location methods; extract the fundamental-frequency components of the voltage
and current signals to calculate the impedance of the faulted line. The calculated impedance is
considered to be a measure of the distance to fault. An IEEE guide [2] listed some notable definitions
for fault location estimation in modern electric power system. Fault location error is defined as the
percentage error in fault location estimate based on the total line length. Homogeneous line is a
transmission line where impedance is distributed uniformly on the whole length. These two definitions
will be used many times in the application of impedance-based fault location techniques. Impedance-
based method is widely used in modern power system because of easy implementation. It can be

further classified into one-end or two-end depending on how many terminal voltages and currents are
required [3]. One-end impedance-based method uses the voltage and current captured at one terminal
of the line. It is a straightforward method and requires simple communication channels. Positive-
sequence-reactance method calculated the apparent impedance seen by one terminal based on the
voltage and current measurements [2].
The fault distance calculated from the algorithm was compared with the actual fault distance with
reasonable accuracy. Two-end fault location method processes data from both terminals of the line.
Therefore, it requires more investments on effective communication channels. Compared with one-end
method, two-end method provides fault location estimation more accurately. A fault location approach
for multi-terminal transmission lines was proposed by Tziouvaras et. al. [10]. This method utilizes the
magnitude of negative-sequence current and negative-sequence source impedance from all the remote
terminals. Pre-fault load flow, zero-sequence mutual coupling, fault resistance, system non-
homogeneity and current in feeds from other lines will not affect the accuracy of fault location
estimation.
2.2 Overview of impedance based fault detection and location.

This technique can be classified into two categories.
1. Single-ended method and makes use of fundamental frequency pharos data measured at one terminal
of a transmission line.
2. Multi terminal method and it utilizes data from more than one end of a transmission line.
Impedance-based fault location methods use the voltages and currents at one or both ends of a
transmission line to determine where a fault has occurred or not. The impedance of the transmission
line per unit length is usually required in these calculations. Single-ended, impedance based fault
location methodology is attractive because it is simple, fast, and does not require communications.
There are two single-ended fault location approaches:
• Simple Reactance
• Takagi-based
The simple reactance method works reasonably well for homogeneous systems when the fault does not
involve major fault resistance and load current. Large errors are introduced to the fault location
estimate by remote end current feed, load impedance, power transmission angle, and differing angles
of line and power system source impedances. One of the major problems with basic one-terminal

impedance based fault location methods is that only use measurements from one end of the
transmission. This problem has been mitigated in several different ways. One of the best-known of
these ways is the Takagi method. This change the calculation to include the difference between the
current measured before the fault and the current measured after the fault. This eliminates the fault
impedance from the analysis, thus removing this significant source of error. Two-ended impedance
based fault locating methods can improve the accuracy of single ended methods. It required knowledge
of pre-fault load flow information for phase form the fault location. The use of both sides of the
transmission line in calculation removes most of the problems associated with one-terminal
impedance-based fault location methods [4]. However, that short-duration fault are difficult to
accurately detect with any impedance based fault location methods since less data is available about
the voltages and currents and the data that is available is not necessarily in steady-state.
2.3 Thesis Overview

The purpose of this thesis is texting SMS to the EEP workers with the correct informationtaken from
the GSM modem interfaced with the Arduino to detect low voltage transmission line short circuit
faults using one end impedance-based fault location methods. This method is very important in
transmission line fault detection because of its simplicity and no need of communication. The system
takes the measured value of voltage and current and calculates the impedance of the transmission line,
then calculate the location of the transmission line fault. The Arduino software initiates the GSM
modem to text SMS to the EEP worker’s phone number with the estimated transmission line fault
location. As a result, maintenance of the faulted transmission line can be performed in the shortest
possible time which can increase the reliability of electric power to the costumers.
2.4 Theoretical review of fault types

Short circuits occur in three-phase power systems as follows, in order of frequency of occurrence:
single line-to-ground, line-to-line, double line-to ground, and balanced three-phase faults. The path of
the fault current may have either zero impedance, which is called a bolted short circuit, or nonzero
impedance. Other types of faults include one-conductor-open and two conductors-open, which can
occur when conductors break or when one or two phases of a circuit breaker inadvertently open.
Although the three-phase short circuit occurs the least. In this thesis we use a technique to identify
fault types by measuring voltages and currents of the two terminals and then we can identify what type
of fault occur from the resulting terminal voltages and currents. There are two types of faults in power

system; symmetrical fault and asymmetrical fault. In symmetrical fault, the system is remaining
balanced. While in asymmetrical fault, the systems become unbalanced.
These fault types are categorized into five different types of faults:
1. LG faults –AG, BG, CG; the most frequently occurred types of fault
2. LL faults –AB, AC, BC
3. LLG faults –ABG, ACG, BCG
4. LLL faults –ABC
5. LLLG faults –ABCG
2.4.1 Single line –to-ground fault

If one phase is in contact with the neutral or ground conductor, a one phase to ground fault occurs
In this type of fault, any one line makes connection with the ground.
Figure 2: Single line-to-ground fault at phase b
At sending end
Ia = Ic = 0; Va, Vb,Vc remain at pre-fault value
At receiving end
Vb = Ia = Ib =Ic = 0; Va,Vc remain at pre-fault value

2.4.2 Single line-to line fault

If two phases are in contact with each other, a two phase fault occurs.
In this type of fault, there established the connection between the two phases as shown below.
Figure 3: Single line –to- line fault at phase b and phase c
At sending end
Ia = 0, Ic = -Ib; Va, Vb, Vc remain at pre-fault value
At receiving end
Vb = Vc = Ia = Ib = Ic = 0; Va remain at pre-fault value
2.4.3 Double line –to – ground fault

In this type of fault, two phases established the connection with the ground as shown below.
Figure 4: Double line –to- ground fault at phase b and phase c to ground
At sending end at receiving end
Ia = 0 Va, Vb, Vc remain at pre-fault value Vb =Vc = Ia = Ib = Ic = 0 Va remain at pre-fault value

2.4.4 Three phase –to- ground fault

If three phases are in contact with the neutral or ground conductor, a three phase to ground fault
occurs.
In this type of fault, three phases make connection with the ground as shown below. This is severe
fault.
Figure 5: Three phase to ground fault

Summary of terminal values of different fault types
Pfv-pre-fault value; > greater than
Types
of Sending end values Receiving end values
fault Voltages Currents Voltages Currents
Va Vb Vc Ia Ib Ic Va Vb Vc Ia Ib Ic
Single Pfv Pfv pfv 0 >pfv 0 pfv 0 Pfv 0 0 0

line –
to-
ground
Line- Pfv Pfv pfv 0 >pfv -Ib pfv 0 0 0 0 0
to-line
Double Pfv Pfv pfv 0 >pfv >pfv Pfv 0 0 0 0 0
line-to-
ground
Three Pfv Pfv pfv >pfv >pfv >pfv 0 0 0 0 0 0
phase-
to-
ground
Table 1: summary of the value of voltage and current of shunt fault type

Chapter-Three
Methodology
In this project, we use GSM based 8impedance method low voltage transmission line fault detection
and location. To locate the location of the transmission line fault, the voltage and current values are
measured using voltage sensor and current sensor by interfacing with Arduino Software. Using the
voltage sensor, the main voltage is measured at each instant and fed to the Arduino analog input. In
order to do that, it is first transformed down to a safe voltage, and then divided further before being
applied to one of the analog inputs of the Arduino. The voltage sensor output is nominally 9 V for 220
V input at full load. Thus, the voltage is further reduced by the potential divider formed by R1 and R2
to get the desired input of the Arduino.And to ignore the negative component of the input to the
Arduino, we use an offset capacitor. Hence the input range of the Arduino is from 0V to 5V [9].
In the same way, the current sensor is used to measure the main current at each instant. But to feed the
measured current to the Arduiono analog input, it must be changed to voltage and reduced to the
desired input of the Arduino. This voltage is measured by the analog input of the
Arduinomicrocontroller [7].This can be achieved with the following circuit which consists of two main
parts:
1. The CT sensor and burden resistor

2. The biasing voltage divider (R1 & R2)

Figure 6: Interfacing of CT with Arduino
The overall methodology of the project can be summarized as follows:
General block diagram of the system
Distribution
Supply
Transformer
Voltage
Current
ARDINUO
sensor
Sensor
BOARD &
MICRO-
CONTROLLER
GSM
Antennae
GSM
MODEM
SMS TO GSM
PHONE
Figure 7: Block diagram of GSM base low voltage transmission line fault detection and location
Flow chart of the system methodology
Measure V and I
Continuously
Compare I measured
With Inormal
NO YES
IS I>Inormal Multiply I by
transformation
ratio (Tr)
NORMAL
OPERATION OR
School ofPOWER
Electrical
OFFand Computer Engineering, AAiT, AAU Page 15
Calculate Calculate z=V/I*Tr
D=Z/Zper m
Figure 8: flow chart of the system
Chapter-Four
Design and Simulation

4.1 System design and Design Requirements
Low voltage transmission lines are modeled by means of lumped transmission line parameters which
are short line model. These parameters are:
 Resistance
 Inductance
 Conductance
 Capacitance
The combination of resistance and inductance forms an impedance of the transmission line and they
are connected in series. The admittance of the transmission line is formed by the combination of
capacitance and conductance connected in parallel. In short line model, we ignore the effect of
admittance on transmission line.

For our design, we are concentrated on the resistance and inductance parameters of the transmission
line. Resistance plays a significant role on modeling short transmission line .Because of the 𝐼 2 𝑅 loss.
The value of resistance of the transmission line depends on the following factors (Especially for
stranded conductors):
1) Spiraling
2) Temperatures
3) Frequency(“skin effect”)
1) Spiraling
For stranded conductors, alternate layers of strands are spiraled in opposite directions to hold the
strands together. This spiraling makes the strands 1% or 2% longer than the actual conductor length.
As a result, the dc resistance of a stranded conductor is increased by 1% or 2% [5].
2) Temperatures
As the temperature increase, the effective resistance will also increase. This is due the positive
coefficient of the resistance of conductors [5].
3) Skin effect
But for our design we ignored all of the above factors. Hence we use a stranded conductor type.
For our design we use AAC conductor with its property obtained from table 4.2 as follows .Hence ,as
the EEP worker told us, for low voltage transmission line AAC conductor is preferable.
The resistivity of AAC at 20°C is 2.83*10^-8m
The impedance of the transmission line model for our design is calculated as follows:
Z= R+j X; where R is the resistance of the transmission line
X is the inductance of the transmission line
Hence we ignored the skin effect due the conductor is stranded; we can approximate Rac equal to Rdc.
RacRdc= L/ A; where  is the resistivity of the conductor in m
A is the cross-sectional area of the conductor in mm^2

L is the length of the conductor in m
The length of the conductor for our design is 500m. Thus, the resistance will be:
Rac=R=2.83*10^-8m /50mm^2=5.66*10^-4 /m=0.283 
The inductance of the transmission line is entirely dependent onGMR and GMD in which GRM
standsfor the geometric mean radius and GMD stands for the geometric mean distance between
bundleconductors.
For our design we take the following assumptions:
1) GMD is approximately equal to the distance between conductors. Because if the distance
between conductors is large compared to the distance between sub conductors of each
conductor, then GMD  D as shown below.
2) GMR is mostly found from manufacturer’s data sheet. But for our design we use the following
formula to find GMR:
GMR=2.1767r; where r is the radius of the conductor for equidistance
three phase conductor as shown below [5]:
We find the radius of the conductor, r, from the data we obtained from EEPoffice data as
follows:

A=50mm^2 for 7 stranded conductor of AAC conductor. The single unit of the strand
conductor is found by dividing the whole area of the strand by the number of the strand units as
follows:
Unit area=strand area/ number of units=50mm^2/ 7=7.1428mm^2=2𝜋𝑟 2
The radius will be, r = 1.078mm
Then GMR = 2.1767 r =2.1767*1.078mm=3.282mm.
The reactance of the transmission line, Xl, can be calculated as:
Xl=2πfL; where f is the frequency in Hz
L is the inductance of the transmission line in H/m
L=2*10^-7ln(GMD/ GMR); GMD=50cm=0.5m
GMR=3.282mm=3.282*10^-3
Lphase=1.00522*10^-6 H/m
Xl=2π*50*1.00522*10^-6 /m=3.158*10^-4 /m
Therefore, the impedance =Z= R+jXl=(5.66+j3.158)*10^-4 /m
4.2Specification of used components

The main components that are used in this thesis are current transformer, potential transformer, GSM
modem and Arduino board.
1) Current transformer as current sensor

Figure 9: SCT-013-000 current transformer
Current transformers (CTs) are sensors used to measure alternating current. The split core type is
particularly suitable for monitoring use as it can be clipped straight on to either of the live or neutral
wires coming out of a transformer without having to do any high voltage electrical work.
Specifications
• Input Current: 0~100A AC
• Output Mode: 0~50mA
• Non-linearity: ±3%
• Turn Ratio: 100A:0.05A
• Resistance Grade: Grade B
• Work Temperature: -25°C ~ ﹢ 70°C
• Dielectric Strength (between shell and output): 1000V AC/1min 5mA

• Leading Wire in Length: 1m
• Open Size: 13mm x 13mm
• Turns ratio: 2000:1
A current output CT needs to be used in conjunction with a burden resistor. A burden resistor
completes (closes) the CT secondary circuit. The burden value is chosen such that it provides a voltage
proportional to the secondary current.

Figure 10:CT Sensor and VT sensor Circuit Schematic
Voltage sensing circuit

This measurement can be made safely (requiring no high voltage work) by using an AC to AC
transformer. The transformer Provides isolation between the high and low AC voltage. The output
signal from the transformer is a near sinusoidal waveform. For a 12V (RMS) transformer the positive
signal peak should occur at +16.97V and the negative signal peak should occur at -16.97V. The
voltage output of the transformer is proportional to the AC input voltage. The signal conditioning
electronics needs to convert the output of the transformer to a waveform that has a positive peak that's
less than 5V and a negative peak that is less than 0V and so we need to scale down the waveform and
add an offset so that there is no negative component. The waveform can be scaled down using a
voltage divider connected across the transformer terminals and the offset (bias) can be added using a
voltage source created by another voltage divider connected across the arduino's supply.

Figure 11: Circuit diagram of PT sensor
Resistors R2 and R1 form the voltage divider that scales down the power adapter AC voltage and
resistors R3 and R4 provide the voltage bias. Capacitor C1 provides a low impedance path to ground
for the AC signal. For an AC-AC transformer with an AC 15.9V RMS output a resistor combination of
10k for R1 and 100k for R2 would give a suitable output:
Peak-v-output=R1/(R1+R2)*peak-voltage-input=10k(10k+100k)*16.97v=1.54v
The voltage bias provided by R3 and R4 should be half of the Arduino supply voltage and so R3 and
R4 need to be equal. Higher resistance lowers energy consumption. If the Arduino is running at 5V the
resultant waveform of the circuit has a positive peak of 2.5+ 1.54= 4.04 and negative peak of 0.96V
satisfying the Arduino analog input voltage requirements and leaving plenty of room so that there is no
risk of over or under voltage.
4.3. Circuit diagram connection of the system componenton Proteus

Figure 12: circuit connection of the component of the system in Proteus
This system uses the value of voltage and current from the voltage sensor and current sensor as an
input for the Arduino.So that, according to the value of the input the Arduino will analyze the data and
it will show the state of the line weather it is faulty or not and at which location the fault occurred by
initiating the GSM modem to send SMS texting. The Arduino has two inputs, one of them from
voltage sensor and the other is from current sensor. The voltage transformer is connected at the
secondary side of the distribution transformer and measure the voltage at every instant and the current
sensor is connected in the primary side of the distribution transformer and will measure the current
value at every instant. Consequently, the location of the low voltage transmission line fault can be
calculated by taking the value from voltage sensor and the value from the current sensor and the
Arduino microcontroller initiates the GSM modem to send SMS texting to the EEP maintenance
department head.
4.4 Proteus simulation and result for single phase line to ground fault

Figure 13: simulation result of the fault at 100m

Figure 14: simulation result of the fault line at 300m

Figure 15: simulation result of the fault at 500m

4.5 Components configuration and result of hardware implementation

The overall implementation of GSM based low voltage transmission line fault detection and location has the
following hardware components.
1) Voltage sensor
2) Current sensor
3) Arduino microcontroller
4) GSM modem
5) USB cable
6) Capacitors, and resistors
These components are connected as follows for the prototype implementation of the system
Figure 16: hardware connection of the system

Component Description of the prototype
ARDUINO UNO
The Arduino Uno is a microcontroller board based on the ATmega328 ( datasheet). It has 14
digital input/output pins (of which 6 can be used as PWM outputs), 6 analog inputs, a 16 MHz crystal
oscillator, a USB connection, a power jack, an ICSP header, and a reset button. It contains everything
needed to support the microcontroller; simply connect it to a computer with a USB cable or power it
with a AC-to-DC adapter or battery to get started. The Uno differs from all preceding boards in that it
does not use the FTDI USB-to-serial driver chip. Instead, it features the Atmega8U2 programmed as a
USB-to-serial converter."Uno" means one in Italian and is named to mark the upcoming release of
Arduino 1.0. The Uno and version 1.0 will be the reference versions of Arduno, moving forward. The
Uno is the latest in a series of Arduino boards, and the reference model for the Arduino platform; for a
comparison with previous version.
TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS
Microcontroller ATmega 328
Operating Voltage 5V
Input Voltage (recommended) 7-12V
Input Voltage (limits) 6-20V
Digital I/O Pins 14 (of which 6 provide PWM output)
Analog Input Pins 6
DC Current per I/O Pin 40 mA
DC Current for 3.3V Pin 50 mA
32 KB of which 0.5 KB used by
Flash Memory bootloader
SRAM 2 KB
EEPROM 1 KB
Clock Speed 16 MHz

POWER
The Arduino Uno can be powered via the USB connection or with an external power supply. The
power source is selected automatically.External (non-USB) power can come either from an AC-to-DC
adapter (wall-wart) or battery. The adapter can be connected by plugging a 2.1mm center-positive plug
into the board's power jack. Leads from a battery can be inserted in the Gnd and Vin pin headers of the
power connector.The board can operate on an external supply of 6 to 20 volts. If supplied with less than
7V, however, the 5V pin may supply less than five volts and the board may be unstable. If using more
than 12V, the voltage regulator may overheat and damage the board. The recommended range is 7 to 12
volts.The power pins are as follows:
 VIN,The input voltage to the Arduino board when it's using an external power source (as
opposed to 5 volts from the USB connection or other regulated power source). We can supply
voltage through this pin, or, if supplying voltage via the power jack, access it through this pin.
 5V. The regulated power supply used to power the microcontroller and other components on the
board. This can come either from VIN via an on-board regulator, or be supplied by USB or another
regulated 5V supply.
 3V3.A 3.3 volt supply generated by the on-board regulator. Maximum current draw is 50 mA.
 GND.Ground pins.
 MEMORY
The Atmega328has 32 KB of flash memory for storing code (of which 0,5 KB is used for the boot
loader); It has also 2 KB of SRAM and 1 KB of EEPROM (which can be read and written with the
EEPROM library)
INPUT AND OUTPUT

Each of the 14 digital pins on the Uno can be used as an input or output, using pin Mode ().
 Serial: 0 (RX) and 1 (TX).Used to receive (RX) and transmit (TX) TTL serial data. These pins
are connected to the corresponding pins of the ATmega8U2 USB-to-TTL Serial chip.
 External Interrupts: 2 and 3.These pins can be configured to trigger an interrupt on a low value,
a rising or falling edge, or a change in value. See the attach Interrupt () function for details.
 PWM: 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, and 11.Provide 8-bit PWM output with the analog Write () function.

 SPI: 10 (SS), 11 (MOSI), 12 (MISO), 13 (SCK). These pins support SPI communication,
which, although provided by the underlying hardware, is not currently included in the Arduino
language.
 LED: 13.There is a built-in LED connected to digital pin 13. When the pin is HIGH value, the
LED is on, when the pin is LOW, it's off.
 Digital Write (), and digital Read () functions. They operate at 5 volts. Each pin can provide or
receive a maximum of 40 mA and has an internal pull-up resistor (disconnected by default) of
20-50 K ohms. In addition, some pins have specialized functions:
The Uno has 6 analog inputs, each of which provide 10 bits of resolution (i.e. 1024 different values).
By default they measure from ground to 5 volts, though is it possible to change the upper end of their
range using the AREF pin and the analog Reference () function. Additionally, some pins have
specialized functionality:
 I2C: 4 (SDA) and 5 (SCL).Support I2C (TWI) communication using the Wire library.
There are a couple of other pins on the board:
 AREF Reference voltage for the analog inputs. Used with analog Reference ().
 Reset. Bring this line LOW to reset the microcontroller.
GSM Modem
In this thesis GSM modem is used to develop an interface between mobile and microcontroller by using
GSM sim and it connects the microcontroller to the network provider to send the SMS. There fore, It
performs digital cellular communications.

Figure 17: GSMmodem
Components like voltage sensor, current sensor, and capacitors description and their functions are
discussed in section 4.2.
Voltage sensor and current sensor ratio testing using variac

Figure 18: Voltage sensor and current sensor ratio testing using variac
From the testing, we obtain the following values for each sensor:
Input voltage output voltage turn ratio
220 v 15.16 v 14.51
201 v 13.76 v 14.61
180 v 12.27 v 14.67
150 v 10.36 v 14.48 average turn ratio=14.56
Input current output current (milliampere) turn ratio
7.5 A 20 375
3.3 A 10 330
6.4 A 18 355
4.1 A 10 410 average turn ratio =370
Hardware implementation results

Figure 19: SMS Texting result of transmission line fault at 300m

Figure 20: SMS Texting result of a transmission line fault at 500m

Chapter-Five
Conclusion and Recommendation
5.1 Conclusion
Fault on the transmission line needs to be restored as quickly as possible. The sooner it is restored, the
less the risk of power outage, damage of equipment’s component, loss of revenue, customer
complaints and repair crew expenses. Rapid restoration of service can be achieved if precise fault
location method is implemented.
In this thesis project we introduced GSM based low voltage overhead transmission line fault location.
This system helps to save customer’s time for announcing the fault for the EEP worker. Not only for
customer’s time, but also it helps the EEP or the utility department to identify the transmission line
fault location easily and savetheir time for the EEP workers. So that, the utilities need their repairing
teams along the distribution branches to the estimated fault location as soon as the SMS is texting to
them. As a result, the reliability of electric power increases due to minimumtime of maintenance of the
faulted line that is required.
From our result of both simulation and hardware implementation, GSM based low voltage
transmission line fault detection and location requires consideration of different factors that affect the
accuracy of the location of the fault including selection of the appropriate voltage and current sensors,
design of the transmission line parameters, transmission line losses, and other factors.

5.2. Recommendation
We want to recommend that the Ethiopian electric power, EEP, has to insure that the total numbers of
customers connected to one transformer are within the required one and specified distance. In the
expansion of new residential, commercial & industrial areas instead of giving power to these from the
existed network it is better to construct other new network with its new planted transformer. Since the
customers are daily raised their complaints to the office of the distribution system due to power
outages, it must rehabilitate any failure network as fast as possible before the customer comes to the
office. Therefore, GSM based fault detection and location has to be implemented in transmission line
fault location to overcome these problems. We also would like to recommend that the distribution
system must taker of in using the materials with their specified standards to realize the efficiencies of
the customer’s appliances and the distribution system must be automatically automated including the
latest technological controlling and monitoring devices like GSM based fault location and detection,
microprocessor based relay protection.
Finally, we would like to recommend these who are electrical and computer engineering students to do
their thesis project on protection and detection of transmission line faults to bring reliable power
system especially on GSM based transmission line fault detection which has a significant role in
maintaining more reliable system and give more revenue for the country by reducing the money
required for searching the location of the faults.
References
[1] M.M. Saha, J. Izykowski, and E. Rosolowski. Fault Location on Power Networks. 2010.

[2] IEEE Guide for Determining Fault Location on AC Transmission andDistribution Lines. IEEE
STD C37.114- 2004, 2005: p. 0_1-36.
[3]https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/0B6sjuij5Y9ieNnhpZHExTTZMeXc
[4]T. Takagi, Y.Yamakoshi, M. Yamaura, R. Kondow, and T. Matsushima. Development of a New

Type Fault Locator Using the One-Terminal Voltage andCurrent Data. Power Apparatus and
Systems, IEEE Transactions on, 1982.PAS-101(8): p. 2892-2898.
[5]J. DUNCAN GLOVER FAILURE ELECTRICAL, LLC
[6]A.A. Girgis, D.G. Hart, and W.L. Peterson. A new fault location technique fortwo- and three-
terminal lines. Power Delivery, IEEE Transactions on, 1992. 7(1): p. 98-107.
[7]http://openenergymonitor.org/emon/buildingblocks/ct-sensors-interface
[8]http://tauruspowertronics.tradeget.com/F22958/line_fault_locators.html
[9]http://openenergymonitor.org/emon/buildingblocks/ct-and-ac-power-adaptor-installation-and-
calibration-theory
[10] D.A. Tziouvaras, J.B. Roberts, and G. Benmouyal. New multi-ended fault locationdesign for
two- or three-terminal lines. in Developments in Power SystemProtection, 2001, Seventh
International Conference on (IEE).2001.
[11] Karl Zimmerman, David Costello “Impedance based fault location experience”,
Schweitzer Engineering Laboratories, Inc. Pullman, WA USA.
[12] Ji, Chaoqi, "IMPEDANCE-BASED FAULT LOCATION METHODS FOR TRANSMISSION

LINE CONNECTING WIND FARM PLANTS" (2012). All Theses. Paper 1543.
[13] IEEE Guide for Determining Fault Location on AC Transmission andDistribution Lines. IEEE
Std C37.114-2004, 2005: p. 0_1-36.
[14] http://wiki.openenergymonitor.org/index.php?title=EmonTx_V3#Burden_Resistor_Calculations

Appendixes
Appendix I: Arduino Code for Current and Voltage Measurement
// EmonLibrary examples openenergymonitor.org, Licence GNU GPL V3
#include "EmonLib.h" // Include Emon Library
EnergyMonitor emon1; // Create an instance
#include<LiquidCrystal.h>
LiquidCrystallcd(12, 11, 5, 4, 3, 2);
#define PINNUMBER ""
int distance;
int t=1;
int m=0;
charphone_no[]="+251918568811";
void setup()
Serial.begin(9600);
lcd.begin(16,2);
Serial.println("AT+CMGF=1");
delay(200);
Serial.begin(9600);
emon1.voltage(2, 270.25, 1.7); // Voltage: input pin, calibration, phase_shift
emon1.current(1,61.05); // Current: input pin, calibration.
void loop()

emon1.calcVI(20,2000); // Calculate all. No.of half wavelengths (crossings), time-out
floatsupplyVoltage = emon1.Vrms; //extract Vrms into Variable
floatIrms = emon1.Irms; //extract Irms into Variable
distance=(supplyVoltage)/(Irms*0.01428945439);
Serial.print("Irms=");
Serial.println(Irms);
Serial.print("Vrms=");
Serial.println(supplyVoltage);
Serial.println(distance);
if(Irms>=2){
Serial.println("sending to 0918568811");
lcd.println("FAULT AT ");
Serial.println("M");
while (m<t)
delay(2000);
Serial.print("AT+CMGS=\"");
Serial.print(phone_no);
Serial.println("\"");
while(Serial.read()!='>');
Serial.println("Alert message");
Serial.println("Fault on line 'A'at");

Serial.println("M");
delay(500);
Serial.write(0x1A);
Serial.write(0x0D);
Serial.write(0x0A);
delay(5000);
m++;

Appendix II :Voltage sensor – calibration
We are measuring the mains voltage. In order to do that, it is first transformed down to a safe voltage,
then divided further before being applied to one of the analog inputs of the microcontroller.
The voltage transformer output is nominally 9 V for 220V input. On the voltage sensor, the voltage is
further reduced by the potential divider formed by R5 and R6.This voltage is then measured by the
analog input of the microcontroller relative to its supply voltage (in this case 5 V), which is used as the
reference, and scaled so that the reference voltage would give the maximum count of 210 ( = 1024).The
input voltage to the microcontroller has a constant bias added to it. We are working on rms values for
currents, voltages and counts.
Thus the number seen by the microcontroller is:
counts = (input pin voltage ÷ 5) × 1024
where
input pin voltage = adapter output voltage ÷ 10
and
adapter output voltage = mains voltage × transformer ratio
In the arduino software, in order to convert the count back to a meaningful voltage, it has to be
multiplied by a calibration constant.
Vmains = count × a constant
voltage constant = 220 × 10 ÷ (9 × 1.20) = 224.07

This simplifies even further to:
voltage constant = alternating mains voltage ÷ alternating voltage at ADC input pin
The calibration constant is passed into the calculation as the second parameter to the method
EnergyMonitor::voltage( ) in the file EmonLib.cpp. It is hard-coded as a constant in the call in the
sketch.

Appendix III : Current sensor – calibration
The supplied current is measured using a current transformer, and the resulting (small) current
converted into a voltage by the burden resistor. This voltage is measured by the analog input of the
microcontroller.
This voltage is measured relative to the processor supply voltage (in this case 5 V), which is used as
the reference, and scaled so that the reference voltage would give the maximum count of 210 ( = 1024).
The input voltage to the microcontroller has a constant bias added to it. we are working on rms values
for currents, voltages and counts.
Thus the number seen by the processor is:
counts = (input pin voltage ÷ 5) × 1024
where
input pin voltage = secondary current × burden resistance
and
secondary current = primary current ÷ transformer ratio
The ratio of the current transformer is normally specified by the manufacturer as the ratio of
maximum primary current to secondary current.
InArduino software, in order to convert the count back to a meaningful current, it has to be multiplied
by a calibration constant.
Isupply = count × a constant
where
a constant = current constant × (5 ÷ 1024)
and
current constant = (100 ÷ 0.050) ÷ 33 =60.606
Or to put it in words, the current constant is the value of current you want to read when 1 V is reduced
across the burden resistor.The calibration constant is passed into the calculation as the second
parameter to the method EnergyMonitor::current( ) in the file EmonLib.cpp. It is hard-coded as a
constant in the call tocurren( ) in the sketch.

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GSM based low Voltage Distribution line fault detection and location

Addis Ababa University

A thesis Submitted to Addis Ababa Institute of Technology,

Advisor Name: Ato Amare Assefa (M.sc)

Date of submission: 17, June 2016

originality and quality.

Name: Temesgen Taye

Name: Tesfahun Walie

Place: Addis Ababa

Advisor’s Name Signature

Amare Assefa (M.sc) ______________________

School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, AAiT, AAU Page 1

4.5 Components configuration and result of hardware implementation......................................................... 27

School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, AAiT, AAU Page II

School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, AAiT, AAU Page III

Keywords: Fault location; Impedance based methods; GSM modem

School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, AAiT, AAU Page IV

Abbreviations and Acronyms

AAC = all aluminum conductor

AB =phase A to phase B fault

ABC = phase A to B to C fault

ABG = phase A to B to ground fault

AC =phase A to phase C fault

ACG = phase A to C to ground fault

BC =phase B to phase C fault

BCG =phase B to phase C to ground fault

BG =phase B to ground fault

CG =phase C to ground fault

GSM = Global system mobile communication

LLG =Double line-to-ground fault

LLLG =Three line-to-ground fault

SMS= short message service

School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, AAiT, AAU Page V

Rac = alternating current resistance

Rdc =direct current resistance

School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, AAiT, AAU Page VI

2. LL faults –AB, AC, BC

3. LLG faults –ABG, ACG, BCG

4. LLL faults –ABC

5. LLLG faults –ABCG

Sending end receiving end

Figure 1 simple power system with fault

School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, AAiT, AAU Page 3

To overcome this problem, advancedtechnologies have to be applied in transmission lineand

 To study and analyze types of low voltage transmission line faults.

School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, AAiT, AAU Page 4

1.5. Significance of the project

1.6. Scope of the project

School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, AAiT, AAU Page 5

Theoretical Background and Review of Literature

1. Techniques based on fundamental-frequency of voltages and currents

2. Techniques based on high-frequency travelling waves generated by faults

3. Artificial intelligence approaches

1. Fault location techniques using fundamental-frequency components, also known as

School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, AAiT, AAU Page 6

2.2 Overview of impedance based fault detection and location.

School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, AAiT, AAU Page 7

2.3 Thesis Overview

2.4 Theoretical review of fault types

School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, AAiT, AAU Page 8

2. LL faults –AB, AC, BC

3. LLG faults –ABG, ACG, BCG

4. LLL faults –ABC

Rac=R=2.8310^-8m /50mm^2=5.6610^-4 /m=0.283 

Xl=2π501.0052210^-6 /m=3.15810^-4 /m