Lesson 2: Non-Mendelian Laws of Inheritance: Midterm: Week 2

1/30/23, 5:46 PM GENERAL BIOLOGY 2 - S.Y. 2022-2023 - St. Basil the Great - https://usl-tuguegarao.neolms.
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GENERAL BIOLOGY 2 - S.Y. 2022-2023 - St. Basil the Great

MIDTERM : WEEK 2
LESSON 2: NON-MENDELIAN LAWS OF INHERITANCE
Fantastic day Louisian Scientists! Last week, you learned about the founder of Genetics and his experiments, including explaining his results yielding
to the development of Mendelian Genetics. You will be learning two concepts this week in connection to those lessons. First is the Non-mendelian Genetics,
its types, and how to identify the genotype and phenotype of sample genetics problem. And second is the pedigree chart for us to understand how traits from
one family are being carried or transferred to the next generation as physical appearance and illness in the family. Braise yourself for the different genetics
and pedigree word problems as we venture to new lessons. This week, you are expected to create your family pedigree chart. A detailed explanation of
the task is presented in the learning task section of this LMS content.
To start, familiarize yourselves with the following objectives:
At the end of the lesson, you must be able to:
discuss the different modes of non- Mendelian inheritance;

predict genotypes and phenotypes of parents and their offspring;
analyze the given traits of parents and identify the probable offspring using the Punnett square experiment;
create a pedigree chart to show the transferring of one trait from one generation to the next family lineage; and
reflect on how uniqueness is vital to one's perspective.
Most of us keep a family photo album. And perhaps, many of us have heard, people make comments about our resemblance to our relatives. "He has
his grandfather's eyes." Doesn't she look just like mommy when mommy was little?" You and your brother got your dimples from your daddy, didn't you?"
Sometimes, though, we hear people wonder why we look different from one another. "How come she has straight hair when both her parents have
curly hair?" "He has a perfect vision; lucky for him; he did not take after his nearsighted parents." For years and years, people believed that relatives shared
blood, hence the use of idiomatic expressions like "blood relatives" or "blood is thicker than water." Because of the work of geneticists, we now know that the
traits we exhibit are due not to blood but to genes in chromosomes that are passed on to us by our parents.
Before diving into the learning content, fire up your brain as you scie- something about this question:
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1/30/23, 5:46 PM GENERAL BIOLOGY 2 - S.Y. 2022-2023 - St. Basil the Great - https://usl-tuguegarao.neolms.com/student_lesson/show/3856280…
In 1 Corinthians 12:4, it stated that "Now there are varieties of gifts, but the same Spirit." This biblical verse reflects that we are filled with unique
qualities as children of God. Still, we are united as one by the Holy Spirit to fulfill our roles and obligations in spreading the good deeds of God. We were all
made to be one-of-a-kind and remarkable. We are the clay, and God is the potter. He created every one of us to be perfect in our way. Some individuals have
blue eyes, while others have brown eyes; some can do this, while others can do that; some are right-handed, while others are left-handed. You were created
with a specific purpose in mind. God has a plan for every one of us, and we are all distinguished members of Christ's body. You are a work of art. As you
mature as a Christian, you will realize just how wonderful and unique God made you.

As we move on with the lesson, let's first have an activity to make you think of your uniqueness and the people around you.
We need to remember that human eyes do not come in multi-color, but they come in many colors. How do eyes come in so many colors? That brings
us to complex inheritance patterns, known as non-Mendelian inheritance. Often, inheritance is more complicated than the simple patterns observed by
Mendel.
Gregor Mendel is known as the father of genetics. His experiments with pea plants created the foundation for our modern understanding of genetics.
However, as with most scientific ideas, Mendel didn't have the whole picture allowing him to establish other inheritance rules that detailed how your parents'
characteristics are handed down to you and your siblings. Over the years, geneticists have found that not all traits have simple dominant/recessive traits.
These cases of non-Mendelian inheritance are often sorted into three categories: incomplete dominance, Codominance, and multiple alleles.
Not all patterns of inheritance can be described using Mendel's laws. Sometimes, inheritance patterns are more complicated than simple dominance.
For example, not all offspring express purely dominant and recessive alleles. Some offspring with heterozygous traits express intermediate traits between
their homozygous parents. On the other hand, some alleles are both expressed in the organism. Some individuals may also have genes that contain more
than two alleles. These modes of inheritance are sometimes called non-Mendelian genetics. All of these are tackled in the following topics.
I. TYPES OF NON-MENDELIAN GENETICS

A. INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE
Incomplete dominance happens when one allele is not completely dominant over the other allele. Incomplete dominance often shows a
heterozygous phenotype intermediate between the two homozygous phenotypes. This means that the traits have blended in the offspring.
For example, a cross between two four-o'clock plants (Mirabilis) shows an interesting result. If a red-flowered (RR) plant is crossed with a white-
flowered (WW) plant, the resulting offspring are pink-flowered (RW) plants.

Note:
The produced trait of the offspring is in between the parental traits. Examples of this also include petal coloration in some flower species (such as
carnations and four o'clock flowers), curliness of human hair, and human hypercholesterolemia (also called high cholesterol,
which is the presence of high levels of cholesterol

in the blood).
Let's first have an activity that will make you think of the possible trait of the flower once two pink bougainvilleas are crossed with each other. Here,
you need to read and analyze the given problem and answer the following questions.
B. CO-DOMINANCE
Somewhat like incomplete dominance is the principle of Codominance. In Codominance, both alleles contribute to the phenotype of an
organism. As a result, the offspring's phenotype combines the parent's phenotypes.

An example is cattle, wherein the allele for red hair (R) is codominant with white hair (W). If both alleles are present in the offspring, a roan or pinkish-
brown appearance shows (RM). Roan is a combination of both red and

white hairs.

Another notable example of Codominance can be seen in certain varieties of chickens. The allele for black feathers (B) is codominant with white
feathers (W). If these alleles are crossed, the offspring appear speckled (BW) with black and white feathers.

It takes a lot of practice to become perfect. As a result, strive to respond to the enrichment activities and earn a perfect score on Codominance.

C. MULTIPLE ALLELES

This type of inheritance involves having more than two phenotypes for a particular trait, which happens when an organism has more than two
alleles for the trait. Thus, you can observe a mixture of dominant alleles.

An excellent example of multiple alleles is seen in the human blood type. Humans have three different blood types: A, B, and O. These alleles are
shown in the table below.
Allele Blood Type
IA A
IB B
i O
Note that you have only two of these alleles in your genotype. One allele came from your mother, and the other came from your father. Allele i for
blood type O is recessive to alleles A and B among the three alleles. The different alleles can have these possible genotypes and phenotypes.
Allele Blood Type
IA IA or IAi A
IB IB or IBi B
I A IB AB
ii O

As seen in the table, six genotypes and four phenotypes can be derived from the three alleles of the human blood type. There are two possible
genotypes for blood types A and B. One genotype is homozygous (IA IA or IB IB), and the other is heterozygous (IAi or IBi). However, blood type AB contains
two different alleles (IA IB), and blood type O contains two recessive alleles (ii).
Let us solve the problem presented earlier in this lesson by making a Punnett square to show the cross between parents. It would look like the one
shown below.
How are traits transmitted from one generation to the next? Reproduction is an essential biological process that allows us to produce new individuals
to add to our population. The process also involves transmitting genetic information from parents to offspring, from one generation to the next. Although
reproduction ensures the continuity of human life, parents are equally concerned about the quality of offspring they bring into the population. As much as
possible, they want their children to express the characters they think are most desirable and valuable for their children's survival and future success.

When asked which family side you inherit your observable traits, what answer do you usually give them? How do you address when the doctors ask
whom you inherited the disease? To answer these questions, learn the concept of pedigree in the succeeding parts of this learning content.
II. PEDIGREE

Traits in humans are often challenging to study for several reasons. Unlike fruit flies or bacteria, which produce large offspring quickly, humans
reproduce slowly. Usually, they produce only one offspring at a time. So, human traits must be studied through population sampling and pedigree analysis.

As we move on with the lesson, let's look at the two images below and answer the posted question. What does pedigree mean to you?

The above images are examples of pedigree among the characters of the two most viewed movies. Here, we can see the connection between
character to another character helping us understand how their traits are passed into different generations. So, what is a pedigree? You will know its
definition, functions, and symbols when you proceed to our next lesson.

A. Definition of Pedigree

A pedigree is a diagram that shows the occurrence and appearance (phenotype) of a particular genetic trait as it is passed from one
generation to the next in a given family. From this information, along with an understanding of inheritance, genotypes of individuals can often be
determined. You can think of pedigrees as genetic "family trees."

B. Function of Pedigree

The purpose of a pedigree is to have an easy-to-read chart that depicts a particular characteristic or disorder in an individual. It can be used for
characteristics like having a widow's peak or attached earlobes or a genetic disorder like colorblindness or Huntington's disease. Besides representing
familial characteristics in humans, pedigrees are also crucial in animals selectively bred for specific characteristics. They visually represent the ancestors of
an animal and make it easier to understand whether that animal will pass on specific characteristics to its offspring.

What does a pedigree chart look like if the characters are in real life?

Note: In a pedigree, squares symbolize males, and circles represent females. A horizontal line joining a male and female indicates that the couple had
offspring. Vertical lines indicate offspring listed left to right, in order of birth. Shading of the circle or square indicates an individual who has the trait being
traced. In this pedigree, the inheritance of the recessive trait is being traced. A is the dominant allele, and a is the recessive allele.

C. Symbols in making Pedigree

A series of symbols are used to represent different aspects of a pedigree. These are the principal symbols used when drawing a pedigree.

D. Interpreting a Pedigree Chart

1. Determine if the pedigree chart shows an autosomal or X-linked disease.
If most of the males in the pedigree are affected, the disorder is probably X-linked.
If it is a 50/50 ratio between men and women, the disorder is probably autosomal.
Example: Is it Autosomal or X-linked?
2. Determine whether the disorder is dominant or recessive.
If the disorder is dominant, one of the parents must have the disorder.
If the disorder is recessive, neither parent has to have it because they can be heterozygous.
Example: Is it Dominant or Recessive?

Let us solve the problem and draw a pedigree chart based on the given situation below:

From the modifications of Mendel's experiment, we can see that minute entities such as genes are essential in the existence of life. Matthew 13:32
stated that "It is the smallest of all seeds, but when it has grown it is larger than all the garden plants and becomes a tree so that the birds of the
air come and make nests in its branches." This biblical verse manifests that small things matter as they make a significant difference in the changes we
may encounter in our lives. It's then that we realize to appreciate the little things in life because one day, we will look back and realize they were the big
things. No matter how small things are, they always serve a particular purpose that would benefit us. They are essential because they are the basic units that
make up the whole. DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is hereditary in humans and almost all organisms. Nearly every cell in a person's body has the same
DNA. They will learn that it consists of code and information that would make up an organism and determine the uniqueness of an individual despite its size.

Each person's DNA is unique. It is possible to detect differences among individuals within a species based on these unique features. DNA analysis
has many practical applications, including identifying criminals (forensics), determining paternity, tracing genealogy, identifying pathogens, researching
archeological finds, tracking disease outbreaks, and studying human migration patterns. DNA is used in diagnostics, new vaccine development, and cancer
therapy in the medical field. It is often possible to determine predisposition to diseases by sequencing genes.
GENERALIZATION
In this second week of General Biology 2, you were able to refresh your minds about the types of Non-mendelian Genetics and how to draw and interpret a
pedigree chart.
Here are the things you need to take note for this week:
1. The inheritance of some characteristics is not as simple as those studied by Mendel in his garden pea plants. That's why geneticists usually call
them those that violate Mendel's principles. They are associated with Codominance, incomplete dominance, and multiple alleles.

2. Incomplete dominance occurs when a heterozygous individual or progeny expresses mixed (or intermediate) features. Two alleles were
inherited from both parents' code for the mixed features. Because they are still unique and separated from one another, each of the two
homozygous genotypes (refers to the parents) exhibits a distinctive phenotype.

3. Another type of inheritance is Codominance. Both alleles of a gene pair are ultimately expressed or shown in a heterozygote progeny.
Consequently, the phenotype of the offspring mixes the phenotypes of the parents. As a result, neither the characteristic is dominant nor recessive.

4. Two alleles control a particular gene pair called Multiple Alleles. As a result, the offspring display or express more than two phenotypes. The
most common example of the character determined by this inheritance is the ABO Blood Group system.

5. Pedigrees are family trees that explain your genetic history. Pedigrees are used to determine the probability of a child having a disorder in a
particular family. To begin to interpret a pedigree, determine if the disease or condition is autosomal or X-linked and dominant or recessive.

REFERENCES:
Textbooks
Rea, Maria Angelica D. et al. (2017) General Biology 2 Rex Book Store Inc.
Biology 2nd edition by Carmelita M. Capco and Gilbert Yang,
Modern Biology by Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, Copyright 2002 by A Harcourt Classroom Education Company.
Ayuste, T. (2017). General Biology. Diwa Leraning Systems, Inc.
Faltado R., Pax de leon R. (2017). General Biology 2 For Senior
High School. Lorimar Publishing, Inc. ISBN: 978-621-8035-69-0
Javier, Mark Archei O. (2017) Diwa Senior High School Series: General Biology 2. Diwa Learning System Inc.
Online References
M.A. Frizzell (2013). Incomplete Dominance. Brenner's Encyclopedia of Genetics (Second Edition). Academic Press. Pages 58-60, ISBN 9780080961569.
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-374984-0.00784-1.
Yang, J., Mezmouk, S., Baumgarten, A., Buckler, E. S., Guill, K. E., Mcmullen, M. D., . . . Ross-Ibarra, J. (2017). Incomplete dominance of deleterious alleles
contributes substantially to trait variation and heterosis in maize. PLOS Genetics, 13(9). doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1007019
Miko, I. (2008) Genetic dominance: genotype-phenotype relationships. Nature Education 1(1):140. https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/genetic-
dominance-genotype-phenotype-relationships-489/https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/genetic-dominance-genotype-phenotype-relationships-
489/
Yang, J., Mezmouk, S., Baumgarten, A., Buckler, E. S., Guill, K. E., Mcmullen, M. D., . . . Ross-Ibarra, J. (2017). Incomplete dominance of deleterious alleles
contributes substantially to trait variation and heterosis in maize. PLOS Genetics, 13(9). doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1007019
Introduction: Knowing Jesus and Knowing about Jesus. (1990). What Can We Know about Jesus?, V-Ix. doi:10.1017/cbo9780511625428.001
Pedigree (2018). CK-12 Biology For High School. https://flexbooks.ck12.org/cbook/ck-12-middle-school-life-science-
2.0/section/3.12/primary/lesson/pedigree-analysis-ms-ls/
Non-Mendelian Inheritance (2021). CK-12 Biology For High School. https://flexbooks.ck12.org/cbook/ck-12-biology-flexbook-
2.0/section/3.7/primary/lesson/non-mendelian-inheritance-bio/

-END OF LESSON-

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1/30/23, 5:46 PM GENERAL BIOLOGY 2 - S.Y. 2022-2023 - St. Basil the Great - https://usl-tuguegarao.neolms.

GENERAL BIOLOGY 2 - S.Y. 2022-2023 - St. Basil the Great

LESSON 2: NON-MENDELIAN LAWS OF INHERITANCE

To start, familiarize yourselves with the following objectives:

At the end of the lesson, you must be able to:

discuss the different modes of non- Mendelian inheritance;

I. TYPES OF NON-MENDELIAN GENETICS

which is the presence of high levels of cholesterol

brown appearance shows (RM). Roan is a combination of both red and

D. Interpreting a Pedigree Chart

Example: Is it Autosomal or X-linked?

2. Determine whether the disorder is dominant or recessive.

Example: Is it Dominant or Recessive?

Biology 2nd edition by Carmelita M. Capco and Gilbert Yang,

Ayuste, T. (2017). General Biology. Diwa Leraning Systems, Inc.

Faltado R., Pax de leon R. (2017). General Biology 2 For Senior

High School. Lorimar Publishing, Inc. ISBN: 978-621-8035-69-0

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