ANGLO-SAXON LITERATURE
Anglo-Saxon literature (or Old English literature)
encompasses literature written in Anglo-Saxon (Old English)
during the 600-year Anglo-Saxon period of Britain, from the
mid-5th century to the Norman Conquest of 1066.  historian Bede. He later became a zealous monk and
Old English literature is among the oldest vernacular
languages to be written down. Old English began, in written
form, as a practical necessity in the aftermath of the Danish
invasions—church officials were concerned that because of
the drop in Latin literacy no one could read their work.
Likewise King Alfred the Great ( 849– 899), wanting to
restore English culture, lamented the poor state of Latin
education.
King Alfred noted that while very few could read Latin, many
could still read Old English. He thus proposed that students be
educated in Old English, and those who excelled would go on
to learn Latin. In this way many of the texts that have survived
are typical teaching and student-oriented texts. In total there
are about 400 surviving manuscripts containing Old English
text, 189 of them considered major. These manuscripts have
been highly prized by collectors since the 16th century, both
for their historic value and for their aesthetic beauty of
uniformly spaced letters and decorative elements.
Works include genres such as epic poetry,  corpus. These poems are: The Fates of the
hagiography, sermons, Bible translations, legal
works, chronicles, riddles, and others. Some of the most
important works from this period include the poem Beowulf,
which has achieved national epic status in Britain. The Anglo-
Saxon Chronicle is a collection of early English history. The
poem Cædmon's Hymn from the 7th century is one of the
oldest surviving written
THE LITERARY PIECES
• Beowulf is an Old English epic poem in the tradition
of Germanic heroic legend consisting of
3,182 alliterative lines. It is one of the most important
and most often translated works of Old English
literature.
• The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle is a collection of annals
in Old English, chronicling the history of the Anglo-
Saxons. The original manuscript of the Chronicle was
created late in the 9th century, probably in Wessex,
during the reign of Alfred the Great
• CAEDMON’S HYMN The hymn is a work in praise
of God. It grabs the reader from its opening word
‘Nu’, meaning ‘Now’, making the poem feel
immediate. From there it proceeds to celebrate all of
creation in a mere nine lines. Like all Old English
verse, it uses musical alliteration. It closes,
powerfully, with the word ‘allmectig’, ‘Almighty’, in
praise of God
• The Exeter Book, also known as the Codex
Exoniensis. The Exeter Book contains poems that
deal with purely religious themes, as well as religious
allegories and topics of everyday life in Anglo-Saxon
England. The Exeter Book also contains ninety-five
riddles. Several of these poems and riddles can only
be found in the Exeter Book.
THE POETS
Most Old English poets are anonymous; twelve are
known by name from Medieval sources, but only four
of those are known by their vernacular works to us
today with any certainty: Caedmon, Bede, Alfred,
and Cynewulf.
• CAEDMON Is the earliest English poet whose name
is known.  He was originally ignorant of "the art of
song" but learned to compose one night in the course
of a dream, according to the 8th-century
an accomplished and inspirational Christian poet
• Venerable Bede, and Bede the Venerablewas an
English monk at the monastery of St Peter and its
companion monastery of St Paul in the Kingdom of
Northumbria. He was an author, teacher and scholar,
and his most famous work, Ecclesiastical History of
the English People, gained him the title "The Father
of English History."
• Cynewulf  is one of twelve Old English poets known
by name, and one of four whose work is known to
survive today. He presumably flourished in the 9th
century, with possible dates extending into the late
8th and early 10th centuries. Known for his religious
compositions, Cynewulf is regarded as one of the
pre-eminent figures of Anglo-Saxon Christian poetry.
Posterity knows of his name by means
of runic signatures that are interwoven into the four
poems which comprise his scholastically recognized
Apostles, Juliana, Elene, and Christ II (also referred
to as The
• Alfred, also spelled Aelfred, byname Alfred the
Great, (born 849—died 899), king of Wessex (871–
899), a Saxon kingdom in southwestern England. He
prevented England from falling to the Danes and
promoted learning and literacy. Compilation of the
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle began during his reign, circa
890.
• Alfred is likely the author of a code of law and the
translator of four books: Augustine, Soliloquies;
Boethius, Consolation of Philosophy Gregory the
Great, Pastoral Care; and the Psalms
FOLK POETRY
Folk poetry is poetry that is part of a society's folklore, usually
part of their oral tradition. The term can refer to poems of an
oral tradition that may date back many years; that is, it is
information that has been transmitted over
Folk poetry takes the form of poems that try to teach important
lessons in as concise a manner as possible. These poems are
meant for entertainment as well as education, so they use
simple language and concrete images rather than obscure
metaphors and literary devices.
CAESURA AND KENNINGS
One such pause is known as “caesura,” which is a rhythmical
pause in a poetic line or a sentence. It often occurs in the
middle of a line, or sometimes at the beginning and the end. At
times, it occurs with punctuation; at other times it does not.
FUNCTION OF CAESURA
A caesural break creates various effects, depending upon the
way it is used. Sometimes it breaks the monotonous rhythm of
a line and forces readers to focus on the meaning of the phrase
preceding the caesura. In some other cases, it might create a
dramatic or ominous effect. Normally, it happens in the
middle of a sentence, or phrase in poetry. It also adds an
emotional and theatrical touch to a line, and helps convey
depth of the sentiments.
TYPES OF CAESURA
Feminine Caesura
A feminine caesural pause occurs after a non-stressed and
short syllable in a poetic line. This is softer and less abrupt
than the masculine version. For instance:
“I hear lake water lapping || with low sounds by the shore…”
(The Lake Isle of Innisfree by William Butler Yeats)
Masculine Caesura
Masculine pause occurs after a long or accented syllable in a
line. It creates a staccato effect in the poem, such as:
“of reeds and stalk-crickets, || fiddling the dank air,
lacing his boots with vines, || steering glazed beetles”
(The Bounty by Derek Walcott)
The poem “Beowulf” has a caesura in almost every line. In
fact, because the caesura was one of the fundamental features
of Old English poetry, almost all poems written in that
language have numerous examples of caesurae.
EXAMPLES OF CAESURA IN BEOWULF:
“Asleep from their feasting, insensible to pain”
KENNINGS
A kenning is a figure of speech in which two words are
combined in order to form a poetic expression that refers to a
person or a thing.
Kennings are found most commonly in Old English and
Norse poetry. They typically consist of two nouns that are
joined by a hyphen, forming a compound that stands in for
another noun, known as the "referent."
The two words that make up a kenning are called the "base
word" and the "determinant":
• The base word stands-in for the referent, and shares a
metaphoric (though not always immediately evident)
similarity with the referent.
• The determinant modifies the meaning of the base
word, much like an adjective modifies a noun, to help
reveal the base word's connection to the referent.
So in the kenning "whale-road," the noun "road" is the base-
word, since it stands-in for the referent (the sea). The
similarity they share is that both are expanses that offer a
means of travel. The noun "whale" is the determinant, because
it modifies the noun "road" by describing the type of road: in
this case, a road for whales.
Kennings in "Beowulf"
Kennings are used prolifically throughout Beowulf, one of the
oldest surviving works of literature in Old English. In this
passage, the compound phrase "battle-sweat" is used as a
kenning for blood.
..bright blade, when the blood gushed o’er it,
battle-sweat hot; but the hilt I brought back
from my foes
And here, "sea-cloth" is used to refer to a sail.
A sea-cloth was set, a sail with ropes,
firm to the mast; the flood-timbers moaned;
FUNCTION OF KENNINGS
These hyphenated words and short phrases give a unique
description of everyday things. They enhance language, use
words in a unique way, add action and color to our
imagination, and give us a better understanding of the scene.
BEOWULF
Who Wrote Beowulf?
 Beowulf is an Old English epic poem, a long
narrative poem that tells the story of a heroic person
or group. Although it is a well-known work of Old
English literature, very little is known about the
author of the poem. However, scholars have several
theories about the origins of Beowulf.
 Modern scholars believe Beowulf was first written by
a scop, or Old English poet. The word scop is derived
from an Old Norse word referring to a bard, or
someone who mocks or jokes through storytelling.
The person who wrote Beowulf didn't sign his or her
work, so scholars refer to this person as the Beowulf
Poet.
 The protagonist of the epic, Beowulf is a Geatish
hero who fights the monster Grendel, Grendel’s
mother, and a fire-breathing dragon. Beowulf’s
boasts and encounters reveal him to be the strongest,
ablest warrior around. In his youth, he personifies all
of the best values of the heroic culture. In his old age,
he proves a wise and effective ruler.
 The king of the Danes. Hrothgar enjoys military
success and prosperity until Grendel terrorizes his
realm. A wise and aged ruler, Hrothgar represents a
different kind of leadership from that exhibited by the
youthful warrior Beowulf. He is a father figure to
Beowulf and a model for the kind of king that
Beowulf becomes.
 A demon descended from Cain, Grendel preys on
Hrothgar’s warriors in the king’s mead-hall, Heorot.
Because his ruthless and miserable existence is part
of the retribution exacted by God for Cain’s murder
of Abel, Grendel fits solidly within the ethos of
vengeance that governs the world of the poem.
 An unnamed swamp-hag, Grendel’s mother seems to
possess fewer human qualities than Grendel, although
her terrorization of Heorot is explained by her desire
for vengeance—a human motivation.
 DRAGON An ancient, powerful serpent, the dragon
guards a horde of treasure in a hidden mound.
Beowulf’s fight with the dragon constitutes the third
and final part of the epic.
 A Danish warrior who is jealous of Beowulf, Unferth
is unable or unwilling to fight Grendel, thus proving
himself inferior to Beowulf.
 Aeschere Hrothgar’s trusted adviser
 A young kinsman and retainer of Beowulf who helps
him in the fight against the dragon while all of the
other warriors run away. Wiglaf adheres to the heroic
code better than Beowulf’s other retainers, thereby
proving himself a suitable successor to Beowulf.
Settings
Geatland- Beowulf’s homeland where he became king.
Heorot- mead-hall where it serves as a seat of rule for
King Hrothgar.
Lake where Grendel’s mother and Beowulf fought
Dragon’s Cave
THEME: The poem of Beowulf acts as a code of conduct.
It contains moral instructions which were a representation
of the Anglo-Saxon culture at that time. No one knows who
the author of the poem is, but what lies between the lines
are the themes of bravery, honor, and loyalty. The message
is clear in this poem. Just like Beowulf, it is better to die
young with honor and dignity rather than to grow old with
but live a cowardly life in which you neglect your
responsibilities
 Metrical Tales and Romances
• The Canterbury Tales
• King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table
Discussants:
Cabato, Micah N.
Bermudo, Ruby Jean R.
WHAT IS METRICAL TALE?
- A Metrical Tale is a type of poem which follows
a narrative format; featuring characters, a plot, setting
and a theme.
- This kind of compositions conveys practical,
apparent and straightforward storylines of either real
or fictional event.
- “The Canterbury Tales” is a great example of metrical
tale.
CHARACTERISTICS OF METRICAL TALE
• A narrative poem told by known author with characters,
setting, plot and theme.
• Told/written in first person.
• It deals with any emotion or phase of life and its story is told
in a simple, straightforward, and realistic manner.
• The characters are ordinary people, concerned with ordinary
events.
• It has simple structure
• Metrical Tale is written in number of verses
WHAT IS METRICAL ROMANCES?
- Metrical romance is a type of narrative poem that
deals with the story of adventure, love, chivalry, and
deeds of derring-do. It is also called Chivalric poems.
- Contains element of mystery and the supernatural.
From the Middle Ages until the 19th century, this was
a popular form of entertainment.
CHARACTERISTICS OF METRICAL ROMANCES
• Dominant poetic form among the loyalty, nobility, and
wealthy landowners during the Renaissance Period.
• Chivalry, love and supernatural creatures like fairies, dragons
and wizards are the dominant themes.
• If a Metrical Tale is simply a story in verse, Metrical
romance is heroic story in verse.
• Focuses on the 'hero' of the story and his/her excellent moral
character.
KING ARTHUR AND THE KNIGHTS OF THE ROUND
TABLE
By Thomas Malory, who was an English writer, the author or
compiler of Le Morte d'Arthur.
CHARACTERS
• King Arthur - son of Late King Uther Pendragon
• Merlin - a wise wizard/magician
- valuable adviser of Arthur
• Guinevere - wife of King Arthur
- acts as moral compass for the knights
• Morgana Le Fay - Arthur’s half sister
- threatens Camelot and Arthur with sorcery
• Mordred - was the illegitimate son of King Arthur and his
half-sister Morgause
SETTING
CAMELOT - was a mythical castled city, said to be located in
Great Britain, where King Arthur held court.
THEME
love, betrayal, heroism and loss
EXPOSITION
Arthur, son of the Late King Uther Pendragon, pulls a sword
from a stone. This act proves that he is the rightful king of
England. At sixteen, Arthur is crowned king and Merlin
becomes one of his most valuable advisers.
CONFLICT
Arthur's half-sister, Morgana Le Fay, threatens Camelot and
Arthur with sorcery. After facing many battles to protect his
throne, Arthur must defend his throne and prove that he is
worthy of leading Camelot and England. He battles all of the
would-be kings and nearly falls, but for the aid of Merlin’s
magic. Morgana’s evil works against Arthur in the battles, but
Merlin is more powerful.
RISING ACTION
King Arthur institutes the Knights of the Round Table after
marrying Guinevere. Only the most worthy of knights may sit
at the enormous table created by Merlin. Sir Lancelot becomes
one of the mightiest champions for Queen Guinevere. Also,
Arthur and Guinevere foster Mordred, the son of Arthur and
his half-sister Morgana Le Fay.
CLIMAX
Morgana tells Mordred that Arthur is his father and that
Mordred is heir to the Camelot throne. Morgana poisons his
mind against his father. Mordred begins to conjure up ways to
destroy Arthur and claim the throne for himself. Mordred and
Morgana plan to strike while many of the knights are on a
quest for the Holy Grail.
FALLING ACTION
Mordred is able to prove that Lancelot and Guinevere are
having an affair. Arthur is heartbroken. Guinevere is sentenced
to burn at the stake, but is saved by Lancelot.
RESOLUTION
Mordred and Arthur wind up in a vicious battle. Though
Arthur succeeds at killing Mordred and foiling Morgana’s
plan, Arthur, too, is mortally wounded and so ends the fairy-
tale existence of Camelot, Arthur and his Knights of the
Round Table.

Anglo-French Medieval English Literature
Anglo-Norman literature, also called Norman-french
Literature, or Anglo-french Literature, body of writings in the
Old French language as used in medieval England. Though
this dialect had been introduced to English court circles in
Edward the Confessor’s time, its history really began with
the Norman Conquest in 1066
The Anglo-Norman or Middle English Period (1066-1500 AD)
The Norman conquest began a new era in the history of
England literature. They brought with them their rich French
culture and language. The literature of this period comes under
the category of Norman-French literature or Anglo-French
literature. Since the Anglo-Norman period belonged to the
Middle Ages or Medieval times in Britain History, we also call
it the Middle English period in the history of English
literature.
 Changes in English culture, law, language,
and character are brought.
 English language are for the poor and
powerless.
 Norman-French the language of the rich.
 Symbol of social status and prestige.
 Anglo-Normans wrote mainly to cater to the
taste of Norman rulers.
 The monarchs and courtiers of that time had
a right to encourage the literary writings.
The Norman Conquest stimulated the awakening of the
people, who extremely needed an outside stimulus at that time.
Soon the people got influenced by a new vision and ultimately
united in a common hope. As a result, the Anglo-Saxons’
hostility towards the Normans also turned into national unity.
The Normans brought with them their soldiers, artisans,
traders, chroniclers, minstrels, and scholars. With their help,
they wanted to revive knowledge, record memorable events,
celebrate victories, and sing of love and adventure. In addition,
the most popular forms of writing for the Anglo-Normans
were chronicles, religious and didactic writing, poetry,
romances and drama.
Popular form of writings:
The Romances of Anglo-Norman Period
 Introduced romantic tales of love and adventure in
literature.
 Romance became the most popular form of literature.
 These romances were famous for their stories rather
than poetry. Most of them, in fact, had their origin in
Latin and French sources. They told the stories of :
 King Arthur, and
 The mythical doings of Charlemagne
Chronicles in the Anglo-Norman Period
These chronicles became the major source of historical
knowledge for medieval people. Contained historical events,
and legendary material without any interpretation or comment
by the author.
Example:
Layamon's Brut or Lazamon's Brut (c.1200) also
known as The Chronicle of Britain, is a Middle English poem
compiled and recast by the English priest Layamon.
Layamon's Brut is 16,096 lines long and narrates the history of
Britain. It is the first historiography written in English since
the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.
The Mystery and Miracle Plays
Another remarkable achievement of the Middle English
Period, however, was religious or didactic writings.
The Mystery plays were based on subjects taken from
the Bible.
Miracle plays depicted the lives of saints. Since only
the clergymen of the church had the authority to write and
perform these plays, they chose Latin as the medium of
writing and performing these plays.
Examples:
Mystère d’Adam
La Seinte Resureccion 
There were a few religious allegories, the most
important, the “Castle of Love”, being the oldest in French.
The Morality Plays
Morality plays also became very popular. Allegory was, in
fact, the main streak of these plays.
 In the Morality plays characters were personified
abstractions presenting the conflict in the human soul.
 The sole purpose of these plays was to instruct the
people through the Bible, lives of saints, and the
conflict between good and evil.
The action of the morality play centers on a hero, such as
Mankind, whose inherent weaknesses are assaulted by such
personified diabolic forces as the Seven Deadly Sins but who
may choose redemption and enlist the aid of such figures as
the Four Daughters of God (Mercy, Justice, Temperance, and
Truth).
Characteristics of Anglo-French Medieval English Literature
• Impersonality/Anonymity
• Derivative Stories
• Religiosity
• Oral Quality
• Courtly Love
• Chivalry
• Romance
• Infra-Literary
The Anglo-Norman Poets
 William Langland (1332-1386) One of the notable
poets of the Middle Ages, William Langland emerged
in the 14th century. He held a significant place in the
history of English literature and wrote many
important poems.
 John Gower John Gower  (1330-October 1408)also
occupied a significant place in the development of
English poetry of the Medieval period. He wrote
around the 14th or 15th century bringing about the
poems that represented the English culmination of
courtly medieval poetry. His poems, indeed, proved
that English can compete with the other languages
that had distinguished themselves in poetry. Gower
was mainly a narrative poet and a moralist.
 John Gower ‘Confession Amantis’ written in the
form of conversation between the divine interpreter
and the poet. Like Chaucer, John Gower also played a
significant role in developing English language as a
 thoroughly equipped medium of literature. Written in
Middle English, the ''Confessio Amantis'' is a long
poem (33,000 lines long, to be precise). As the name
implies, the poem details the confession of Amans,
the Lover. He confesses his sins against love to the
chaplain of Venus. The Lover's confession is spread
out over the course of eight books, which are filled
with other narratives, including tales drawn from
stories as varied as Ovid's Metamorphoses and the
Bible. The eight books that make up the ''Confession''
are framed on either side by a prologue and an
epilogue, which Gower uses mostly to comment on
the politics of the time.
 Dante Alighieri
Born: 1265, Florence, Italy
Died: September 14, 1321, Ravenna, Italy
Baptized Durante di Alighiero degli Alighieri and
often referred to as Dante, was an Italian poet, writer
and philosopher. 
Best known for his masterpiece La
Commedia (known in English as The Divine
Comedy), which is universally considered one of
world literature's greatest poems.
It became, by medieval standards, a bestseller, 150 years
before the invention of the first modern printing press. His
account of adventures is sometimes a little dull and slow-
moving, but is a valuable insight into the medieval world
Chaucer’s significance in the development of English
literature is remarkable as he shifted poetry from the
region of Theology and Metaphysics to the old classical
principle of the direct imitation of nature. After Chaucer
there came a decline in English poetry for about 100
years. The period from 1400 to the Renaissance was
bereft of quality literature. The poets of that time period
produced little work and merely imitated Chaucer and his
contemporaries. Although the beginning of the Anglo-
Norman Period is obvious, historians differ on when this
period ended. Some historians say that it ended in 1144 or
1066, while for others it lasted up to 1450 or 1500. The
Norman Conquest of England had, in fact, a profound
effect in introducing various changes in the history of
English literature. ‘The Age of Chaucer was followed by
The Renaissance Period also known as the Elizabethan
Period or the Age of Shakespeare in the history of English
literature.

Dante, The Divine Comedy Composed in the early

fourteenth century, Dante’s Divine Comedy is a
trilogy of poems charting the poet’s journey from hell
(Inferno) through Purgatory (Purgatorio) to heaven
(Paradiso)

The Divine Comedy presents an encyclopedic

overview of the mores, attitudes, beliefs,
philosophies, and aspirations, as well as the material
aspects of the medieval world. More than a summa of
medieval life, however, Dante's poem is a superb
work of fiction with poignant dramatic episodes and
unforgettable characters. The eminent poet and
essayist Jorge Luis Borges has recognized the
relevance of The Divine Comedy for modern readers,
asserting that it “is a book that everyone ought to
read. Not to do so is to deprive oneself of the greatest
gift that literature can give us; to submit to a strange
asceticism

Age of Chaucer (1343-1450)

• Known as the ‘Father of English literature’ or,

alternatively, the “Father of English Poetry”
• An English poet, author, and civil servant
• Chaucer’s most significant work is Canterbury Tales.
• A landmark in the history of English poetry,
Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales enriched the English
language and meter to an extent that could be
conveniently used for any purpose.
• The Book of the Duchess, The Legend of Good
Women and The Parliament of Fowls, as well as
Troilus and Criseyde, Translated the Consolation of
Philosophy.
• A collection of stories held together by a framing
device (the story of the pilgrimage)
• Twenty-four stories that runs to over 17,000 lines

Marco Polo, Travels

Marco Polo, was an Italian traveller who was born in

1254. He dictated stories of his travels throughout Europe
and Asia to a cellmate after he was imprisoned during a
war between Venice and Genoa, and the Travels was born.
The Restoration and the 18th Century Literature
PURITAN PERIOD
1. A member of a group of English Protestants who in
the 16th and 17th centuries advocated strict religious
discipline along with simplification of the ceremonies
and creeds of the Church of England.
2. Puritan One who lives in accordance with Protestant
precepts, especially one who regards pleasure or
luxury as sinful.
Main belief of Puritans
Puritans believed that it was necessary to be in a covenant
relationship with God in order to be redeemed from one's
sinful condition.
PURITAN LITERATURE
They produced a significant collection of literature themselves
in three main genres:
• Sermons - Puritan ministers most commonly used
exegesis to preach on passages of scripture. Their
sermons were extensively prepared and memorized,
and lasted for roughly an hour in length.
• Diaries - Puritans used personal diaries to record the
ways in which God was present in their lives and
their personal struggles carrying out His purposes.
• Poetry - Puritans were not well known for their
poetry.
• Edward Taylor wrote his own poetry in preparation
for weekly Sunday sermons. His poetry demonstrates
deep compassion and submission to the Lord on a
very personal level. Some of Taylor's poetry includes
"Psalm Two", "Huswifery", "Upon a Wasp
Chilled with Cold", and "Meditation 26”.
• In addition to the preparation poetry seen by Edward
Taylor, the Puritan woman Anne Bradstreet wrote
dense poetry of her own. She spoke in a deeply
personal manner distant from the general
understanding of the role of Puritan women. She used
poetry as a mode of demonstrating her love for
family, husband, and God. Her poems include "The
Prologue", "To My Dear and Loving Husband",
and "Contemplations"
Key characteristics of Puritan Literature
• the use of the First-Person Point of View
• a focus on religious themes such as predestination
• a simple writing style
• incorporation of many Biblical allusions
THE STAGES OF PURITAN PERIOD
NEOCLASSICAL PERIOD
• The term neo means new while classical refers to
the Roman and Greek classics, hence the name is
aptly coined as neoclassical. Neoclassical literature
emulated the Greek and Roman styles of writing.
• The neoclassical period of literature is also known
as the Enlightenment Period.
• The neoclassical era is nestled between the
renaissance and romantic periods of literature.
Though this period lasted only for around 150
years, its influence can be seen in the literature of
today.
• Neoclassical literature was defined by common
sense, order, accuracy, and structure.
• Many literary works came out during this period,
which included parody, fables, melodrama,
rhyming with couplets, satire, letters, diaries,
novels, and essays.
Stages of the Neoclassical Era
THE RESTORATION PERIOD
The first period in the Neoclassical Period was the
Restoration Period. The name comes from the
restoration of the monarchy after the return of
Charles II after Oliver Cromwell's Commonwealth.
Artists of this time first looked back to the old Greek
and Roman plays and works and emulated their
general style. These works followed the same basic
guidelines but relied far more on satire. The
Restoration was an age of poetry. Odes and pastorals
also became popular in this period. Writing genres like
travel writing, the biography, and journalism took on
greater importance.
THE AUGUSTAN PERIOD
The Augustan Period was named after the Roman
emperor Augustus. The name gives credit to his drive
to bring order and prosperity to the Roman Empire.
In a similar way, artists of this period embraced
rationalist and realistic styles and a more dominant
tone. Fiction novels and journalism developed into
forms similar to their modern counterparts and satire
became a major genre. Writing also started to move
away from the courtly writing of the past and began to
move towards a more emotional and romantic style.
THE AGE OF JOHNSON

The Age of Johnson is named after Samuel Johnson,

one of the most prominent artists during this time. He
wrote The Dictionary of the English Language
between 1745 and 1755. The main elements that
characterized this era were balance, reason and
intellect. There was greater concentration in a type of
folkloric and popular literature. The novel of
sensibility, a work that touches a reader's compassion
or sympathy, also grew during this time and would be
the precursor to the gothic novels of the 19th century.

Neoclassical Writers and their Works

John Milton (1608 – 1674)- an English poet,

pamphleteer, and historian, considered the most
significant English author after William Shakespeare.

He is known for writing Paradise Lost, widely

regarded as the greatest epic poem in English.
Together with Paradise Regained, it formed his
reputation as one of the greatest English writers.
During his period of private study, Milton composed a
number of poems, including “On the Morning of
Christ’s Nativity,” “On Shakespeare,” and the
pastoral elegy “Lycidas.”

John Dryden (1631 – 1700)- an English poet, literary

critic, translator, and playwright. He largely
dominated the literary world of Restoration England
and became England’s first Poet Laureate in 1668.
Dryden is credited with establishing the heroic couplet
as a standard form of English poetry by writing
successful satires, religious pieces, fables, epigrams,
compliments, prologues, and plays with it.

He wrote the greatest heroic play of the century, The

Conquest of Granada (1670, 1671), and the greatest
tragicomedy, Marriage A-la-Mode (1671), and the
greatest tragedy of the Restoration, All for Love
(1677).

Alexander Pope (1688 – 1744)- an English poet and

satirist during the Restoration. Alexander Pope’s
literary career began in 1704 and he first attracted
public attention in 1709 with his Pastorals. By this
time, Pope was already at work on his more ambitious
Essay on Criticism (1711) designed to create a rebirth
of the contemporary literary scene. His next work, The
Rape of the Lock (1712) secured his reputation as a
poet.

Pope’s translations of Homer (c. 700 B.C.E. ) were his

greatest achievements as a translator. His translation
of Homer’s Iliad was published in six volumes from
1715 to 1720; a translation of the Odyssey followed.
ENGLISH RENAISSANCE/
ELIZABETHAN PERIOD LITERATURE
The Elizabethan Era commenced with the reign of
Elizabeth I as the Queen of England in 1558 until her
death in 1603. She was the daughter of Henry VIII.
She became the Queen of England at the age of 25.
The dark Middle Ages were followed by a time known
in art and literature as the Renaissance.
The word “Renaissance” means “rebirth” or “revival”.
William Shakespeare
William Shakespeare was undoubtedly the greatest
writer that emerged in the Elizabethan era.
-was an English playwright, poet and actor.
-regarded as the greatest writer in the English
language and the world’s pre-eminent dramatist.
-often called as England’s national poet and the “Bard
of Avon”.

Elizabethan age is often called the Golden Age of SHAKESPEAREAN SONNETS

England, because different arts, such as music,
painting, literature began to flourish.
It marked a new step in the cultural development in
Europe in the 15th - 17th centuries. First it started in
Italy. People got interested in the ancient culture of
Greece and Rome. They began to study the works of
the philosophers, artists and writers of the ancient
times
The Renaissance produced great artists such as
Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci. Helped by the
invention of printing, the Renaissance gradually
spread from the Italy to the rest of Europe
Elizabeth’s court became a center of culture for
English poets, musicians, scholars and artists. The best
representatives of the English Renaissance are Thomas
More, Edmund Spenser and Christopher Marlowe.
But the famous of them is William Shakespeare.
The ideas of Humanism were best expressed by
English humanist Thomas More. He wrote a book in
which he described an ideal nation. The book was
called “Utopia”.
The other representatives of the Renaissance were
Edmund Spenser and Christopher Marlowe.
Spenser praised Queen Elizabeth in his great poem
“The Shepherd’s Calendar”. This poem was written in
12 books, one for each month of the year. They are
arranged in the form of a discussion. The English
accepted the book as the beginning of a great literary
age.
A Shakespearean sonnet is one of the best-known
sonnet forms. Along with the Petrarchan sonnet, it is
the most popular to this day. It is sometimes referred
to as “Elizabethan” or “English,” but since
Shakespeare used to with so much success in his
154 sonnet published after his death, it has become
synonymous with his name. 
• Shakespearean sonnets feature the following
elements They are fourteen lines long.
• The fourteen lines are divided into four
subgroups.
• The first three subgroups have four lines each,
which makes them “quatrains,” with the second
and fourth lines of each group containing rhyming
words.
• The sonnet then concludes with a two-line
subgroup, and these two lines rhyme with each
other.
• There are typically ten syllables per line.
Structure of A SHAKESPEAREAN SONNET
A Shakespearean sonnet employs the following rhyme
scheme across its fourteen lines—which, again, are
broken up into three quatrains plus a two-line coda:
ABAB CDCD EFEF GG
SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA:
Romeo and Juliet

In those times, comedies and tragedies began to “WILLIAM SHAKESPEAR”

appear. Drama was born. Drama was the main literary
glory of the great Elizabethan Age. -English playwright.
-1564-1616
-wrote 37 plays
The name of Christopher Marlowe is worth -wrote 154 sonnets
mentioning while speaking about Elizabethan Drama. -best known for his plays, although he was also an

His principal works are: “Doctor Faustus”, where he

described the power of Knowledge, “The Jew of
Malta” about the tale of violent conflict between
Christians, Jews and Turks. accomplished poet and actor Themes

But the greatest representative of the Renaissance was

• Greed
William Shakespeare.
• Loyalty
• Power
• Revenge
• Love
Genres
• Tragedy
-Romeo and Juliet
- Hamlet
- Macbeth
• Comedy
- Much Ado About Nothing
- The Merchant of Venice
 History
- Henry V
- Richard III
-