A STUDY OP ORIGINAL AUDIO-VISUAL AIDS USED IN

GENERAL BUSINESS FIELD TRIPS ON THE

SECONDARY LEVEL IN EL CENTRO, CALIFORNIA

A Project
Presented to
the Faculty of the School of Education
The University of Southern California

In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree
Master of Science in Education

by
Joseph Viera Cardoza, Jr
August 1950
 UMI Number: EP46220

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'5“/ C 3-<» Pr*y'.

T h is project report, w ritte n under the direction
o f the candidate's adviser a n d ap p ro ved by him ,
has been presented to and accepted by the F a c u lty
o f the School o f E d u catio n in p a r t ia l f u lf illm e n t of
the requirements f o r the degree of M a s t e r of
Science in E ducation.

D ate ...... /..‘m.-sFT.C?.

X $ * l A r * A r . p
A d v is e r

Dean
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE
I. THE PROBLEM AND ITS JUSTIFICATION.............. 1
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . 1
‘ Statement of the problem. . . . . . . . . . . b
Importance of the problem . * • • • ........ 5
Scope of the problem. ......... 7
The writer’s background for attacking the
problem 8

Justification for a general business class

which uses effective audio-visual aids. . . 12

II. HISTORY OF NEED AND SURVEY OF RELATED MATERIAL. . 18

History of need for audio-visual materials. . 18
Survey of related information . . . . . . . . 21
III. LIMITING FACTORS IN SEGREGATING, DISCOVERING,
UNDERSTANDING, CREATING, AND USING AUDIO-VISUAL
DEVICES........................................ 29
Check sheet for evaluating films.............. 3*+
Evaluation of audio-visual aids in general
business and subsequent field trips . . . . *+1

IV. IMPORTANCE OF USING THE BEST MEDIA............ . *f6

System— its function in classifying and using
audio-visual aids ........... **6

The selection of audio-visual material to meet

need of class and individuals . . . . . . . 50

iii
 iv
CHAPTER . PAGE
Audio-visual aids which are adopted for use
in classes of general business . . . • • • 52
Telephone services and what they mean to the
general business class . . . . . . . . . . 53
Plan an outline, ............ . ......... 53
Activities ......... . .... $k-
Have a wholesome attitude. . . . . . . . . . 55
V. AUDIO-VISUAL AIDS, VISUAL SYMBOLS, AMD CARTOONS
AS MOTIVATING DEVICES IN THE GENERAL BUSINESS
CLASSROOM........... ..................... 59
Importance of using the best media . . . . . 60
VI. SELECTIVE EXAMPLES OF ORIGINAL CARTOONS. . . . . ?S
VII. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS.................... 95
Are school-made materials desirable? . . . . 95
Conclusions............. ................. 99
BIBLIOGRAPHY. ........... 105
 ILLUSTRATIONS

A* Cartoon Posters on Driver Selection

POSTER PAGE
1. Storm Ahead .........................• 70
2. How Do I Start. ............................. 71
3. Application Blanks......... 72
*+. ’’Nothing Ventured— ”. ................... 73
5. You’re Not Alone. ........... 7b
6. What You Do Now ....................... 75
7. Employers . . . . . . . . . .... 76
8. Eager Beaver. ................... . 77

B. Flash Cards

Flash Card No. 1. . ............................. 79

Flash Card No. 2................................... 80
Flash Card No..3 ................................... 8l
Flash Card No............................ 82

C. Stick Drawings

DRAWING
1. Figure Proportions. ................... 91
:2. Rule 1 ........... 92
3. Rule 2.................................... 93
b, Rules 3> *+? 5> and 6 . ........... 9^

v
 D. Ideas for Glass Slides

SLIDE PAGE
1. The American Triangle 102
2. Individual Responsibilities 103
 CHAPTER I

THE PROBLEM, AND ITS JUSTIFICATION

Introduction. “Primarily the abolition of economic

illiteracy among all groups is a question of seeing relation-
1
ships.“
It is clearly impossible for the secondary school to
furnish specific training for the many vocational occupa­
tions requiring courses in general business training and
consumer economics.
Neither bank clerks nor any other business workers
need to know all the details concerning the federal reserve
system, but an awareness of the relationship of the system to
banking as a whole would be included on a list of essentials
by most bank employers. This principle of understanding
individual relationships with a system as a whole applies to
the average citizen in any walk of life.
Transfer of most.skills to specific job situations is
difficult. Nevertheless, a limited amount of marginal voca­
tional utility can be found in general business courses,
particularly when they are taught by teachers with broad
experiences in the various skills and knowledges of the

1 H. G. Shields, “The Abolition of Economic Illiter-

acy,“ The Journal of the National Education Association.
Vol. XX, No. 9 ("December, 1938), 3 1 ^

1
 2
course. These teachers most often present the material of
the general business courses in a realistic fashion, supply­
ing actual business forms, checkbooks, et cetera, to their
classes. The resourceful teacher cannot stop at this point,
however, for it is impossible to have every student exposed
to a direct purposeful experience with all new educational
material.
Audio-visual aids drastically reduce motivation and
transfer problems if they are personalized and based upon
direct experiences. Audio-visual aids and devices work har­
moniously with stimulating field trips. When employed in an
interesting manner both media reduce motivational problems,
often anticipating interests in many possible follow-up
activities.
The general business classes in our schools today are
helping to produce thousands of successful business men and
women, but these courses often do not give adequate prepara­
tion for purposeful business experience while the student is
still in high school. A person may have taken a field trip
that bore no real relationship with what he was studying.
He may have been exposed to motion pictures that were unre­
lated to the rest of his program thereby confusing him. To
condense the problem, his direct purposeful experiences were
the foundation upon which he based his indirect experiences.
In other words, the vital foundations upon which his later
business knowledge was to be erected oftentimes needed the
skilled hand of an informed counselor or teacher. It becomes
evident that school training programs need guidance in the
introduction of business principles.
The teacher has the responsibility of guiding the
experiences of students, but he must not do their thinking
for them. Life is too short to learn all of it on a partici­
pating level. One can learn by observing others do certain
tasks. Large classes usually resort to field trips where
whole groups may view certain processes in action. This type
of educational experience always needs teacher guidance, A
field trip is a planned visit to a point outside the regular
classroom. It may be to a place inside or outside the school
building. The chief difference between the field trip and
other educational experiences is that the students get their
experiences in the field, not in the classrooms. It is a
way of incorporating the theory of the classroom to the prac­
tice of life itself.
Realizing the terrific demand for inspiring guidance
without the restrictions of rote learning, we turn to those
devices designed primarily to help the student find his own
interests out of the numerous physical segments of business
life we find in modern society. The optimum goal being, of
course, a liberal knowledge of all the segments of business
opportunities with specialization upon some well-chosen
activity within the whole.
The possibilities of motivated instruction presum­
ably can never be fully measured. The knowledge that physi­
cal things of themselves are helpless without man’s visions
and attitudes should be passed along to the student without
the benefit of hard knocks. The consciousness that one is
acquiring meanings and abilities which are widely applicable
in learning and living is what creates a frame of mind favor­
able to transfer.
Certainly, field trips and audio-visual aids and
devices go hand in hand. Their objectives are constant appli­
cation of principles to specific situations that the student
meets in life.
Gates and Jersild have the following to say about
transfer of training:
First, it must bring the student to understand
as many widely useful relationships, principles,
or generalizations as possible; second, it must
whet the student’s realization that his previous
training has wide possibilities for transfer, but
that transfer is never automatic. It must bring
a realization that transfer comes only if and
when one senses for one’s self that transfer is
possible.2

Statement of the problem. The purposes of this study

were threefold: Cl) to discover the motivating audio-visual

2 Arthur J. Gates and Arthur T. Jersild, Educational

Psychology (New York: The Macmillan Company, 19^2) , p. 530.
aids which have been used in general business classes on the
secondary level; (2 ) to present other motivating, audio-visual
aids which may prove effective in the organization of general
business field trips; and finally, (3 ) to present original
audio-visual material which has been constructed by the
writer for use in well-planned field trips and their follow-
up discussions. The original material in the study was done
in a simplifified form, developed with the aim in mind of
providing aids which simplify study experiences for both the
student observers and the classroom teacher.

Importance of the problem. Planning in advance is of

extreme importance in field trip activity. To respond
actively to something, a person must be interested in the
article or process. Audio-visual aids can be used to moti­
vate a field trip and influence attitudes. Many possibili-
ties including teacher-made aids and devices are being V /
overlooked or used ineffectively. Examples of possible
teacher-created devices and. aids should be of much value in
motivating students when commercial aids on specific units
of study are not available.
Audio-visual aids are basically a means for the trans­
ference of thought; as such, they are subject to all the
rules governing the transference of thought that have been
discovered^ or evolved in the teaching of business materials.
Any plan for the creation of an original audio-visual device
 6
should first be checked against a list of criteria provided
by present-day experts in the field.
Those who would design, develop, or produce audio­
visual aids must profit by the rules governing thought
transference. Ignoring the rules which govern thought
transference can only lead to deficiencies in the aids pre­
sented. For example, symbols used in a poster as abbrevia­
tions must be understood by the students or they become as
useless as Egyptian hieroglyphics in a class of bookkeeping.
The designer or user of an effective audio-visual aid
must understand certain basic relationships. The subjects
and the relationships which must be understood include the
following:
(1) The exact information that the aid is desired
to convey.
(2) The conditions under which this information
is to be conveyed.
(3) The average or minimum intelligence, preparation,
and background of the students.
(^) The status of the function of the teaching aid
with respect to what has gone before and what
folloitfs in the course of instruction.
This study was based upon the needs, selection,
application, useability, and effects of various audio-visual
materials as applied to specific situations in conducted
field trips in general business classes on the secondary
school level#

Scope of the problem. There are a multitude of audio­

visual aids, classroom situations, and available field trips,
and it would be futile to undertake problems concerning the
whole field. Therefore, under the circumstances the writer
endeavored to develop those non-commercial, teacher-made
audio-visual materials which may be utilized to produce
optimum results in general business classes on the secondary
level.
The study was limited to the framework provided by
the four fundamental principles already listed. The purpose
of the study was to alert the students1 patterns of response
to different general business activities and principles.
The amount of facts that can be learned on a field trip is
endless. Because of this, the teacher and the pupils should
work out ahead of time the key ideas they are going to
explore. Since individual interests are so diversified,
audio-visual aids and devices may help the student find the
topic he is particularly interested in before the actual
field trip is encountered. If this objective is accomplished,
pre-field trip planning can closely relate the school and the
C-,-

community in a number of points such as health, recreation,

vocational guidance, individual skills, and conservation of
natural resources. It is not the objective to have the stu­
dent concentrate upon one central point alone, but to bring
his particular talent or interest to bear in class discus­
sions both before and after the actual field trip. If this
goal is accomplished, the classroom may be taken into the
community and the community brought back into the classroom.
It was not the purpose of this study to justify audio­
visual materials, nor to expurgate these materials as to
their dangers and technical difficulties. It was assumed
that most teachers rarely lose sight of the over-all objec­
tive of using teaching devices— that of making the learning
experience of the pupils more meaningful and thus better
remembered.
If the teacher is equipped to use correctly audio­
visual tools, he will find himself thinking of new applica­
tions and new techniques.

The writer's background for attacking the problem.

Although there has been considerable effective work done in
the audio-visual field, there are frequent gaps which need
more attention, research, and application. The writer, dur­
ing the past school year, conducted a class in General
Business In El Centro Union High School. The class embarked
upon numerous field trips during the year. The community of
El Centro and Imperial Valley has many problems, the solution
 9
of which may be expedited by field trip experiences.
Because of its topography, location, industry, importance,
and particular climate, the student is often confused by
stories circulated by the transient population. V/hen the
student who was a permanent resident visited the various
business organizations and industries it generally did much
to allay his fears concerning his selection of a vocation
which he felt met his particular needs. It also provided an
excellent opportunity for the school and the community to
exercise some directive guidance which benefitted all con­
cerned.
The community is predominantly agricultural, but has
several large industries most of which are connected with
agricultural produce. Because most of the graduates take
their place in society either in the fields or in the indus­
tries , it was felt they should gain on-the-spot information
through the medium of field trips.
The writer believes that he understands the importance
of audio-visual aids and devices because he has taught classes
using these specialized aids. His two previous practicums
have dealt with similar problems involving these educational
devices. The writer also has had audio-visual courses and
an art background. Further, he has had a course entitled
“Art in the Elementary School,” which vitalized the problem
of using the aids correctly in teaching small children by the
 10
use of pictures and symbols. In addition, the -writer has
had control of a group of sixty boys in his -wrestling
classes and has taken his group upon several long trips,
some of which were seventy-two hours in length. His rela­
tionship with all who were connected with the planning of
such endeavors has given him, he believes, insights into
student, faculty, and administrative problems connected with
transporting groups safely to and from field trip objectives
with a minimum of time and expense.
The writer feels he is acquainted with an adequate
sampling of audio-visual aids used in his area. From his
studies of aids available for field trips, recommendations
are forthcoming. Any attempt to cover more than the problem
of field trips by branching out into a larger sampling would
result in an area too big for one undertaking. Too, there
would be no guarantee that results would necessarily apply
outside the immediate area.
Naturally, in the course of action outlined, there is
enough material involved to cover several semesters of work.
Perhaps the writer may add some material that will be worth­
while and will clarify at least some of the problems at hand.
It was the writer's desire to place the most concentrated
emphasis upon those aids the teacher can create himself,
thus having at his finger tips good material at all times for
all topics when commercial type aids for various reasons fail
 11
to make an appearance upon the scene.
The basis of the entire study was founded upon audio­
visual procedures which stimulate secondary students and
their desire to participate in general business field-trip
activities and discussions. Motivation is not a ”cold-
storage*1 stimulation.
Blackstone says:
Probably no situation can be found in which
only a single type of desire is operating.
[He also comments] A teacher may try to motivate
students by telling them that the activity about
to be learned will be of great importance or
usefulness to them when they are working in an
office. . . . such stimulation is sometimes
called ,?cold-storagen stimulation.3
The modern teacher should be able to avoid this anti­
quated method of stimulating students. The competent second­
ary teacher generally has the school bus readily available
to transport his classes to the community centers of business
activity. He may select commercial audio-visual aids (if
available for his subjeat and unit) to stimulate hisclass
discussions before and after the field trip adventure. The
teacher may design and create his own materials. The isriter
feels that “cold storage” motivation may be expurgated by
utilizing the correct motivational approaches.

3 E. G. Blackstone, S. L. Smith, Improvement of

Instruction in Typewriting (New York: Prentice Hall, 19h5),
p. 126.
 12
Justifications for a general business class whicla­
uses effective audio-visual aids. It is extremely important
that young people know the opportunities common to those
who possess adequate knowledge of general business and con­
sumer economic problems and the restrictions and limitations
prevalent with those who are lacking in these skills. Prob­
able justifications for a secondary class in general busi­
ness using audio-visual materials may be found in varying
degrees in the following aims:
1. To develop proficiency in the use of language
for business purposes.
2. To develop proficiency in the use of the tools
with which the student will work— words, charts,
graphic materials, et cetera.
3. To introduce the student to business principles,
transactions, forms, procedures and policies.
To provide a background for student English-usage
both written and oral— especially the usage of
letters and reports. Remedial steps are said to
be especially adapted to certain functional
general business correspondence, such as the
keeping of a checking account and the replies to
orders, when using media such as the opaque pro­

jector.
5. To determine the good and the bad qualities of
 one’s personality and to offer suggestions of how
to improve the weak foundations of certain traits.
The showing of personality films, if the teacher
does it properly, is very effective.
6. To develop the "you” attitude.
7. To develop efficiency in consumer purchasing
habits through ability to read and write selling
materials correctly.
8. To acquaint the student with problems stressing
the stimulation of customer "good will*' and long
term buying habits.
9. To use the principles studied during the class
period in everyday living experience.
10. To stress the elements of good appearance and
manners.
11. To bring students face to face with certain busi­
ness procedures and forms they seldom meet at
home or in their other classes.
12. To develop the ’’helpful*1 attitude in students who
are self-centered and bring the shy student into
contact with his peers. (Creative spirit expressed
in charts, posters, et cetera.)
13* To bring the students' social etiquette develop­
ment into natural situations.
1^-. To develop a training that has definite bargaining
 lh
power with prospective employers who themselves
are aware of the importance of the subject
matter gained in such classes..

15 . To develop the creative abilities of the individ­

ual through his composition of different types of
business replies, slogans, forms, posters, charts,
and slides.
16 . To provide training that may be extended into
junior executive or executive positions, private
secretaries, legal or court stenographers, store
managers, personnel directors, industrial mana­
gers, advertising agents, et cetera.

17. To improve natural writing and speaking ability

techniques.
18 . To improve the students' ego and provide the
school with abundant publicity through field
trip discussion, and the writing and drawing
activities of the students in the community.

19. To provide craft experiences for the students

who may create a layout for a model store,
et cetera.
20 . To incorporate group thinking and rational
approaches to difficult business situations.
21 . To develop skills, knowledges, and traits with
which one may conduct his own business or
 personal problems.
22. To provide an opportunity for guidance and coun­
seling.
23* To develop a "working" knowledge of business
principles which apply to specific types of oral
interpretation or written correspondence.
2b, To improve the students* economic responsibility
in determining what society should produce, how
they will produce, and how they will distribute
what has been produced.
25. To establish a greater social significance
within the student as he studies the varieties
of economic organization which may be contrasted
with the free-enterprise economy of modern
America•
26. To develop intelligent humans who are willing to
participate in labor and management discussions
with the calm inquiring spirit of the intelli­
gent adult.
27. To provide a bird's-eye view of the conglomera­
tion of physical things which make up the busi­
ness world, as well as the guiding plans which
must come from range of man's vision.
28. To develop the students' knowledge of trans­
portation, communication, and the need for
 16
national defense. (An aim especially desirable
in these days of acute political unrest.)
29• To provide information on the legislation incor­
porated to protect the consumer, such as the
National Pure Food and Drug Act, tariff policy,
and conservation as a public policy.
30. To give the student an opportunity to view the
highlights of sales-letter inciting techniques,
advertising techniques, and personal and business
letter writing techniques.
31. To provide an opportunity to lead a group dis­
cussion using parliamentary rules and regula­
tions.
32. To provide material for a job follow-up or a job
placement program.
33• To give the student an opportunity to gain part-
time employment during Christmas holidays,
et cetera, through personal contacts provided by
his general business field trips.
3^+. To provide an opportunity and information on how
to locate and intelligently use reference mate­
rial, locate periodicals, file or analyze new
developments in business or government policy.
35. To give the student the fundamentals of success­
ful general business policy without the necessity
 17
of hard knocks— such important highlights as the
following are stressed: business ethics,:the
seven f,C“ qualities, the practical power of
planning business policies, mathematical accu­
racy and its importance in the basic production
set-up, building a better vocabulary, and how to
use the dictionary and encyclopedia correctly.
 CHAPTER II

HISTORY OF-MEED AMD SURVEY OF RELATED MATERIAL

History of need for audio-visual materials. Too often

teachers of general business classes try to impact informa­
tion -which has been classified and systematized into study
units in a textbook. Under this formal conception of teach­
ing, the subject matter has been settled. It consists of
’'facts*1— some difficult spelling words, methods of computing
percentage problems, or several rigid rules pertaining to
the physical setup of business forms and correspondence.
Some of these facts, of course, are extremely valuable in
themselves and are easily transferred to life situations out­
side the school. But altogether too many of them have impor­
tance only in the eyes of the teacher and within the four
walls of the classroom.
The general business class offers to the student and
teacher a subject which has a rich association with both the
school environment and the home environment. General busi­
ness language is the hub of intelligent living, with health,
with fine arts, with civic participation, with economic com­
petence, actually, with any event that affects us in our
concrete life situations.
Along with any improvement in general business expres­
sion goes, of course, an increase in comprehension, and we

18
 19
find the trained student is much better able to understand
verbal explanations than is the untrained student* ¥e can­
not rely fully on the student's explanations but must con­
stantly cheek with the presentation of the real article or
situation* The language of business is a complex and con­
fusing language. Often we find the terms used outside the
class make explanation even more complex for the average
student. Adults often forget how many of their words have
two or more quite different meanings. The following illus­
tration, although concerned with the very early years of a
child's life, gives the secondary teacher insight into how
the student must resort to earlier sensory experience to
connect relationships, or must be shown the context through
examples, demonstrations, or verbal comments:
One kindergarten group was discussing the
planting of bulbs. All of the children said
they knew what bulbs were, and the discussion
proceeded without difficulty until one little
girl said they had a bulb at home which she
could bring for the school garden, but she didn't
know whether or not it would grow, adding by way
of explanation that "it wouldn't light any more."
This illustration, although based upon the usually
narrow experience of the very young child, gives us an
explanation of how any student acquires his information.

Josephine C. Foster, Education in the Kindergarten

(Hew York: American Book Company, 19^8) , p.
 20
Every student has acquired as much information as he could
■d
from his immediate surroundings, from stories, the radio,
television, or the movies* In the light of the information
which he has, he is likely to arrive at some rather startling
and often amusing conclusions. The situation is sans humor,
however, when we realize that the army achievement tests
during the Second World War revealed that great numbers of
our people are illiterate as far as reading or writing com­
prehension is concerned, especially the comprehension of
involved business terms.
Almost at the same time these achievement tests were
being conducted, audio-visual education began its pioneering
stage providing mass instruction material for the various
services.
Today few people publicly oppose the use of audio­
visual materials in education? however, the advocate of sen­
sory materials has to be on his guard and so must the student
who undertakes to learn how to use the techniques in teach­
ing. Dale says, “The teacher must understand that it is
worth mastering methods of audio-visual instruction because
2
they can promote good teaching when used properly.u
The aim of general business classes should be to

Edgar Dale, Audio-Visual Methods in Teaching

(New York: The Dryden Press, 19^7)> p* 7»
 21
incorporate proven audio-visual aids into their course of
study while designing and testing other promising media which
advance the dynamic principles of effective business proce­
dure.

Survey of related information. Of all the subjects

that are studied from the first year of a child’s formal edu­
cation until he has completed his college career, his busi­
ness skills and knowledge are the most practical. No other
acquired skills are more important. Business knowledge with
English and mathematics form the fulcrum of educational equip­
ment.
Knowledge of both written and oral business principles
is an integral part of every individual who lives in our
society. One’s ability to act, write, and speak clearly
rests upon one’s ability to think clearly. To speak or write
direct and forceful business correspondence, the student must
think the subject through to a logical and conclusive end.
Business correspondence forms and procedures require special
thinking and organization techniques which the student must
acquire before his business correspondence becomes effective.
General business principles, because of the increased
pace of technological advances and modern business methods,
are regarded as the one absolutely indispensable kind of
training that business demands.
General business courses today are moving toward
 22

functional methods, those relating to business strategy and

the newer developments of commercial needs.
Evidence of the trend toward functional procedures in
the teaching of general business classes is found in the
numerous articles written by educators and teachers.
The new trends have brought many problems to the sur-
/

face, some of which have required new relationships between

the school, industry, and the community. With the new prob­
lems there have also come new structure and administration of
general business courses.
The most outstanding controversy has been found in
the present evaluation of vocational education. The Advisory
Committee on Education gives the following three phases as
the basis for vocational education:
1. Information content— the background of
intellectual materials that are essential to
occupational efficiency.
2. The development of manipulative skills
that are associated with the family of occupa­
tions for which training is given.
3. Orientation in the social and economic
situation into which the boy or girl will be
plunged after his training is completed.^
The writer has presented this information because it

^ John D. Russell and others, Vocational Education

(Advisory Committee on Education, Staff study No. o.
Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1938),
pp. 180 -187 .
 23
brought to the front several concepts which have been the
nucleus of general business training.
General business training has been considered by most
of the experts versed in technical training for business
students, as the hub of the student’s economic training.
Most experts have agreed that knowledge needed by everybody
belongs to the realm of general education, and that specific
job-training procedures are vocational education. When
these terms have been used with other implications, they have
led to dangerous confusion of ideas.
The first two phases which were listed by the bulle­
tin on Vocational Education have affirmed the idea that these
two objectives have been recognized and have been carried on
with great thoroughness. The third phase, the training for
orientation in the social and economic situation, has been,
up to recent times, almost totally neglected.
The bulletin on Vocational Education also affirms:
The elements of the training that look toward
the orientation of the trainee in methods of
adjusting to the social and economic problems of
workers should be considered a vital part of his
vocation education. The purpose of this part of
the training should be not only that of equipping
the young worker to protect his own interests, but
also that of enabling him to co-operate effectively
with others in order to further the highest inter­
ests of the entire social group. Furthermore, a
sound general education is necessary as a foundation
upon which a satisfactory vocational education may
be built. For example, an electrician or a farmer
requires thorough training in the sciences related
 2h

to his vocation. Perhaps such subjects for a

pupil who plans to enter the occupation should
not be considered general education but rather
vocational training.
It was the writer’s purpose in this study to realize
with his creative aids that general business principles have
led into vocational interests, and that the central princi­
ples of general business classes have provided a working
cornerstone for all vocational occupations. These two func­
tions of general business classes should be constantly pro­
viding an opportunity for the student to realize the close
interrelationship between the two objectives.
There can be little doubt that general business courses,
because of the increased pace of technological advances and
modern business methods, are regarded as one of the absolutely
indispensable training classes that business demands.
Studies today are not concerned with the old issues5
however, they are concerned with problems of presentation,
motivation, and their effects. The chief problem today seems
to be in the area of providing trained teacher personnel.
General business teachers have acknowledged the mate­
rial presented by the experts in educational psychology.
They are developing certain source materials so that the
three cardinal aims of the general business class may be

Ibid., p. l^.
 25
realized.
First;. General business classes are a means of under­
standing how and why we obtain physical products.
Second: Business functions in their correct form must
embody consideration and visualization for all concerned.
The majority of studies emphasizing general business needs
confirm the point that the learner must actually study per­
sonality traits, and practice consideration of others before
he acquires the knack of "getting in tune" and "feeling with"
others•
Third: With the avalanche of technological and atomic
developments the business world has had to acknowledge greater
adjustments to accommodate the newer demands for greater pro­
duction at loiter costs. This has stimulated the need for
general business classes.
The marketing and selling fields alone require ever
increasing numbers of general business correspondence forms.
Business men as a body are appealing to educators, to train
students to be proficient in acquiring the minimum knowledges
and skills needed to develop recognition and use of the basic
principles of the business world. These men feel that
specialized materials may be understood intelligently in a
short time if the student is well versed in the fundamentals
of general business principles.
The problem of training students only on the general
 26
business forms available may be compared with the same prob­
lem confronting teachers of salesmanship. There seems to be
a distinct difference of opinion among store training direc­
tors and teachers as to the extent to which school classes
in salesmanship should attempt to teach a salescheck system.
Some feel that only the most general coverage of this mate­
rial should be given; others think that the precise systems
5
of one or several stores should be carefully explained.
Although salescheck forms are developed for an
entirely different purpose, the writer feels that much of
the problem affecting basic general business forms is simi­
lar to the one concerning salescheck training. The writer
feels also that actual forms requiring the knowledge of
principles of business should be of both general and specific
types. Concerning this point Williams comments,
We feel that familiarity with and practice in
general procedures should make the specific
instruction of the individual business less diffi­
cult for the student to comprehend.®
From the foregoing paragraphs the reader will observe
that the general business class techniques of today are a
necessity. The training needed most means proficiency in

K
' For an interesting view of the pros and cons see
Roe Williams, "Plow Much Salescheck Training," Journal of
Business Education. April 19^8, pp. 36-37*
^ Loc. cit.
 27
understanding business terms and controlling grammar; however,
the practical control of personal expression delivered in
active forms approved by the latest commercial needs is the
chief aim of general business classes belonging to the pro­
gressive order.
Owen D. Young saysi
As one enlarges his capacity to make himself
understood, as one enlarges the ability of others
to understand him, he opens up to that extent his
opportunity for usefulness. Certainly in our
modern society, where it is necessary for men even
in the simplest matters to co-operate with each
other, it is necessary for them first of all to
understand each other. Language is the principal
conveyor of understanding, and so we must learn
to use it, not crudely, but discriminatingly. I
have discovered after a long experience that mis­
understandings arise between men largely because
of the failure of adequate expression.7
In the preceding paragraphs, the writer has attempted
to present the high lights in the evolution of modern general
business courses as found in a survey of related information.
It should be evident that the multitudes of business princi­
ples and forms may be presented more effectively and
attractively through controlled presentations of audio­
visual aids than through reliance upon lectures or textbooks
as the complete learning experience.
The implications which the related information

7 Robert Ray Aurner, Effective English in Business

(Cincinnati: South-Western Publishing Company, 19^+0)» p. 3*+3.
 28
provided make clear the definite need for clear-cut presen­
tations of sensory materials showing effective business
correspondence forms and procedures.
 CHAPTER III

LIMITING FACTORS IN SEGREGATING, DISCOVERING, .

UNDERSTANDING, CREATING, AND USING
AUDIO-VISUAL DEVICES

The -writer was aware of the multitude of audio-visual

material which may be used in motivating a general business
class* Before any teacher may use intelligently audio-visual
materials, he should take steps to systematize the location
of needed materials. A filing system should be used if
possible. A simple card index file is often used for this
purpose. Whatever system is selected depends upon the amount
of material needed and upon the number of aids kept on hand.
The file system provides a record of audio-visual material
which may be located in a brief amount of effort and time*
From the selected file various data may be added, supplemented,
or removed. It might be said that an early analysis of audio­
visual material considered as teaching aids is concerned with
four things.
In the first place, one must analyze the problem care­
fully to ascertain which material will help the student grasp
the educational importance of this work. If this work con­
cept is accomplished, education will be made both more con­
crete and more general for the student. Through visual
symbols and aids the student acquires concrete extentions

29
 30
which enable him to generalize, thus providing a body of
experience out of which varied applicable solutions are
developed. The road to fruitful learning is well paved with
concrete experience. The greatest weakness in education
appears when pupils are made to memorize general rules and
concepts when they have never had the experience to understand
them.
In the second place, one must see that the aids he
chooses at surface glance will provide a satisfactory answer
to the problem. In other words, the aids must be carefully
made or logically developed and skillfully tested. The sift­
ing process should advance from a hasty evaluation into an
intricate one. From the first surveyance the teacher should
keep two aims in mind. First, will the aids being considered
encourage the students to make better and better generaliza­
tions about general business problems and the actual job of
using general business knowledge in the business world?
Second, will the aid In question arouse the students’ interest
toward solving the problem not that of tangent material? A
process similar to that of grading essay examinations may be
used if several aids are to be considered. The teacher may
place the aids according to their descriptive importance into
piles. After the early analysis procedure is completed, the
aids which seem most appropriate may be checked against check
lists.
 31
In the third place, one must examine his source of
data carefully to see that it is correctly in harmony with
the objectives of the course, with the problem at hand, and
with educational psychology. The questions to ask are as
follows:.
1, Are the motivational limits sufficiently broad
to permit students ample coverage of the factors
studied?
2, Are the limits so broad that the students* inter­
ests wane from its complexity, or does he become
fatigued from the time element involved in com­
pleting the problem?
3, Are we making use of a wide variety of teaching
aids in our general business class— those which
enable education to be more concrete?
In a subject such as general business verbal material
and abstractions are important because they are the chief
means of conveying experience, Audio-visual aids should work
hand in hand with the teacher, the textbook and the community
work activities. These three methods of learning are part­
ners, The chief value of audio-visual material is that a
person discovers what something means by responding actively
to it— or its representation in such forms as films, slides,
records, et cetera. This value is supported by educational
psychologists who tell us that 80 per cent of our learning
 32
comes from our sense of seeing. One cannot learn what some­
thing means merely by looking it up in a dictionary or ency­
clopedia and then repeating what was said there. He can, it
is true, get some of the meaning this way, but the richer
the direct experience with each of the words used in the
definition, the more meaningful that definition will be.
In the fourth place, one must examine the aid in the
light of what he expects it to accomplish in pupil comprehen­
sion, trait development, and co-operation. Audio-visual
material is also valuable as an educational experience because
it can influence attitudes as well as information.
If the aid requires equipment which is not available,
it is generally a wise procedure to discard that particular
approach for one which is workable with the supplies available.
In selecting an aid, the teacher should consider the
following points: The source, magnitude, simplicity, com­
plexity, the time element involved, correlation with course
objectives, previous success or failures, motivational con­
tent, sensitivities which the aid may arouse, subject matter
content, personality traits involved, individual differences
to which the aid may be applied, intelligence or skill level
required of students who areto see or hear the material. To
what extent does the aid stimulate creative ability? What
amount of co-operation and critical thinking will the aid
arouse in the individual student or in the class as a whole?
 33
Is the aid a group co-operative adventure or does it apply
to each student individually? What esthetic values will the
aid cultivate in the students? Are the social values of the
aid in compliance with the needs of the community, the school,
and the nation?
The material presented thus far is related to an
analysis of what is done before the audio-visual aids in
question are applied in practice to a specific unit problem.
One should not get the impression that all of these deci­
sions can be made in advance. It is necessary from the
standpoint of systematic and effective work, that the
teacher formulate a plan which will direct his main efforts.
The general business teacher must always be on the alert for
cues which would indicate that the aid should be modified,
replaced, or discarded. The classroom situation, like out­
side criteria, is constantly in a state of flux. New mate­
rial should be selected from criteria which centers more ably
around the principal theme in question, or from those pro­
cedures which release the student from spiritless grubbing
and boring drudgery.
The general business teacher can use many methods of
attack upon the problem of which aid is appropriate for a
particular situation. One mode of attack which seems very
practical takes into consideration the fact that the average
teacher has little time for involved statistical analysis.
 3^
This approach is the check sheet method of analyzing.
When using this type of list, one-may look at his
data and ask, "What aids available accomplish the point or
points in question?" In other words, from a check sheet or
chart compiled in such a way as to present a graphic classi­
fication of data, the teacher selects points which coincide
with his early analysis and applies them to the aid in ques­
tion. This is a very important procedure when a specific
unit is in question. A very uninvolved chart may be used if
the material is familiar to the teacher and the time element
is an essential factor to consider in selecting an appro­
priate audio-visual aid.
A sample check sheet prepared especially for the
evaluation of educational films is as follows:

Check Sheet for Evaluating Films

Name of evaluator Date
Film title Producer
Address
Number of reels
Check one: Silent Sound
Check one, as to film suitability:
Junior high Senior high Junior College.
State film objective_________
Subject for which recommended
.1. Is the film accurate? _____ True? Up to date?_
2. Are the definitions clear and precise? _____
3. Are most of the scenes taken close-up? _____
h. Is the acting effective? _____
5* Are the scenes well done? _____
6. Are the animated drawings well done?
7* Will the film stimulate further activity? _____
8, Does the film contain unrelated material? _____
9* Is the photography good throughout? _____
10. Will the film stimulate further activity? _
11* Does the film have unity? _
12* Does the film have the proper sequence? _
13* Will the film add to the knowledge already gained? _
1*+. Is the film simple enough for the students to under­
stand? _____
15* Can the titles be read and understood by the student?

16. Will the desired attitudes and interests be developed?

17* How long may the film be kept? __

18. What will be the cost? _____

The writer fully realizes that this check sheet is not

complete. It is given as an illustration of one method of
reducing subjectivity in the selection ofaudio-visual aids.
The aids which are presented in this studyare for the
 36
most part approved or tested material. As the field is so
broad it will be possible to present only a select sampling
of the various types of audio-visual aids available for
classroom instruction. As indicated in the foregoing mate­
rial pertaining to selection criteria, only the surface may
be scratched in this presentation. This study will present
further check lists which deal with over-all evaluation cri­
teria and psychological criteria which may be used to
evaluate audio-visual material.
Before continuing this study let us again state the
following points as expressed by several prominent educators.
Dale compares direct and indirect experience in his three
statements concerning the three ways of learning something:
(1) We can experience it directly— either through
directly and immediately imitating the performance
by another person.
(2) We can observe the performance by another
person but postpone doing it ourselves.
(3) We can learn, by reading or listening, about
the experiences that others have had. Each step is^
successively further removed from the. actual doing*
One must be careful should he draw the inference that
direct experience is adequate without any indirect experi­
ence. Life cannot be lived exclusively on either plane of
experience. We must have both direct and indirect experience.

Edgar Dale, Audio-Visual Methods in Teaching

(New York: The Dryden Press, 19^7), p. 73*
 37
John Dewey has made this point clears
(1) An ounce of experience is better than a ton
of theory, simply because it is only as an experi­
ence that any theory has vital and veritable sig­
nificance.
(2) An experience, a very humble experience, is
capable of generating and carrying any amount of
theory (or intellectual content), but a theory
apart from an experience cannot be definitely
grasped even as a theory.
(3) It [a theory] tends to become a mere verbal
formula, a set of catch words used to render think­
ing, Oor genuine theorizing, unnecessary and impossi­
ble. ^
The foregoing statements give a clear assumption that
education must be both concrete and general.
William James has observed:
For when all is said and done, the fact remains
that verbal material is, on the whole, the handiest
and most useful material in which thinking can be
carried on. Abstract concepts are far and away
the most economical instruments of thought, and
abstract conceptions are fixed and incarnated for
us in words.3
^ The use of a wide variety of teaching aids in the
school enables education to be more concrete. The use of
functional audio-visual aids is high upon the cone of experi­
ence.

John Dewey, Democracy and Education (New Yorks The

Macmillan Company, 191&), p. 169 .
William James, Talks on Psychology and Life1s Ideals
(New York: Longmans, Green, and Company, 19317, Chapter XII,
pp. 131 -132 .
 38
if
Dale illustrates the cone of experience as follows:

Visual Symbo3a
Ra&i o-Re cording s
Still Pietures\
Motion Pictures

Field Trips
Demonstrations
Dramatic Participation
Contrived Experiences
Direct, Purposeful Experience

Cone of Experience

The foregoing statements could have been placed in a

chapter dealing with the survey of related information. How­
ever-, the controlling segments of a good audio-visual aid
are so related as to make three points of approximately equal
value. The philosophical, motivational and educational aims
should comprise harmony of purpose.
A word should be said at this point about motivation.
By controlling motivation, the organization of units of

Dale, op. cit.« p. 39*

 39
instruction, and learning procedures, teachers and pupils
together may prevent many plateaus* A better gradation of
learning outcomes, and a fresh approach to revive interest,
are vital influences exerted by the better audio-visual aids*
Before presenting an audio-visual aid of constructive
nature, the motivational properties of the aid must be given
adequate surveyance* The motivational content of an aid
must be in harmony with the objectives of the course and with
the problem at hand. The aid must lead to modification of
behavior through experience. This is an essential condition
of learning. Motives found in aids which are significant in
the educative process include interests, attitudes, needs and
purposes. Aids must not involve fear or unpleasant factors.
Aids must not cater to present purposes of the student alone.
Genuine motivation cannot be imposed by pressure or rewards
from without.
A good statement to remember in analyzing the relation
between motivation and mental health is the following nota­
tion by Thorpe:
All mental hygienists agree that successful
accomplishment is one of the most effective fac­
tors known for the development of a healthy and
confident outlook of life.5
This can be easily understood as we know that success brings

5 Louis P. Thorpe, Personality and Life (New York:

Longmans, Green and Company, 19*+■!?) , p. *f6 .
 bo
with it praise, favorable recognition, rewards, and other
forms of that ultimate quest of all men— security* If
teachers can control the school environment in such a way
as to insure some.success to pupils— through tasks suffi­
ciently difficult to demand a reasonable amount of effort
and yet easy enough to make success certain, the schools are
definitely helping our pupils maintain sound mental health
and good personality adjustment.
When the outcomes of motivation are based upon
biological drives or social situations, they are in harmony
with the satisfaction of some basic need. This type of
situation makes the student's work seem worth while, A
if*
worth-while motivating situation convinces the pupil of
the importance of the task. Hard work.under these condi­
tions is made attractive and incorporates natural desire as
an inspirational partner. When correct techniques are
applied, activities with little original intrinsic interest
may be made to appear very important to the student.
Positive motivation is based on a student's real
desire to master a situation. Negative motivation is based
on fear and for this reason should be avoided,
Blackstone has warned against forcing a little desired
activitys
Ridicule, scolding, and sarcasm, as well as
penalties are negative incentives rather than
positive ones, and tend only to cause the student
to work just hard enough to avoid penalty.
 hi
Negative incentives cause the student to be
interested in something besides the activity
itself5 the grade or the avoidance of penalty
is the thing sought. Some better incentive
must be found if the students are to be led to
•work up to their ultimate capacities and if they
are to be interested in activity rather than in
reward or penalty.®
General business can be made a functional course. The
teacher should recognize, “You can lead a horse to water but
you cannot make him drink.” Audio-visual aids can be the
gateway to successful teaching. He should focus his efforts
upon those significant processes which aid him to guide,
stimulate, and challenge his pupils.

Evaluation of audio-visual aids in general business

and subsequent field trips. Since the interest of the stu­
dent is a vital factor in his successes or failures, the
first consideration of an aid (provided the aid is in harmony
with the course objectives and aims) is its appeal to the
development and retention of interest. It is up to the
teacher to select the aid or device which will appeal most
persistently to a certain teaching situation. Blackstone
said:
Of course, no one device should be worked to
death, as almost any procedure, no matter how
interesting at the start, becomes monotonous if
it is repeated too often. If the teacher should

^ Earl G. Blackstone, Improvement of Instruction in

Typewriting (New York: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 19^5) , pp. 123-H-.
 k-2

find that a device is stimulative, he should

continue its use until the student's interest
appears to be waning. He should then choose a
different procedure, as the mere novelty of 7
a change will revive the student’s interest.
Each teaching aid may be used for many different pur­
poses in the classroom. As aids differ as to procedures
and content, certain criteria must be used to evaluate the
aid in question. If the aid passes the test of student
appeal and correlates with the unit in process, it should
be checked at this point for specific subject matter appeal.
The value of a card file is again stressed as a quick
method of comparing various aids and devices and their
approaches to a particular situation. Blackstone comments
upon the use of additional .aids and devices and their loca­
tion as follows:
Of course many additional devices are avail­
able, and many more will doubtless be discovered
from time to time; hence it is suggested that
the teacher keep a card file of interesting
devices in order that he may always have at hand
a widesvariety of interesting things for students
to do.
The primary steps in selection are as follows:
1. Besort to the file containing the aids listed
according to their classifications such as motion
«

pictures, the still pictures, the recording,

7 Ibid.. p. 312.
8 Ibid., p. 313.
 **3
posters and charts. This file may be numerical,
alphabetical, decimal or a combination type.
2. Cheeking the aid against criteria already sugges­
ted such as correctness of objectives, aims, pupil
comprehension, et cetera.
3. Examination of aid for motivational content.
*f. Examination of the scope of the aid.
5. Trial reading of the suggested aid from instruc­
tion booklets and audio-visual publications.
6. Correlation with lesson plan— including method of
presentation.
7. Follow-up procedure.
8. Evaluation.
9. Filling out comment material.
Several check lists are available to the classroom
teacher for the evaluation of audio-visual aids. tlStunts,,
are scarcely justifiable in the classroom.
The psychological principles which are essential to
an understanding of the aid should be considered. These are
as follows;
1. Causation of interest.
2. Type of stimulus response provoked by the aid.
3. Imperious needs (organic, social, and psycho­
logical.)
k-. Specificity of behavior.
 5. Does it transmit confidence through the
habit of succeeding?
6 . Does it help the student to react normally
to emotional situations?
7. Does it cultivate worrying about problems
not amenable to solution?
8 . Does it develop a wholesome attitude toward
social functions?
9. Does it develop a spirit of fairness and a
diplomatic awareness in dealing with people?
10. Does it maintain a balance between work and
play?
11. Does it maintain a balance between depend­
ence and independence?
12. Is it planned so as to stress student partici­
pation in a varied and interesting social life?
13. Does it provide and espouse intellectual
flexibility and eschew “fixed*1 ideas?
1*+. Does it provide for a temperate realization
of life's satisfactions?
15. Does it stimulate the student to face the
problem as it operates in terms of causation??
Those audio-visual aids discussed with other teachers
and those which have their ramifications checked against
adequate check lists will be more objective in nature and
better suited for a particular teaching situation. Audio­
visual aids are an assortment of types. They are good,

^ These principles were incorporated from a series of

class lectures by Louis P. Thorpe in Mental Hygiene at The
University of Southern California, 19^9.
 ^5
bad, and indifferent. They are not magic, but require much
preparation and planning. The teacher will do well to
evaluate the aid thoroughly before attempting its use.
 CHAPTER IV

IMPORTANCE OF USING THE BEST MEDIA

System--its function in classifying and using audio­

visual aids. The question regarding the making and preparing
of teaching aids of the various kinds is one that needs care­
ful consideration because the many types of aids differ
greatly in their classroom effectiveness. The first impor­
tant step, however, is to classify and systematize the audio­
visual materials on hand and to plan adequate filing methods
to provide for future expansion of these materials.
The system which proves most adequate for filing blue­
prints, drawings, and maps is the vertical system. The above
named materials are usually filed vertically (without folding
if possible) in specially designed cabinets. A number system
of guiding is frequently used to mark sections of such files,
since numbers represent units of work that may be expanded by
the use of the decimal system. The teacher may keep all
reference to his materials upon the cards which he makes out
at the time of his selection of the various aids.
Cards may be kept in a card index file, arranged
alphabetically by names of subjects or sources, lalhen this
supplementary file is used, the teacher must check each new
aid to determine its classification, so that cards for the
aid's subject matter can be prepared and added to the card

1+6
 if7

index file.
When several departments or classes use the audio­
visual aids, requisition cards for the future delivery of
materials may be filed in a special date card file called a
tickler or follow-up file. Different methods of charging
the material to the borrower depend upon the individual sys­
tem, Cross reference cards should be used when the material
on file increases.
In large city systems, such as Los Angeles, requisi­
tion of materials is charged through a central store-house.
Requisition forms must be filled out by the teacher along
with the name of the material, the date the material is to
be used, et cetera. The material, if available, is then
shipped to the teacher through the school office or textbook
room. Since the school system is so large, conflicts often
arise which make the early application for special equipment
desirable on the part of the individual teacher.
At the present time the number of formal auditory and
visual aids for use in teaching the technical business sub­
jects is extremely limited. (This problem will be expanded,
as one section of the study deals with the importance of
teacher-made or home-made audio-visual aids.)
For teachers who are progressive and have a large
collection of home-made aids, the problem of storage and
quick availability of such materials as charts, diagrams, or
 >f8
maps, is a cardinal consideration.
Teachers are aware that they must keep summarizing as
they teach* A good demonstration involves telling, showing,
and doing* Aids to be effective must be at the finger tips
of the teacher when needed. If the school budget does not
provide the general business teacher with specially designed
cabinets to house his aids, he may encorporate the following
methods of storing his materials: .'
1* He may find old filing cabinets which are no
longer in use for inactive office correspondence
and use these as filing and storage bins.
2. He may have vertical chests constructed to house
his audio-visual aids.
3* Boxes may be used to house such aids as posters,
slides, et cetera.
*f. A curtained section of the cloak room may be used.
5. A central room may be used for all audio-visual
materials.
6. Scrapbooks may be used to house the materials.
These methods may require somewhat more concerted
effort but the dividends will more than repay the teacher
for his trouble.
No matter which type of filing system is used, the
person responsible for organizing, revising, or expanding
the filing system must know also what captions to use on
 ^9
insert slips or what gummed labels should be used for guide
and alphabetic folder tabs.
Most important to efficient filing and “finding” is
keeping the files in good order. Too often, files are well
planned and managed when they are newly assembled, but,
because of careless filing and lack of organization, they
soon become overcrowded and generally "run down,"
A few points to watch in keeping audio-visual files
well organized, neat, and useful are:
1, There should be a definitely planned filing rou­
tine.
2, Folders and drawers (if used) should not be
crowded.
3* Worn material should be replaced at definite
intervals of time.
*f. Torn materials should be mended.
5. Broken slides should be cleaned up, and then-
replaced.
6. Antiquated material should be discarded and up-to-
date material provided in its place.
These are but a few of the many ways to store, file,
or keep track of audio-visual materials. The writer feels
sure the individual teacher will adjust his facilities with
the demand of his needs.
 5o
The selection of audio-visual material to meet need of
class and individuals. The professional or commercial audio­
visual aids are usually a more finished product than the
amateur or homemade variety. The major advantage of .the
professional aid lies in the fact that it is ready for class­
room use. The homemade aid may be a rougher product. The
interest and enthusiasm generated in preparing the homemade
aid may make it of greater value to the teacher and the
student.
Homemade aids are relatively simple and inexpensive
to make.. A surprising number of schools have the equipment
to make recordings and 16 mm. moving pictures. As the number
of formal auditory and visual aids are greatly limited at
this time, this study will not go into the details of their
1
use. Some formal aids will "fee listed.
Homemade audio-aids include the use of.transcriptions,
the microphone, the sound-scriber, voice writing, and the
dictaphone and ediphone machines. The introduction of elec­
tronic recording has made dictating difficulties less trying,
and as the various machines become more flexible, they are
certain to gain wider and wider use in schools and offices.

Write for monographs dealing with this topic. One

which is available for 19**o is "Auditory and Visual Aids in
Business Education," edited by Ray G. Price, in co-operation
with the University of Cincinnati, and published by South-
Western Publishing Company.
 51
Homemade visual aids include glass slides, opaque
projectors, filmstrips, motion pictures, charts, diagrams,
exhibits and displays, classroom laboratories, and community
projects#
Professional visual aids include Army and Wavy sound
motion pictures and commercial films. Filmstrips until
recently have been practically negligible# However, accord­
ing to an announcement from a new organization, Teaching Aids
Exchange, Modesto, California, a complete series of forty-two
filmstrips in the field of bookkeeping, typewriting, duplicat­
ing, and business machines, will soon be available*
Professional material is available in such media as
still life photography, opaque slides, or glass slides.
Many of the techniques shown in the commercial films
can be effectively demonstrated by the teacher in the class­
room# It is always well to remember that the best visual aid
in many classes is the actual presentation and demonstration
of the material or machine available. Pictures through opaque
projection, filmstrips, and motion pictures are only a substi­
tute for the real thing. We must recognize the limitations of
each visual aid.
Because of the lack of professional material in the
field of general business field trips, and because the general
course in many of its phases lends itself to teacher-made
illustrations, this study will attempt to show some of the
 52
techniques and procedures -whereby the average teacher may
produce interesting and effective audio-visual material.

Audio-visual aids which are adopted for use in classes

of general business. Dramatizations. General business
teachers frequently leave dramatizations to some other depart­
ment. Student-dramatization of techniques and skills can be
made an effective means of learning in the classroom. Good
skits are available or may be devised.
The following topics may well be a part of the general
business course of study. The unlimited motivation opportuni­
ties of a general business class in presenting the following
unit topics is obvious. The three topics are: emphasizing
speech improvement, telephone technique, and personality
development— all of which are objective aims of a general
business class. While the student is learning these skills
and knowledges, he is also learning business forms and busi­
ness terms.
Emphasizing speech improvement is one of the most
important aims of the general business teacher. The use of
both a classroom public address system and telephone is an
important step toward improving students' oral and written
English. Some points which should be stressed in a general
business class are:
1. Voice quality that is clear, pleasant, and
responsive to the thought in mind.
 53
2. Vocal inflections that persuade rather than build
resistance.
3* Articulation that is incisive enough so that
people do not have to ask, ’‘What did you say?”
Pronunciation of both technical and ordinary words
according to the standard most widely accepted by
educated people.
5. Because voice, articulation and pronunciation are
only part of the total speech act, teachers should
expect their students to know how to listen and
interpret in an optimum way, what the speaker says.

Telephone services and what they mean to the general

business class. The basis for student activity involving
this topic is unlimited. The reader will have no difficulty
in starting a lively, stimulating discussion based on student
experiences. Ordering groceries, inviting friends to a party,
making an appointment with the dentist— these are everyday
incidents, with which almost any student is familiar and
Which necessitates his use of the telephone.

Plan an outline. Students can ’’learn by doing” in

this unit. The unit can be supplementary to other topics
or can be taken separately when the need arises to use the
telephone in correcting business difficulties. Activities
galore are possibilities. The teacher is limited only by the
originality, initiative and enthusiasm of the class. The
teacher's goal and responsibility becomes that of selection
and encouragement of student participation to see that each
activity contributes directly to the desired goals of the
unit.
Devices listed by Albert Fries are:
1. Answering the telephone at home.
2. Answering the telephone as an employee.
3. Making a call using a dial phone.
*f. Speaking correctly into the mouth-piece.
5. Placing a call at a pay station.
o. Answering for someone else and taking the
message.
7. Using a party line.
8. Placing a long distance call.

Activities.
Skit— If there were no telephones.
Report— The extent of communication by phone.
Panel— The kinds of telephone services.
Visit— To local telephone exchange.
Diagram— The routing of a telephone call.
Visitor— Speaker.
Essay— "Party Line Courtesy."
Talk— The secretary uses the telephone direc­
tory.
Talk— The boss uses the telephone directory.
Chart— List of long-distance rates from our
town to important cities in our state and in the
United States.
Demonstration— Placing person-to-person and
station-to-station calls.
Visit— Pay station and submit printed direc­
tions on how to use it.
Essay— "My Telephone Speech."
Original skit— Types of sales won or lost by
phone technique.
List— Notice speech of classmates, family,
and friends. Look for grammatical errors. Keep
 55
list of errors and noted corrections opposite
the errors.2

Have a wholesome attitude. A subject which is given

very little emphasis in the high school curriculum is that
of personality, but yet it is one of the most important.
Most everyone will concede that personality and character
are two of the biggest, assets in an individual's life. To
have a good character and a pleasing personality is to be
well advanced upon the ladder of progress.
The following are four good methods that one may use
in improving personality:
1. The reward method. (This is advocated by
Hartshorne and May.) If children are rewarded
or praised for good behavior, they will tend to
behave that way in order to win more rewards—
thereby strengthening desirable traits.
2. Inspirational method. Involves the reading of
testimonials or success stories of great men and
then patterning one’s behavior after them.
3. Personality analysis method. This involves clini­
cal help— taking a personality test to find out
about the individual.

2
Albert C. Fries, "Telephone Services," The Business
Education World, l6ih23-^-1 March 19*+9•
 56

Developing social skills* Adopt a plan or pattern

and work toward it. This plan is usually used in
3
connection with the personality analysis method.
Henry Link’s test, "Personality Development of Adoles­
cents and Adults," has a seven-point scale. These seven
points or qualities could be developed by high school students
to good advantage in helping them improve their personality.
a. Activity in athletics.
b. Participation in social affairs.
c. Participation in boy-girl relationships.
d. Membership in clubs.
e. Development of social skills.
f . Development of a desire for economic
independence— earning own spending money.
g. Development of a sense of right and
wrong, a code of ethics.
The following is a list of general ways for becoming
well liked:
a. Ask others for small favors— a form of
noticing them (not laborious favors.)
b. Acknowledge the competence of others—
their superiority in certain fields.
c. Imputing knowledge and judgement to
others•
d. Giving indirect compliments (people \ftio
are socially skilled make it a point to indirectly
bring out the accomplishments of others.)
e. Showing interest in the affairs of others—
concern, "May I help?" etc. Not curiosity, but
knowing what the other person wants.

Arthur T. Jersild, Child Psychology (New York:

Prentice Hall,- 19^2) , p. 230.
k
Louis P. Thorpe, Notes from class lecture oh Mental
Hygiene at The University of Southern California, 19^9*
 57
Donald Laird, author of "Why We Don’t Like People,”
gives the following list of specific things to do or to
refrain from doing in order to be well liked:
a. Be depended upon to do -what you say you
will do.
b. Go out of your way to help others.
e« Do not show off your knowledge. *
d. Do not feel or act superior to others.
e. Do not reprimand people who do things
which displease you.
f. Do not exaggerate in your statements. ;
g. Do not make fun of others behind their
backs.
h. Do not be sarcastic. ^
i. Do not be domineering.
E. G. Blackstone presents the underlying philosophy
of trait development in this statement:
Start the students with a situation calling
for the use of the trait desired. Since the
trait has not yet been developed, the situation
should be an easy one. Later, a slightly more
difficult one should be presented, and should be
followed by harder and harder ones until a satis­
factory level of the trait has been acquired.
This philosophy of trait development calls for
direct^instruction and for actual practice in the
trait.®
Blackstone further develops the idea that traits are
the result of direct participation on the part of the student
when he says:
There are many traits to be developed. Some
situations, such as most of those met in offices,

y Thorpe, loc. cit.

Earl G. Blackstone, Improvement in Instruction of
Typewriting (Hew York: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 19^-5) 5 p. 3*+0.
 probably involve a number of traits. Although
this fact somewhat complicates the problem of
teaching, the direct method of presenting situa­
tions involving those traits desired to be
developed will be much more effective than will
indirect methods based upon imitation, reading,
hypothetical discussions, and preachment.'
As related to the foregoing material, the reader can
quickly ascertain that personality and trait development
depend upon unnumbered combinations of skills, knowledge,
environment, and habits. The problems of determining the
extent of integration, transfer, or the optimum combination
of traits desired must be left for instructional and research
activities.
Although it is impossible to predict the future in
this field, the most important point to be stressed at this
time is the need for systematic attack on the problem. The
general business class which uses original or student-made
visual aids may directly bring the student into contact with
the many traits to be developed.

7 Ibid., p. 357
 CHAPTER V

AUDIO-VISUAL AIDS, VISUAL SYMBOLS, AND CARTOONS

AS MOTIVATING DEVICES IN THE
GENERAL BUSINESS CLASSROOM

“Say it -with pictures,11 has become the theme song in

the field of business. Visual aids have already taken a very
important place in business, not only as a means of training,
but as a means of promotion as well. Business has never
known such intense training techniques as will be available
in the years that lie immediately ahead; nor has business
ever known such a competent method of technical guidance and
convincing training procedures as is possible today through
the use of still and motion pictures. So important is this
teaching medium that alert businesses and schools are setting
up well-equipped visual training departments and stressing
units using audio-visual materials.
Harry Browser comments: -
Visual aids offer unlimited possibilities for
getting across any kind of message in an interest­
ing and convincing way— for demonstrations, conven­
tions, sales classes and meetings, pupil training
and morale building it offers a technique which
appeals to almost every type of individual.■L

**■ Harry M. Browser, “Teach Selling with Pictures,11

Journal of Business Education. 23:19-20, April 19^8.

59
 60
Importance of using the best media. Much thought and
consideration should be given to the best types of media for
the transmission of a set of facts, ideas, attitudes, or
skills to various groups within a general business class.
There is danger of several mis-steps in an unorganized
audio-visual presentation. The most commonplace error is
presenting a medium or slide which, because of lack of
lesson preparation, becomes a medium of entertainment only.
Another incorrect method is to rely upon the filmstrip or
film as a fill-in rather than a proven method of conveying
factual presentations. The presentation can be no better
than the teacher’s organization, demonstration, selection,
comments, and follow through. The students’ understanding
cannot be reached to the fullest unless the presentation has
an interesting introduction. Subject matter should be dis­
cussed in such a way as to prepare the students' interests
and motives beyond the entertainment stage only. The mate­
rial should be presented as simply and interestingly as
possible under any handicaps which might be present in the
physical set-up of the presentation room. Pupil reports,
both written and oral, become one of the most important func­
tions of the audio-visual presentation. After the material
has been presented, class discussion and individual and group
reports may be used to probe the smaller points not covered
in the materials previously presented to the class.
 Browser gives an interesting example of the absurdity
of trying to use audio-visual material in a presentation
without adequate previous preparation. The example given
explained the futility of trying to sell the ,,hill-billy,,
of any back-to-nature- country on the virtues of a fancy
stall shower or even a common bath tub before establishing
2
the entire culture complex of hygiene and sanitation.
The teacher should realize in using audio-visual aids
and devices to increase teaching results, the following car­
dinal rules:
1. Give much thought and consideration to the best
type of medium for the transmission of a set of
facts, ideas, attitudes, or skills.
2. A film, filmstrip, opaque slide, flash card,
poster, or any other aid designed for a specific
purpose or group will not serve another purpose
unless it is the nucleus of that particular con­
cept. This does not mean materials cannot be used
as companion or supplementary devices.
3. A film designed for educators, for example, will
not serve a school audience. Nor does it follow
that a film intended for dealers would be tried
out on the public just because the prints happen

2 I M d ., p. 23.
 62
to be on hand.
*f. A proven method of conveying factual presenta­
tions is the slide-film. It is the answer to a
teacher’s need for a simple, dynamic, easily
operated visual training aid.
A program of training similar to that of the General
Electric Company could be adapted for the classroom. The
organization could be outlined under the following headings:
a. Basic training— this phase covers the princi­
ples of general business.
b. Letter writing training— this training teaches
the student how to actually write effective
business letters.
c. Continuous education— the purpose of this
training is to keep the student informed on
new opportunities, new techniques, policies,
positions, promotions, and products.
General Electric has this to say about slide films
in connection with their use of slide films in training:
Slide films are without exception the most
practical and inexpensive aids for group training.
They can be made to illustrate almost any point ?
whether mechanical or dramatic, and their cost is
extremely low. Carefully prepared in advance,
they provide the speaker with a well-organized
visual presentation having far greater ’’learning
value11 than most other methods .3

3 Browser, loc. cit.

 63
One of the main characteristics of the slide film is
the fact that the individual using the film can adjust his
commentary and speed of film coverage to the type of group
he is training* This aspect is of special importance when
there is a heterogeneous variety of aptitude levels which
must be considered.
5* Another proven method of conveying factual presen­
tations is the use of the motion picture. This
medium must be planned to avoid the danger of
becoming the students’ main rest period. Where
films may be shown with proper organization they
are coming into greater and greater uses.
6. Other aids— the success or failure of a presen­
tation can often be traced to its effectiveness
in getting vital information across to the proper
people. Among the proven methods of conveying
factual presentations is the use of visual aids
such as flash cards, opaque slides, bulletin
boards, posters, cartoons, and recordings. Each
must be selected for its appeal, motivational
interest, and educational value in relation to the
cost and time elements in which it must be secured
or prepared. A good audio-visual device is a
seller and time saver. A poor device is a time
consumer and irate headache— not only wasting time,
 6b
space, and opportunity, but also being misleading
to all concerned.
A list by John Griffith gives some cardinal points to
remember in presenting audio-visual material. They are:
1. Are you guilty of going on a picture drunk?
Have you been guilty of showing several complete
filmstrips, sets of 2 x 2 slides, or several moving
pictures all at one time?
2. Are you guilty of failing to prepare the
student for that which you want him to see or under­
stand?
3* Are you guilty of expecting a student to
understand a picture, film, or diagram ;just because
he looks at it? (A picture is not necessarily
worth a thousand words•)
b. Are you guilty of failing to follow up the
use of each aid with an explanation of points not
understood and check on what has been learned?
5. Are you guilty of failing to place the new
vocabulary to be encountered in the film on the
board?
6. Are you guilty of failing to ask unanswered
questions about what is to be seen in order that
the student will be alert in finding the answers to
those questions?
7. Are you guilty of thinking, that because a
certain film is good, the whole school ought to see
it whether it fits into their unit of work or not?
8. Are you guilty of thinking that a film which
lasts only 10 minutes is a waste of time: (Atten­
tion span of many children is not longer than this.)
9. Are you guilty of thinking, “I won’t have to
teach today because we are going to have a film?1’
10. Are you guilty of thinking that a child gets
all there is in a filmstrip or moving picture by
seeing it once?
 65

11. Are you guilty of failing to realize that

many of the words you use are empty, meaningless
words to your students and that they will continue
to be so unless you are able to put meat on these
word skeletons in the form of real and vicarious
experiences?
12. Are you guilty of not realizing that
materials in this field which you may have con­
sidered worthless in the past are now being
replaced by excellent up-to-date materials?
13. Are you guilty of failing to think of
visual aids as just one of the fine tools for
learning and not a substitute for the teacher?
l*f. Are you guilty of believing that, because
you have had bad experiences with poor films or
strip films, poor projection, improper lighting,
poor acoustics, failure to get materials at the
time needed or failure to get them at all, no
place to show them, etc.,, that this field can be
of no future help to your*
There are eight kinds of visual symbols used in
learning. The list includes:
1. Cartoons.
2. Drawings, and sketches.
3. Posters.
b. Diagrams.
5. Flat maps.
6. Charts.
7. Graphs.
8. Comic strips.

John H. Griffith, Educational Screen. 8:23-1f,

January 19^8.
 66

Dale says:
It is important to think of these visual symbols
as appearing on flat surfaces— drawn, printed,
traced, or mounted. However, many of these flat
surfaces can be projected on the screen, and some
of them can be made into slides or film strips,
and shown to the group. Whether shown on the
blackboard, or a mounted card, or by an opaque pro­
jector, the quality of the visual symbol remains
substantially the same.-?
Time would not permit the writer to submit material
pertaining to all the types of visual symbols. The discus­
sion had to be confined to the presentation of simple charts,
cartoons, and drawings, as motivating influences in the
teaching of general business. Cartoons are among the most
widely read items in the daily newspaper. They are sometimes
so striking that magazines reprint them and readers cut them
out and save them to show to others.
A first-rate cartoon tells its story metaphorically
through pictures as a metaphor can be much more powerful
than a direct statement. In other words, the symbolism tells
the message* The best cartoons make their point instantane­
ously; they are aesthetically pleasurable, and usually contain
an emotional impact.
Because cartoons have a quick-silver action, their
symbols cannot be accepted uncritically. In this factor lies

^ Edgar Dale, Audio-Visual Methodsin Teaching

(New York: The Dryden Press, 19^7)j P* 26B7
 67
both their strength and weakness as a teaching material.
Cartoons oversimplify in order to make their point, and over­
simplification is dangerous in teaching unless it is quali­
fied. “Stock'1 symbols are often used such as “Uncle Sam,"
or "John Q. Public." One of the unfortunate effects of the
cartoon comes from this tendency to perpetuate stereotypes
that are age-old falsehoods. For these reasons students must
be taught a critical approach to the cartoon.
Me learn to read cartoons just as we learn to read
any other visual symbol. "The eye sees what it knows."
Cartoons can be valuable material for general busi-
6
ness classes. Dale has made wide surveys of the effects of
using cartoons in the classroom, and found that most junior
high school and high school students enjoy this way of
illuminating a topic.
Human relationships often appear vividly in cartoons
under the guise of humor but sometimes with a sharp after­
taste. Despite the problem of oversimplification, bias,
stereotyped ideas, as well as downright misrepresentation,
the cartoon is a very useful teaching device. Like all
emotionally charged media, it must be used with care and
intelligence.
The use of cartoons was illustrated in this study by

6 Ibid.. p. 270
 68

the writer who found that this particular appeal produced

excellent results in business or commerce classes. The
writer tried this method in his classes in typewriting,
general business, and business English. The use of cartoon
charts visibly motivated the classes in all subjects men­
tioned and the writer felt that this medium was most effec­
tive in business classes.
The reader will notice in the cartoon presentations,
the lack of ambiguous ideas. Many general business pro­
cedures lend themselves adequately and clearly to the topic
which can be presented in cartoon form. Under these condi­
tions a cartoonist can say something in one drawing which a
psychologist might take a chapter to describe. See for
7
example, the cartoon, “Nothing ventured, nothing gained.”
Can the reader express the idea as aptly in words— limiting
himself to a page such as the one the cartoon is drawn upon?
A select group of cartoons on driver selection may be found
at the end of this chapter.
The series of illustrations concerning the tools of
“driver selection” were done purposely in the strip manner.
This type of presentation may be given to the class by means
of either an opaque projector or by means of posters which
permit the teacher to narrate the procedure at his own desired

7
Cf. p. 73 for this cartoon.
 69
speed.
One must remember that visual symbols are used all
the time in classrooms, for they are indispensable time-
savers and thought builders. Teachers are misled when they
think of motion pictures as synonymous with visual education.
The truth of the matter is they are using visual education
materials every time they deal with a map, a graph, a chart,
a blackboard, a diagram, and the like.
One must be careful not to use any symbol unless it is
clearly understood, for symbolism is a graphic language and
we cannot communicate unless the linguistic elements are
understood. As a whole, teachers usually recognize the
necessity of avoiding symbols that confuse.
 70

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CU Q M
CARTOON POSTER 1
STORM AHEAD
 71

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CARTOON POSTER 2
HOW DO I START
 73

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 75

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CARTOON POSTER 6
WHAT YOU DO NOW
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CARTOON POSTER 7
EMPLOYERS
 77

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CARTOON POSTER 8
EAGER BEAVER
 CHAPTER VI

SELECTIVE EXAMPLES OF ORIGINAL CARTOONS

The -writer had to make certain that he understood the

principles behind the method of stimulating individual stu­
dents. The goal was to present some interesting facts and
generalizations that would arouse a corresponding growth
pattern in the student. The usefulness of this method became
apparent when students volunteered to make posters, to give
oral reports, to design models, and to give dramatic presenta­
tions concerning the subject matter either independently or
in groups. Whenever the student was interested and felt his
talent was needed, specialized information-gathering was con­
sidered fun. The writer, of course, had to plan schedules
wisely, take into consideration each student's individual
capacity, the time element, and use the variable assignment
approach as the fulcrum of the unit under consideration.
Flash cards were motivating agents used to great advan­
tage to stimulate discussion topics. Almost all students liked
to express their opinions upon the underlying idea behind the
cartoon creation. Descriptive labeling was used in certain
situations although it was an economy of time to present the
topic by the cartoon itself. Student-made cartoons were
excellent if done under award-receiving circumstances. Recog-
*
nition of the individual is considered as an adequate award

78
 79

Do You Know:
A T(ie impor'fance of driving as an
occupaf ion ?
a W U personal guLali*/ioaf ions are
needed kJj commercial drivers?
A How drivers are selecjed and
Tra In ed ?
A WJial driving pra.c4rce
job* require? 1
A W iH , w lia ! b u s in e s s la w p rin c ip le s
should ihe driver be familiar?

A W b u is insurance knowledge
hecessa.ru -for all who drive for
I• •
a- liv in<j r
A W J ia .1 a r e fin e c J i f f e r e n f s f a f e
laws concerning frucWinq fees
and f a x e s ?

FLASH CARD NO. 1

 80

P liDLilL

C#'

□RIVERS

FLASH CABD HO. 2

 8 l

-tZ^£/ s t & Z S st&d£> ^ Z >

FIASH CABD MO. 3

 82

UUHAT IS T H E Hi S T O R Y OF,

FLASH CARD NO. h

 83-
by many child psychologists.
The problem of transportation made an interesting unit
of study. V&ien the writer’s General Business class reached
this unit it was during the height of the lettuce season in
the Imperial Valley. Trucks were being used as conveyances
that came from as far north as Kern County.
The class, of course, studied all methods of trans­
portation, but the majority were interested in the activities
going on in their own community. The teacher presented a
film on general transportation, but there were no specialized
audio-visual aids available for the study of trucks. The
writer created some aids through the use of flash cards.
Other topics may be dealt with by following the presented
simple principles.
The introductory material was very important. A good
way to present this material was by m y of clear, brief ques­
tions concerning a point in which all the students were inter­
ested. Here the central point was a job that pays not only
in money, but in activity and adventure. Good questions
appeal to the student’s ego; he feels he should co-operate
because his opinion has been sought. It seemed a good pro­
cedure to draw up general questions that progressed from the
simple to the complex.
The teacher does not have to be a commercial artist to
do simple flash cards. (See the section on Stick Drawings
 8*f
following this chapter, These aids are to help the teacher
become proficient in constructing simple figures,) He may
also trace, cutout, project, or photograph material to be
used in this type of audio-visual aid.
After showing the fourth flash card, the discussion
had already reached the job opportunity stage. These were as
varied as trucking operations, of which there were a great
many different kinds.
The class was divided into two main discussion groups:
1. For-hire carriers.
2. Private carriers.
Suggested topics for students to follow included:
1. Truck design.
2. Different type trucks.
3. Truck construction.
*+. Refrigerated trucks.
5. Truck schedules.
6. Truck fleets.
7. Truck terminals.
8i State and federal laws regulating trucking activi­
ties.
9. Special taxes on the trucking industry.
10. Competition with railroads and airlines.
11. Passenger busses (such as Greyhound).
12. Trucking regulations and safety equipment.
 85
13* Selecting good drivers.
I1*-. What commodities are shipped most often by truck?
15. What districts use trucks most often? Why?
16. What is the Interstate Commerce Commission and
how does it affect the trucking business?

After the foregoing procedure of events the teacher

had gained a fairly reliable screening of those really inter­
ested in driving, or some other activity connected with the
trucking business. The class had been told that they were
to visit the packing sheds where produce was often shipped
by various types of trucks. The students were then alerted
to look for the particular 30b they were interested in and
its relationship with the way the operation proceeded as a
whole. The class had students interested in office procedures,
loading, driving, communication, business organization, con­
struction, production, handling methods, routing, and direct­
ing.
The field trip group then elected a chairman for each
of the several main classifications of interest. The divi­
sions were:
1. office workers
2. transportation workers
3. packaging and loading duties
k-. advertising and managerial duties
 86
Student “A ” was interested in the stenographic duties
connected with a trucking business. She was guided into the
office of the company to ask intelligent questions about the
office setup. These she realized differ somewhat from the
duties of the secretary in some other business. There were
terms used in that trucking business that were different
from the fishing industry, or the aircraft industry. It was
explained to the student that especially in the perishable
produce business one should be familiar with business commun­
ications: the telephone, the telegraph, and interoffice
communication; because the bulk of the market is moved by
telephone order, and prices are very flexible— often varying
from hour to hour.
Student "B** was interested in driving the big heavy-
duty refrigerated trucks which facilitated the produce
industry. He asked the truck foreman intelligent questions
about the motor, chassis, and gear shift of the huge semi­
trailers. He wanted to know the brand new techniques for
starting, steering, backing, and parking these specialized
carriers.
Student "C” was interested in another important phase
of merchandising this produce: that of packaging the pro­
duct and the adaptation of packages to consumers’ tastes
and desires. He visited the packaging department with mind
open to suggestions on how to gain ease of access to the
 87
packaged contents, the part design has on selecting the pack­
age, and how to protect the goods within the package while
keeping the cost as low as possible.
Each student then had something to contribute to the
whole class after the field trip was over.
Group (1) presented a skit of handling telephone
orders.
Group (2) developed some posters explaining the
different gear shifts, types of trailers, driving rules,
et cetera.
Group (3) gave a demonstration of how the vegetables
were packed to avoid bruising.
Group (b) designed an advertising layout and held a
hypothetical board meeting to discuss current market demands
and factors which may have influenced supply and demand.
After these various activities had been given the
students picked the most interesting and contributing efforts,
which were then added to a class scrapbook to pass along to
the next general business class (skits and dramatic plays,
of course, had to be written up for the scrapbook).
The teacher took selective material from these discus­
sions and added audio-visual aids not only for this class but
for coming classes. The important basie principle to remem­
ber, however, was that the field trip was to be comprehensive
in nature. Every student was to see the whole operation in
 88

action and by process of integration, understand the part

their particular activity had in the smooth functioning of
the whole endeavor.

After the field trip and the follow-through discussion

by the General Business class, the writer wanted to help the
student prepare a take-off sheet. The purpose of this take­
off sheet (to use an expression from airline pilots) was to
spare the student that washed-out feeling one gets when he
has covered about one-third of his training and suddenly
finds he does not have this skill or that certain essential
knowledge, A simple check list presented in audio-visual
form gave the student a well-planned “take-off*1 and insured
him that the road ahead was not endless. With this assur­
ance, he usually became well poised and eager to get underway.
The teacher should remember that these aids must be
based upon competent studies. It means work for the teacher.
Finding the right man for the trucking job is not an assign­
ment of the business teacher; however, the Interstate Commerce
1
Commission sets up definite physical and mental requirements.

“A Decade of Motor Carrier Regulations,'* American

Trucking Associations, Inc., Washington, D. C., 195+6. 80 pp.
“Men You Like to Meet," American Trucking Association,
Inc., Washington, D. C., 19^2. 23 pp.
“Trends— 191+7>tl American Trucking Association, Inc.,
Washington, D. C., 19^7* **1 PP*
 89
The teacher should have a sound background of reading
for this type of audio-visual aid. There are several contem-
2
porary texts that provide a substantial background.
Once the teacher feels he has his architectural base,
he may proceed, with his guide in an audio-visual manner. To
design and use this type of material correctly he should:
1. Plan his aids.
2. Remodel and edit, or eliminate and replace out­
dated aids.
3. Make the best use of the latest materials, equip­
ment, and appliances.
For this particular situation poster aids are found very
reliable. They can be constructed in a series and placed
around the room at strategic points. Again let the writer
emphasize that the teacher can trace from a book, trace
around a projected object from an opaque projector, or simply

2 Cox, Guidance bv the Classroom Teacher, Prentice

Hall.
Forrester, Methods of Vocational Guidance.
D. C. Heath.
Hamrin. Guidance in the Secondary School. D. Appleton-
Century.
Myers, Principles and Techniques of Vocational Guid­
ance, McGraw-Hill.
Strang, Group Activities in College and Secondary
School. Harper and Bros.
Strang, The Role of the Teacher in Personnel Work.
Harper and*Bros.
Traxler, Techniques of Guidance. Harper and Bros.
 90
use his scissors to create the material*
A teacher should start with his ideas, layouts, and
material he wishes to convey, then try a few simple sketches
or arrangements of cutout material* Proceed from this start
to the final product* To stimulate interests in job analy­
sis and specifications with his own ideas and materials, the
teacher might do something similar to the following audio­
visual aids in poster form. They should all be done on an
enlarged scale to meet the teacher's requirements.
 91
STICK DRAWING 1
FIGURE PROPORTIONS

THE TEAtHUT"
SHOULD BE ABLE
_ | / T 0 DRAIN THE
SiMpiE FIGURES
REQUiRED iN
¥ TEACHiNG.

-- V

/V
STi C K ~ D R A W i NGS~
 92

STICK DRAWING 2
RULE 1

A1*LDGNGralizG fhe.OutliiMe
o / w h a f ljou wishfodrauLJ.
Sxehch liGhtty friG shape or -
cowhour ijou desire. Use the
eraser free/u or redraw the
object —the best arhsts dothis.
 93
STICK DRAWING 3
ROLE 2

R eally p r a c tic e ^
uour cha Ika/vd ~
era ser. T h e cowplele. f y
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 9k-
STICK DRAWING k-

RULES 3, ^ 5j AND 6

o ta r f uui+h sone ttiiN a

SlMpte.
am -. □oNt' f r i j t o r e p r o d u c e
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‘ e. Draw w'/Th m e p u r p o s e
O^COMHUNiCallNg B N -
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5?
 CHAPTER VII

SUMMARY AM) CONCLUSIONS

Are school-made materials desirable? In general, it

can be said that a student will get rich meaning from making
a simple visual aid, however, the two or three hours— or what­
ever time is involved— may be spent in other activities.
Student-made aids are often inaccurate or misleading, and
while it is often desirable for the students to make their
own relatively crude illustrations, it is not often wise to
give them the full responsibility for developing an accurate
teaching aid which may be presented to the class as a whole.
Because of the present shortage of formal auditory and
visual aids for use in general business classes, the responsi­
bility for their creation falls upon the shoulders of the
classroom teacher.
The study has already listed the most important audio­
visual aids, both commercial and homemade. Many teachers are
familiar with all of the aids, but they do not understand
quite where to begin developing a motivating aid, or how to
synchronize the material they develop with the unit being
studied. The most important points to remember, before pre­
paring visual aid materials, will depend upon the educational
experience to be gained from the activity in the field, the
actual quality of materials that can be produced, the relative

95
 96
costs of such materials, and the uses to which they will be
applied after they are constructed.
The writer has prepared some visual aids which may be
produced both inexpensively and quickly. The aids which
follow this chapter may be reproduced on glass slides, or
may be used with the opaque projector. If filmstrips are
used, the preparation of the drawings should be done with a
good deal more accuracy and drawing technique.
Cartoon aids, posters, charts, and diagrams may all
be developed in the same manner as those aids used especially
with the opaque projector or visual cast machines.
In place of hand drawings, the teacher may substitute
still or action photographs or magazine cut-outs. The third
series of original visual-aids shows how the various basic
forms look upon standard size typing paper. The forms were
made page-size so that they could be viewed more easily by
the students. They can be drawn to any desired proportion.
Any reason for oversized illustrations of an object should
be explained to the class before showing a series of aids.
The only material required for producing this type of aid is
a speed ball pen, a ruler, and India ink.
The teacher should begin planning aids while he is
preparing his lesson plan schedule. Along with the unit plan­
ning, the teacher should mark and list all the aids which he
believes will meet the requirements of the unit to be studied.
 97
Today there are multitudes of materials* which the
teacher may use in constructing original audio-visual aids.
At this point we meet the problem of the teacher as an artist.
There are many varieties of artists, not only those who paint
and draw. Of course, almost any teacher who is interested
enough can, with a few weeks practice, become sufficiently
well equipped to create his own desirable original visual
aids.
Today with all the commercial publications and maga­
zines that are being produced, the teacher must be a good •
organizer and manager. He must keep a bibliography of
excellent materials on hand for all unit study purposes.
The aids produced in this study were designed to
operate under classroom conditions which provide a common
experience. Every student is different, but every student
is alike, too, in certain particulars.
All the aids presented in this study may be used as
blackboard illustrations. In spite of the forward advance of
audio-visual material for use with class activities, the
blackboard and bulletin board are still the center of the
classroom graphic presentations.
If the teacher finds posters and cartoons particularly
stimulating, he may permit the students to construct them
when a general or common experience may be shared by the
entire class.
 98

Scrapbooks passed from one class to another are often

of great aid to both the contributing class and to the class
beginning the unit of study.
The cardinal point to remember is the selling of
important study material to the student. If the aids are
attractive only in the sense of artistic design, they are not
only distractive to the students, but lead them into thinking
upon tangent material "which is not transferable to the unit
under consideration.
If the teacher is worried about his drawing and sketch­
ing ability, he should see Edgar Dale’s book, Audio-Visual
Methods in Teaching. This book gives a good discussion con­
cerning the fundamentals of drawing and sketching.
Despite the dangers of oversimplification, bias, and
stereotyped ideas, the homemade aid is a very useful teaching
device.
The afore-mentioned motivating aids represent only a
small portion of the many aids available for effective use in
the high school classroom. It is obvious that these devices
in many respects overlap as to subject matter and method of
introduction.
The students’ individual differences, their capacity,
their energy and drive, location of the school, and classroom
equipment are important factors that are to be considered in
the selection of motivating audio-visual aids.
 99

The competent general business teacher will fully

acquaint his students with all of the proper general busi­
ness principles, skills and techniques. He will set up
functional situations in the classroom, whereby the students
experience the actual receiving and answering of business
inquiries. Probably most important, he will help the stu­
dents in securing part-time jobs, and will administer a job
follow-up program. This program will provide not only
scientific guidance and counseling, but will provide a basis
for such information as promotional advancement, job oppor­
tunities, and sources of literature pertaining to the business
field.

I. CONCLUSIONS

It was the purpose of this study to high light those

motivating actions which the classroom teacher may incorpor­
ate into his general business classes through the medium of
teacher-constructed audio-visual aids. Equally important
for teaching purposes was the arranging of various types of
teacher-constructed visual aids into a planned presentation
emphasizing field-trip activities in the general business
class on the secondary level.
The study was not concerned with audio-visual material
used as an entertainment feature. The aids presented were
created as instruments of stimulation to be used as
 100
motivating agents in an integrated program stressing serious
educational skills, knowledges, and goals.
If factual material can be utilized (and in most
instances it is part of the total reaction to well planned
audio-visual aids) the teacher has accomplished a profitable
application of an educational principle: One learns more
easily by observing visual symbols, charts, graphs, maps,
et cetera.
The study did not attempt to provide the total method
of procedure in setting up teacher-made visual aids for
general business classes. However, it did emphasize a flexi­
ble approach which every classroom teacher may use to advan­
tage in the unit the class is to study.
Teachers, students, dramatic groups, and others may
obtain results in using well planned audio-visual aids. The
study has presented various check lists and criteria upon
which the above listed persons may base their selection of
enterprising media. Those interested in other research
material concerning this study will find that libraries have
an abundant supply of information concerning the many aspects
of the audio-visual field.
The writer has tried to treat-the problem a little
differently from others in that as a prelude to the actual
presentation of materials he has provided a base from which
an inauspicious beginning can be launched.
 101
The study has tried to stress the aids the teacher
can construct himself in absence of good business aids for a
particular unit or segment of a unit. A teacher could make
no more fatal error than to attempt to duplicate, for the
sake of duplication alone, either the commercial work, or
the product of another individual.
Trends are as changeable as the weather even in
general business classes. The aids will become valid and
reliable only when created along with the unit outline and
checked against the various check lists and criteria men­
tioned throughout the study.
The actual aids created by the writer were presented
for reasons of related perspective. In other words, they
were considered in relationship to the problems of aesthetics,
motivational possibilities, and technical rendering.
Individuality of expression is without question the
teacher’s most valuable asset. One should use another’s
style as a crutch only until he can walk alone. The study
has tried to make generalities clear to all who will feel
the need of teacher-constructed audio-visual aids.
 102

A Oj/rCruq
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syyKZsna

GLASS SLIDE 1
THE AMERICAN TRIANGLE
 103

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GLASS slide 2
INDIVIDUAL RESPONSIBILITIES
BIBLIOGRAPHY
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

A. BOOKS

Adams, Fay, Educating America1s Children. New Yorks The

Ronald Press Company,' 19*+-&• 484 pp.
Aurner, Robert Ray, Effective English in Business*
Cincinnati: South-Western Publishing Company, 1940.
3*+3 PP.
Blackstone, E. G., and S. L. Smith, Improvement of Instruc­
tion in Typewriting. New Yorks- Prentice-Hall, 19*+5.
543 pp.
Dale, Edgar, Audio-Visual Methods in Teaching. New York:
The Dryden Press, 1947" pp.
Dewey, John, Democracy and Education. New Yorks The
Macmillan Company, 1947" *+34 pp.
Foster, Josephine C*, Education in the Kindergprten.
New York: American Book Company, 19*+$. *+-49 pp.
Gates, Arthur, and Arthur T. Jersild, Educational Psychology.
New Yorks The Macmillan Company, 19*+2. 7&4 pp.
James, William, Talks on Psychology and Life»s Ideals.
New York: Longmans, Green, and Company, 1931* 572 pp.
Ross, C. C., Measurement in Today*s Schools. New York:
Prentice Hall, 19*+7 • *"1>33 PP*
Thorpe, Louis P., Personality and Life. New Yorks Longmans,
Green and Company, 19*+^. 2^8 pp.
Tonne, Herbert A . , Business Education Basic Principles and
Trends. New York: The Gregg Publishing Company, 1938*
3 3 $ PP.
Wahlquist, John L., The Philosophy of American Education.
New York: The Ronald Press Company, 19*+2. 391 pp.
William, Exton, Jr., Audio-Visual Aids t o Ins truet ion.
New York: American Book Company, 19*+!?^ 5l?9 pp.

105
 106
B. PERIODICALS

Browser, Harry M. , "Teach Selling with Pictures," Journal of

Business Education. 23:19-20, January 19^8*
Fries, Albert C., "Telephone Services," The Business Educa­
tion World. March 7, 19^9.
Griffith, John H . , Educational Screen. January 19^8.
Shields, H. G., "The Abolition of Economic Illiteracy,"
The Journal of the National Education Association.
Vol. XV, No. 9 TDecember, 1938), **12 pp.
Williams, Roe, "How Much Salescheek Training," Journal of
Business Education. April, 19^8.

C. BULLETINS, HANDBOOKS, AND PAMPHLETS

"A Decade of Motor Carrier Regulations," American Trucking

Associations, Inc., Washington, D. C., 19*+6. 80 pp.
"Auditory and Visual Aids In Business Education." Monograph,
Business Education Institute Teachers College, University
of Cincinnati. Cincinnati: South-Western Publishing
Company. 66 pp.
"Better Teaching Through Audio-Visual Materials," North
Central Association Quarterly. 23:196-226, October 19*+8.
Russell, John D., and others, Vocational Education. Advisory
Committee on Education, Staff Study No. S. Washington,
D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1938. 203 pp.
Tibbitts, Lyman F . , Streamline Your Study Habits. Fullerton,
California: Mission Press and Litho Company, 19^7.
73 pp.
"Trends— 19^7j" American Trucking Associations, Inc.,
Washington, D. C., 19^7. *+■! pp.

University of Southern California Library