Introduction & Self-Study Guide

to Medical Terminology
For Respiratory Care Students

RTT 100
Professor Michael Nazzaro
1
 Medical Terminology: Introduction
• This unit of RTT 100 is NOT a Medical Terminology Course.
–It is a quick introduction to medical terminology, an explanation of how medical terms are constructed, and a
list of the most important terms that you must know to function comfortably in your clinical training rotations.
–The unit is intended to give you a quick head start in the career-long process of developing and expanding
your own medical vocabulary.
• Most Medical Terminology courses are not designed for clinicians (health care professionals such as
physicians, therapists, and nurses) who provide direct patient care.
–Medical terminology courses are intended for people who work in the fields of health information and health
economics (transcriptionists, coders, billers, and health information technologists).
–Clinicians are usually expected to “pick up” their medical vocabularies during their basic science courses
(especially A&P), during their clinical training rotations, and their day to day practice over the years.

Medical Terminology Is Not “The Language of Medical Terminology Is simply a specialized

Medicine.”
• A language consists of both a vocabulary
and a grammar (a set of rules for putting
words together into sentences).
• Medical terminology does not have a
grammar, it is just a vocabulary.
– A list of made-up (artificial) English words.
– It has “rules” but they only describe how
make up the new English words.
• Medical terminology is not Greek or Latin.
– Medical terminology uses Greek and Latin
words to make up new English words.
– Those new English words don’t exist in the
Greek or Latin languages.
As health care professionals, it is important that we understand medical
terminology and use it both correctly and appropriately.
vocabulary (a long list of words) used by health
care professionals.
• The vocabulary consists of new, made-up
English words.
• The words are mostly based on Latin and
Greek words called roots.
• The vocabulary is used to provide healthcare
practitioners with many benefits, including:
– Effective, efficient, and accurate
communication.
– Consistent and uniform meanings across
national and language boarders, for
example:
• Methemoglobinuria (the presence of
methemoglobin in the urine) is a word
that health care practitioners in any
country can understand.
2
 Learning Medical Terminology: Introduction
The key to understanding medical terms is focusing on the elements of the terms:
The Prefixes, Roots, and Suffixes, for example:
• Spondylolysis is a combination of the root "spondylo" (which means vertebra), and the suffix
"lysis," (which means to dissolve), so the combined term means dissolution (physical
breakdown) of a vertebra.
The same elements are used over and over again in many medical terms.
• Spondylo + itis (a suffix which means inflammation), forms spondylitis, an inflammation of the
vertebrae.
• The same root + malacia, (which means soft), forms spondylomalacia, a softening of the
vertebrae.
• The root tracheo (which means wind pipe) + malacia forms tracheomalacia, a softening of the
trachea.
• Knowing the meaning of a fairly small number of prefixes, roots, and suffixes will allow you
to interpret a large number of medical terms

• We already know about word parts (roots, • The Greek word for the heart is KARDIA.
prefixes, and suffixes) from our own – It forms the medical word root CARDI.
everyday use of language: • The Latin word for the lung is PULMON.
• For example, take the English root word – It forms the medical word root PULM.
port (to carry); by adding prefixes and • Combining these two roots according to the rules
suffixes we can create a number of terms of medical terminology gives us a new English
with many different meanings: compound word cardi-o-pulmon.
– REPORT SUPPORT – Adding the suffix ary converts the elements
into an adjective that means pertaining to
– IMPORT EXPORT (having to do with) the heart and lungs.
– SUPPORT TRANSPORT – Note that all roots (but not all medical
– PORTER PORTABLE terms) use a suffix, most often the adjective
ending that means pertaining to.
3
 Medical Terminology: Medical Term Elements
Medical terms are made of
elements called:
1.Word Roots (also called
stems):
– Word roots are mostly Greek and
Latin words used to make up
medical terms (remember,
medical terms are English
words).
2.Combining Forms:
– Combining form is a technical
term (fancy name) for word roots
that have had their spelling
changed to make them easy to
combine with other elements and
easy to pronounce in English.
3.Prefixes:
– Prefixes are word parts (syllables)
that modify or completely change
the root’s meaning.
4.Suffixes:
– Suffixes are word parts that
slightly modify or completely
change the root’s meaning.
Note that medical terms do not
always use prefixes and
suffixes.
Don’t automatically assume
that the first and last letters of
every word must be a prefix or
a suffix.
• Word Roots:
– Are the fundamental unit of each medical word.
– They establish the basic meaning of the word.
– They are the parts which can be put together into compound
terms and to which prefixes and suffixes may be added.
– About 75% of roots are Greek and Latin words.
• The function of roots is to identify:
• Anatomic structures.
• Medical and surgical procedures and conditions.
• Laboratory instruments and tests.
• Word roots are usually (but not always) blended with
other word elements such as other roots, prefixes and
suffixes.
• Roots
can be combined with other roots to make
compound terms:
– Gastro + lith = gastrolith (a mineral “stone” in the stomach).
• Note that lith is a second root, not a suffix.
• Prefixesand suffixes can be added to roots to expand
the root’s meaning or to completely change the
meaning:
– Disinfect (prefix dis + Latin root inficere).
• The root inficere means to corrupt
• The Latin prefix dis means free of. Adding dis completely
reverses the root’s meaning.
– Granulocyte (Latin root granulum (little grain) + the
Greek suffix kytos (cell).
• Adding the suffix kytos changes the root to refer to the
microscopic appearance of a type of cell.
4
 Word Elements: Roots & Combining Forms
Combining Forms
• Medical terms are English words mostly made up from
Greek and Latin words.
– Greek and Latin words have to be changed to make
the new word easy to pronounce in English.
• To do this, we change both the spelling and the
pronunciation of the original words, for example:
– The Greek Kardia becomes the English Cardio.
– The Latin Pulmon becomes the English Pulmo.
– The Greek Enteron becomes the English Entero.
– The Greek Gaster becomes the English Gastro.
• Combinations of word elements (roots, prefixes, and
suffixed) are often difficult to pronounce in English,
especially if one element ends in a consonant and the
element it is connected to also begins with a consonant,
for example:
– If the Greek roots Gaster (belly) and the Greek word
odyne (pain) are combined to make a medical word
meaning stomach pain, the new term would be very
difficult to pronounce (try it).
• In order to make the combination easy to pronounce in
English, odyne is changed and a combining vowel is
inserted between the elements producing gasatrodynia.
• In most cases the combing vowel is the letter “O” but it
may be any other vowel (a, e, i, u, or y).
– In the example above using gaster, the new word
could be gastroenteritis (inflammation of the stomach
and intestine or gastrointestinal (an adjective referring
to the stomach and intestine).
• Medical dictionaries call the combination of a stem and a
combining vowel a combining form so gastro is the
combining form of the root gaster.
The rules for turning roots into
combining forms are simple:
• When you add a second root or a suffix
that starts with a consonant, just insert
an ‘o’ before the suffix:
–Neur is a root meaning nerve or nervous
system and logy is a suffix meaning study
of.
–Neur + o + logy = neurology (the study of
the nervous system).
• If the root ends with a vowel or the suffix
begins with a vowel, we usually don’t
have to add another vowel:
–When the suffix itis (inflammation) is added
to a root like gastro, we drop the “o” and let
the “i” serve as the combining vowel to
make the word gastritis (inflammation of
the stomach).
–A compound term using the roots
gaster, and enteron plus the suffix itis
gives the term gastroenteritis.
• Gastroenteritis is easier to pronounce in
English than any of the other possible
combinations of the term’s elements
The “roots” listed on Slide 3 (spondylo and
tracheo) are actually combining forms. The
actual roots are spondyl and trachia.
Reference: Taber’s (21st) pg. xi, 2570 5
Terminology Elements: Adjective & Noun Endings
Noun endings turn a root into a noun Adjective endings turn the
(name of a person, place, or thing). noun into an adjective
(related to or pertaining to)
Noun Meaning Examples Adjective Examples
Ending
Ending
State of,
ia condition, or Pneumonia, ac Cardiac
process
al Renal
ism “ Hyperthyroidism
ar Tonsillar
y “ Neuropathy
ary Pulmonary
iatry Medicine, Psychiatry
treatment eal Pharyngeal
ician Specialist Obstetrician ic Gastric
ist “ Pulmonologist ine Uterine
ior Anterior
When Word Roots are used alone, they always
have a suffix. The suffix is usually the adjective ose Glucose
ending: For example, the roots cardi and ous Venous
pulmon when used alone always have an
adjective suffix: cardiac and pulmonary. tic Necrotic

Reference: Taber’s (21st) Appendix 4, pg. 2570 6

 Terminology Elements: Combining Forms Practice
Remember, the combining vowel (usually “O” but sometimes “I”) that makes the medical term
easy to pronounce in English.
• If the word elements are already separated by a vowel, we don’t usually have to add an
additional vowel, for example:
–Neuro + itis = neuritis (inflammation of a nerve).
• In this word the root ended with a vowel (“O”) and the suffix began with a vowel (“I”).
• When we combined the root with the suffix, we dropped the “o” and kept the “i”.
How did we know to do it this way?
By how the change would make the word sound!
Which form of the word is easier to pronounce and sounds better?
Neuroitis Neurotis Neuritis
1. Combine ENTERON (Gr. intestines) with BILIS (L. bile) to get the term Enterobiliary.
– Since BILIS starts with a consonant, we had to add the combining vowel.
2. Combine LARYNX (Gr. voice box) with EKTOME (Gr. incision) to make
– Laryngectomy (the procedure) Laryngectomee (the patient).
• Since EKTOME starts with a vowel, we don’t need to add another vowel to make English
pronunciation easy.
3. Combine LARYNX, TRACHEA, BRONCHOS, and ITIS to produce Laryngotracheobronchitis.
• We added the O’s to join larynx and trachea.
• Since the suffix itis already starts with a vowel “I”, and bronchos looses the “s”, it wasn’t
necessary to add another combining vowel.
4. Combine DREPAN (Gr. Sickle) with KYTOS (Gr. Cell) to create the term Drepanocyte (the term
for the sickle cell itself).
–Drepanocytosis (the medical term for the disease sickle cell anemia).
5. Combine the root DERMATOS (Gr. Skin) with the root PHYTON (Gr. Plant) and OSIS (suffix
meaning condition) to get Dermatophytosis (athlete’s foot).
7
 Word Roots & Combining Forms: Must Learn 1
Root Meaning (medical) Examples
adeno Gland Adenocarcinoma, adenoid, adenopathy
adreno Adrenal gland Adrenocorticotropin, adrenopathy
alveo Alveolus1 (air sac) Alveolitis, alveoalgia
angio Blood or lymph vessel Angiocarditis, angioedema, angiogram,
angiohypertonia
arterio Artery Arteriography, arteriosclerosis, arteriospasm,
arthro Joint Arthrocentesis, arthrodynia, arthrometer
atelo Imperfect, incomplete Atelectasis, atelocardia, atelocephaly
Bio(s) Life Biochemical, biocide, biofilm, biorhythm

brachio Arm Brachial (artery, vein, nerve), brachiocephalic,

brachiation
broncho Airway Bronchiectasis, bronchiole, bronchitis
carbia, Carbon dioxide Hypercarbia (hypocarbia), hypercapnia
capnia (hypocapnia)
1Alveolus is Latin for small hollow or cavity. It is used for the air sacs in the lung,
the tooth sockets, the glandular structures of the breast, and the honeycomb
depressions of the gastric mucous membrane.
Reference: Note 8
 Word Roots & Combining Forms: Must Learn 2
Root Meaning (medical) Examples
cardio 1 Heart Cardiomegaly, cardiomyopathy
cephalo 2 Head Cephalad, cephalocele,
cerebro Brain Cerebrospinal, cerebration
cervico 3 Neck Cervical (nerve, vertebrae)
chondro Cartilage Chondralgia, chondrectomy, chondroitin
colo Colon Colectomy, colostomy, colic,
costo Ribs Costochondral, costopneumopexy
cranio Skull Craniocleidodysostosis, craniosclerosis
cutaneo Skin Cutis, subcutaneous,
derm, dermato Skin Dermatitis, dermatocele, dermatoconiosis
edema Swelling Pulmonary edema, lymphedema
entero Small intestine Enteritis, enteroparesis
1Cardia is a separate word that means the upper orifice of the stomach connecting with the esophagus.
The lower esophageal sphincter (the cardiac sphincter) controls movement of food from the esophagus to
the stomach.
2Cephalosporin is a drug derived from the fungus Acremonium (which used to be called cephalosporium.

3 Cervix is Latin for the neck or the part of an organ that resembles a neck; for example, the cervix of the

uterus (cervix uteri) and the cervical vertebrae in the neck.

9
 Word Roots & Combining Forms: Must Learn 3
Root Meaning (medical) Examples
epigloto Epiglottis Epiglottitis,
esophago Esophagus Esophagismus, esophagitis
flux Flow (discharge) from an Reflux, eflux
organ or body cavity
gastro Stomach Gastritis, gastrectomy
glomerulo Glomerulus Glomerulitis, glomerulonephritis,
gloso Tongue Glossolalia, glossoplasty
gravid Pregnant, heavy with child Gravidocardiac, unigravida
hemo Blood Hemagglutination, hematemesis
hidro Sweat Hidradenoma, hidrosis
hydro Water Hydrocele, hydrocephalus
laryngo Larynx Laryngectomy, laryngitis
lobo Lobe Lobectomy, lobule,
myelo Spinal cord, bone marrow Myelocele, myelofibrosis
naso Nose Nasogastric, nasoseptitis
Necro Death (usually of tissue) Necropneumonia, necrosis
10
 Word Roots & Combining Forms: Must Learn 4
Root Meaning (medical) Examples
nephro Kidney Nephritis, nephrectomy, nephroblastoma
neuro Nerve Neuralgia, neuritis, neuroblastoma
oro Mouth Oropharynx

ortho Straight, correct, Orthopnea, orthodeoxia, orthodontist

normal
osteo Bone Osteochondritis, osteoblast, osteoclast
oto Ear Otalgia, otorrhea, otoscope
oxo, oxy1 Oxygen Oxygen, oxygenase, oxidize
phlebo, veno Vein Phlebolithiasis, phlebotomy, venomotor
phreno Diaphragm Costophrenic, phrenoplegia, phrenospasm
pleuro Pleura Pleurisy, pleurodesis, pleurodynia
pneumo Lung, air Pneumatosis, pneumonectomy, pneumatic
pulmo Lung Pulmonary (disease, function test, etc.)
pyo Pus Pyogenic, pyopneumoperitonitis
1Oxy refers to oxygen in a compound or to a hydroxyl group in chemistry. It also means sharp
as in oxycephalous (a pointed head). By the way, an oxymoron (a self contradictory expression)
is made from the Greek oxy (sharp) and moros (dull) so oxymoron actually means sharp dull.
11
 Word Roots & Combining Forms: Must Learn 5
Root Meaning (medical) Examples
rhino Nose Rhinoplasty, rhinorrhea

Poisons of pathogenic Septicemia, septicophlebitis, septimetris (uterine

septic 1 organisms inflammation caused by sepsis).
spondyl Vertebra Spyndylodynia, spondylosis, spyndylolysis
syndes Ligaments and joints Syndesmitis, syndesmorrhaphy, syndesmoplasty
teno Tendon Tendonitis, tendoplasty, tenodynia
thoroac Thorax Thoracentesis, thoracoscopy
thrombo Clot Thrombosis, thrombocyte (platelet)
thyro Thyroid gland Thyrocele, thyroglobulin, thyrotomy
tonsillo Tonsil Tonsillectomy, tonsillitis
toxi, tox, toxo, 2 Poison Intoxication, toxicity, toxinosis, toxophore,
toxin
tracheo Trachea Tracheomalacia, tracheostenosis, tracheitis
tripsy Crushing Lithotripsy, angiotripsy, histotripsy
vaso Vessel (blood vessel) Vasoconstriction, vasomotor, vasopressor
1 Septi is a combining form (root) meaning the number seven, as in septigravida (seventh pregnancy).
2 Toxocara are intestinal worms and Toxoplasma are protozoan parasites:

• Toxocara canis causes toxocariasis and Toxoplasma gondi causes toxoplasmosis

12
Reference: Note
Introduction to Medical
Terminology
For Respiratory Care

Medical Prefixes and Suffixes

RTT 100
Professor Michael Nazzaro

13
 Medical Prefixes: Introduction
A prefix is a short word part (or parts) placed in front of a root. Prefixes
modify the meaning of the root usually by indicating some sort of relationship.
In Medical Terminology textbooks prefixes (and suffixes) are indicated by a dash:
A dash after the prefix (for example, dis-) indicates that “dis” is a prefix.
• Prefixes can indicate relationships of Position and Direction:
Contra- (against) + lateral = contralateral (opposite side).
Ipsi- (same) + lateral = ipsilateral: on the same side.
Ab- (of, away from, off) + duct = abduct: to draw (limbs) away from the body.
Ad-* (adherence, increase, toward) + duct – adduct: to draw toward the body.
• Prefixes can indicate relationships of Measurement, Time, and Number:
Di- (Gr. twice) + plopia = diplopia: two images of a single object (double vision).
Primi- (first) + gravida = primigravida: first pregnancy.
Uni- (one) + lateral = unilateral: affecting or involving one side.
• Prefixes can indicate relationships of Status (color, position, size, negation, etc.):
Alb- (L. white) + ouron (Gr. Urine) = albinuria.
Ante- (before, in front of) + cubital = antecubital (in front of the elbow).
Anti- (against, opposing, counteracting) + biotic = antibiotic (destructive to life).
Dys- (bad, poor, painful) + pnea = dyspnea (difficult breathing).
Dis- (L. apart, free of, undone from) + infect = disinfect.
*Note: while ad- is a prefix meaning adherence, increase, or toward as in adduct.
-ad is also used as a suffix meaning toward or in the direction of as in cephalad (toward the head).
Reference: Note 14
 Prefixes You Must Learn: Direction & Position 1
Prefix Meaning Examples
ab From, away from Abduct
ad To, toward, near Adduct
ana Up, against, back, through Anatomy, anatropia, anasarca
circum, peri Around Circumoral, perivascular
contra Opposite or against Contralateral
dia, per*, trans Through, across Diaphoresis, perfuse, transairway
ec, ex Outside, outer, out from Ectopic, excise, excrete, exotoxin
endo Inside Endothelium, endotoxin
epi Upon, over, at, after Epicardium, epicanthus, epinephrine
eu Healthy, normal, good, easy Eupnea, eukaryote, eustress
dis Free of, undone from Disinfect, disability, disarticulation
dys Bad, poor, difficult, painful Dyspnea, dysphagia, dysmenorrhea
infra Below, under, beneath, after Infracostal, infraglottic, infrastructure
intra Within Intrathoracic, intravenous
*Perfusion means to pour through. Blood perfuses the capillary beds (networks) in all the
tissues and organs of the body. The flow of blood is determined by the amount of pressure
the heart must generate to overcome the resistance of the blood vessels and the viscosity
of the blood. The relationship between pressure, resistance, and flow is one of the most
important concepts that respiratory care practitioners must understand.
15
Prefixes You Must Learn: Direction & Position 2
inter Between, in the midst Intercostal, interspace, interstitial
ipsi On the same side Ipsilateral
medi, meso Middle Mediastinum, mesoderm
meta After, beyond, over Metacarpal, metaplasia
pan, pant Complete, everything, all Panacea, pandemic, panarteritis 1,
pantalgia 2
par, para Near, beside, equal, beyond Paranasal, paramedic
sub Under, Below, less than Subcutaneous, subglottic,
normal subarachnoid
super, supra Above, superior, in excess Superoxide, supraventricular
ultra Beyond, excessive Ultrasonic, ultraviolet
There are two additional terms that are very important in medicine:
Brady (Gr. Slow) and Tachy (Gr. Rapid, swift, accelerated)
Medical terminology books call brady and tachy combining forms for the meanings
slow and fast, but most people simply use them as prefixes. For example,
bradycardia (abnormally slow heartbeat) and tachycardia (abnormally fast heart
rate). They can also be combined with pnea to refer to breathing rate as in
bradypnea and tachypnea.
1 Panarteritis means inflammation of all three layers of an artery.
2 Pantalgia means pain over the entire body.
16
 Prefixes You Must Learn: Number & Measurement
Prefix Meaning Examples
bi Twice, double, or two Bicellular, bicarbonate, bicuspid, bilateral
di Twice, double, or two Diploplia, disaccharide, diploid
hemi Half Hemisphere, hemiplegia
hyper Over, above, excessive Hypertension, hyperinflation, hyperplasia
iso Equal Isotonic, isomer, isobaric
macro Large, long Macroencephaly, macrobrachia, macrophage
micro Small Microencephaly, microbrachia, microphage
mono One Monocyte, monoclonal, monoparesis
multi, poly Many, much Multigravida, multipolar, polycythemia
primi First Primigravida, primipara
quad, quadri Four Quadripara, quadriplegia
re Back, again Rebreath, react, restore
semi Partial Semicircle, semilunar, semipermeable
tri Three Triage, tricuspid
uni One Unicellular, unipolar, unigravida

Reference: Note
17
 Prefixes of Color
Prefix Meaning Examples
alb, albumino, leuko White Albuminoid, leukocyte, leukemia
cirro, xantho Orange / Yellow Cirrhosis, xanthelasma, xanthocyanopia
chloro, chloros Green Chlorophyll, chloropia
cyano Blue / Gray Cyanosis, cyanuria, cyanopia
erythro Red Erythrocytosis, erysipelas, erythroblastoma
glauco, polio Gray Glaucoma, poliomyelitis, polioclastic
melano Black Melanocyte, melanoma, melanoplakia
purpuro Purple Purpura

Prefixes of Negation
Prefix Meaning Examples
a, an, ar Without, not, lack of abrachia, aphagia, aphasia, anoxia, arrhythmia
im, in Not Impotent, incontinent

Reference: Note
18
 Medical Suffixes: Introduction
A Suffix is a short word part (or parts) placed at the end of a word. Suffixes modify
the meaning of the root. In Medical Terminology textbooks suffixes are also indicated
by a dash: A dash before the suffix (for example, -ist) indicates that “ist” is a suffix.
Suffixes generally modify (slightly change) the meaning of the root.
• Modifying suffixes change nouns, verbs, and adjectives by slightly altering the word’s
meaning or focus.
– Adding -ad* to the noun root cephal/o creates the adverb cephalad meaning
toward the head.
– Adding -al to the noun root neur/o produces the adjective neural meaning
“pertaining to the nerves”.
– Adding the modifying suffix -er to the noun compound root radi/o/graph gives us
the noun radiographer meaning one who makes radiographs (X-Rays).
– Adding the modifying suffix -ist to the verb therapeia (Gr. Treatment) gives us
the noun therapist one who performs therapy.
– Adding the modifying suffix -ize to the adjective root immune (L. safe) makes
the transitive verb immunize meaning to make someone immune to a pathogen.
*Remember, while -ad is a suffix meaning toward or in the direction of (as in cephalad),
ad- is also a prefix meaning adherence, increase, or toward (as in adduct).

Diminutive Suffixes Meaning Example

(Indicate a small version of the noun)
ole Minute, little, or small Arteriole
icle “ Particle
ule “ Venule
19
 Medical Suffixes: Combining Suffixes
• Modifying suffixes are just syllables (sounds) attached to the end of a word:
-ad*, -ate, -ist, -oid, -ism, -ary, -ic, -ous, and all the others from Slide 19.
• A large number of actual words (roots) from the original Greek and Latin languages are only
used as suffixes.
– Some medical terminology textbooks call these words combining suffixes because they can
act as combining forms when combined with roots or when simply added directly to
prefixes.
– Combining suffixes are the only suffixes that can be added directly to prefixes, without using
a root, to make new words.
For example:
• dys is a prefix meaning bad, poor, or painful and pnea is a combining suffix meaning to
breathe.
– Together they form the term dyspnea which means difficult (not painful) breathing.
• In this case a prefix and a combining suffix make up a word.
– The combining suffixes are really a special class of roots.
– By convention, we don’t use combining suffixes as separate words, only as suffixes.
– The combining suffixes are just as important as all the other word roots in medical
terminology.
More examples:
1.In the medical term anesthesia:
– “an” is a prefix meaning without, not, or lack of.
– “esthesia” is a combining suffix from the Greek meaning feeling.
– Together they form the medical term anesthesia (without feeling).
2.In the medical term hemoptysis:
– “hemo” is the combining form for the Greek root hamia (blood).
– “ptysis” is a combining suffix from the Greek verb to spit.
– Together, they produce the medical term hemoptysis (coughing and then expectorating
bloody sputum).
20
 Combining Suffixes You Must Learn 1
Combining Suffix Meaning Examples
algia, algesia, dynia Pain, awareness of pain Myalgia, analgesia,
pleurodynia
asis, ism Condition, state of Homeostasis, embolism
asthenia Weakness Myasthenia
capnia, carbia Carbon dioxide (CO2) Hypocapnia, hypercarbia
cele Swelling, tumor, protrusion Hydrocele, pneumatocele
centesis Puncture Arthrocentesis, thoracentesis
crine Secrete Endocrine
ectasis Expansion, stretching, dilation Bronchiectasis
emia Condition of the blood Hypoxemia
esthesia Feeling (physical), awareness Anesthesia, myesthesia
globin Protein Hemoglobin, myoglobin
graph Recording instrument Electrocardiograph
itis Inflammation Bronchitis
malacia Softening Tracheomalacia
megaly Enlargement Hepatomegaly
Reference: Note 21
 Combining Suffixes You Must Learn 2
Combining Meaning Examples
Suffix
oma Tumor Adenoma
osis Condition (abnormal) Dermatophytosis
ostomy Artificial opening (surgical) Tracheostomy, colostomy
otomy 1 Surgical incision Thoracotomy, strabotomy
paresis Paralysis (partial) Hemiparesis
pathy Disease / feeling (emotional) Neuropathy, sympathy
penia Decrease Leukocytopenia
phag, phago Eating, ingestion, devouring Phagocyte
phagia Swallowing Dysphagia
phylaxis Protection Prophylaxis (anaphylaxis)
plasia Growth Neoplasia
plegia Paralysis Quadraplegia
pnea Breathing Eupnea, dyspnea
ptysis To spit Hemoptysis

1 Otomy is the surgical incision needed to make an ostomy or to open an infected or air
filled location of the body for treatment.

22
 Combining Suffixes You Must Learn 3
Combining Suffix Meaning Examples
rrhea Discharge Rhinorrhea
sclerosis Hardening Atherosclerosis
scope View, examine (instrument) Stethoscope, bronchoscope
scopy Examination (with an instrument) Endoscopy, bronchoscopy
spasm Involuntary muscle contraction Bronchospasm, laryngospasm
sphygmo, sphyxia1 Pulse Sphygmomanometer, asphyxia
Stasis Stoppage of normal fluid flow) Mucostasis, venostasis
stenosis Constriction, narrowing Mitral stenosis
toxic, toxin Poison Cytotoxic

tresis Opening or perforation (refers to a Atresia (an abnormal condition

normal anatomical opening) where a passage is not open)
troph, trophy Nourishment, development, growth, Autotroph, hypertrophy, dystrophy
tropin Stimulate (especially hormones) Adrenocorticotropin
uria (not urea), uric Pertaining to (condition of) urine Nocturia, hematuria, uric acid
1 Sphygmo and sphyxia are Latin for pulse, pulsation, or throbbing.
• Today, the term asphyxia means a lack of oxygen which causes hypoxia, hypercapnia,
unconsciousness, and death.
• In ancient times, lack of a palpable pulse was considered a primary sign of death.
23
Introduction to Medical
Terminology
For Respiratory Care

Pronunciation of Medical Terms

RTT 100
Professor Michael Nazzaro

24
 Medical Terms: Pronunciation
The DVD that came with Taber’s Medical contains pronunciation for all the words in the book. The phonetic
pronunciations in the dictionary and the University of Wisconsin terminology website are helpful:
http://www.wisc-online.com/objects/ViewObject.aspx?ID=GEN504
• When learning new words, repeat them aloud and listen to how they sound.
– Pronunciations may change when different word elements are combined.
Pronouncing Vowels Pronouncing the Soft and Hard C and G
• Vowels with no pronunciation marks get short • When C and G come before the vowels E, I, and
pronunciation Y, they sound like S and J: (the soft or short
– ‘a’ as in hat sound):
• A short line (called a macron) over a vowel indicates – Cephalic, Cingulum, Cycloid, Gelosis,
long pronunciation: Gingival, Gyrus.
– Ā indicates the long A as in “say.” • When C and G come before all other letters they
• A curved line (˘) called a breve printed above a vowel usually get the hard (long) sound as in cake an
indicates the short pronunciation: go:
– “Ă” indicates the short A as in apple. – Cardiac, Cranial, Gastric, Gonad.

Letter combinations CH, AE, AO Words Ending in E, ES, and I

• CH is pronounced like K:
– Chromatin is pronounced kromatin
– Cholesterol is pronounced kolesterol
• When AE and OE are combined, only the
second letter is pronounced:
– Aerosol, Pleurae, Coelom, Oedipus
• When a word ends in E or ES the ending is usually
pronounced as a separate syllable:
– Nares (Nar ez), Syncope (Syncop ee).
• When the letter “I” is used to form the Latin plural, it usually
gets the hard (long) sound:
– Bronchi (Bronch eye), Fungi (Fung eye).

Suffixes beginning with RH: Words ending in the letter “X”

• Double the r in suffixes beginning with rh • When adding a suffix to these words change the X to C or G:
– Hem/o (blood) + -rhage (bursting forth) • When the noun pharynx (throat) changes to an adjective,
= hemorrhage. change the X to G and add the suffix al to get pharyngeal
– Men/o (menses) + -rhea (flow, (referring to the pharynx as in pharyngeal carcinoma).
discharge) = menorrhea (menstrual • To add the suffix otomy (incision) to thorax (chest), change
blood flow). the X to C and add the suffix to get thoracotomy
Reference: all Taber’s entries, and the Taber’s DVD 25
 Changing Singular Terms to Plurals
Examples
Singular Ending Plural Ending
Singular Pleural
a ae Pleura Pleurae
ax aces Thorax Thoraces
en ina Lumen Lumina
ex ices Apex Apices
ix ices Appendix Appendices
ma mata * Carcinoma Carcinomata
on a Ganglion Ganglia
sis ses Diagnosis Diagnoses
um a Bacterium Bacteria
us i* Embolus, Digitus Emboli, Digiti
y ies Deformity Digiti
* In modern usage the plural of carcinoma is usually carcinomas and the
plural of virus is usually viruses, but some writers like to use the archaic (old
fashioned) forms to show how well educated they are and to confuse those
with less education.

26
Introduction to Medical
Terminology
For Respiratory Care

Analyzing & Defining Medical Terms

RTT 100
Professor Michael Nazzaro

27
 Medical Terms: Translating (Decoding)
The best way to find the meaning of medical terms is to use a three step process:
• Start by identifying and defining the suffix (if there is one).
• Next identify and define the prefix (if there is one).
• Finally, identify and define the root or roots (if it is a compound term)..
• Example 1: Laryngotracheobronchitis.
– Itis is a combining suffix meaning inflammation (swelling).
– In decoding this word, the presence of the suffix itis is a gift because it means
that all of the terms to the left of itis must be tissues that can become inflamed.
– Laryngo. tracheo, and broncho are the combining forms of the word roots for the
larynx, the trachea, and the bronchi.
– This long, complex compound word simply means “inflammation of the larynx,
trachea, and bronchi.”
• Example 2: Methemoglobinemia.
– Emia, derived from the Greek word hamia (blood) is a suffix meaning blood
condition.
– methemoglobin is an abnormal form of hemoglobin (the molecule responsible for
carrying most of the oxygen in the blood).
– Methemoglobinemia is another compound word. It means “an excessive
amount of methemoglobin in the blood.”
• Methemoglobin is referred to as a hemoglobin derivative (one of many
types).
• Hemoglobin derivatives are abnormal forms that are unable to carry oxygen
and carbon dioxide.
Reference: Note 28
 Medical Word Analysis: Example 1

Arthritis
• Does the term have a suffix? Yes
No
– What does it mean? ___________
• Does the term have a prefix? Yes
– What does it mean? ___________ No
• Does the term have a root(s)? Yes
• What does the term mean? No
_________________________________

29
 Medical Word Analysis: Example 2

dyspnea
• Does the term have a suffix? Yes
No
– What does it mean? ___________
• Does the term have a prefix? Yes
– What does it mean? ___________ No
• Does the term have a root(s)? Yes
• What does the term mean? No
_________________________________

30
 Medical Word Analysis: Example 4

laryngotracheobronchitis
• Does the term have a suffix? Yes
No
– What does it mean? ___________
• Does the term have a prefix? Yes
– What does it mean? ___________ No
• Does the term have a root(s)? Yes
• What does the term mean? No
_________________________________

31
 Medical Word Analysis: Example 5

tachycardia
• Does the term have a suffix? Yes
No
– What does it mean? ___________
• Does the term have a prefix? Yes
– What does it mean? ___________ No
• Does the term have a root(s)? Yes
• What does the term mean? No
_________________________________

32
 Medical Word Analysis: Example 6

neonatal
• Does the term have a suffix? Yes
No
– What does it mean? ___________
• Does the term have a prefix? Yes
– What does it mean? ___________ No
• Does the term have a root(s)? Yes
• What does the term mean? No
_________________________________

33
 Introduction to Medical
Terminology
For Respiratory Care
Basic Disease & Physics Terms Important in
Respiratory Care

RTT 100
Professor Michael Nazzaro

34
 Basic Disease Terms: You Must Understand 1
Disease Term Definition
Having a rapid onset, severe symptoms, and a short course;
Acute opposite of chronic, (acute also means sharp and severe as in an
acute angle).
Fulminant (fulminating) a term related to acute, indicating a condition that
occurs very suddenly and is so severe that it may be rapidly fatal
Acute on Clinical term for an exacerbation of a chronic condition (as in the
Chronic case of an emphysema patient who develops pneumonia).
A disorder of long duration and slow progression showing little or
Chronic no change. Opposite of acute.
Exacerbation A worsening of a (usually chronic) condition.
Clinical The stage of a condition that produces signs and symptoms
Sub-clinical The stage of a condition before signs and symptoms occur.
Sign Any objective evidence of an illness or disorder.
Symptom The patient’s subjective experience of an illness or disorder.
A group of clinical manifestations (signs & symptoms) that occur
Syndrome together when the reason (the pathophysiology causing the
manifestations) has not yet been identified.
Remission Lessening in the severity of disease symptoms (used in cancer to
describe the temporary absence of symptoms without a cure).
. 35
 Basic Disease Terms: You Must Understand 2
Disease Term Definition
The usual number of cases (prevalence) of a disease in a particular place
Endemic during a particular time period (the endemic baseline).

The occurrence of cases of a disease in excess of the expected number

Epidemic (in epidemiology; the endemic baseline).

Pandemic An epidemic effecting large numbers of people over a wide geographic

area.
Mode of The physical mechanism (form of contact) by which pathogens are
Transmission transferred from the reservoir to the susceptible host to cause infection.
Community An infection acquired outside of a health care facility (as in community
acquired acquired pneumonia).
An infection (or injury) acquired while a patient was in a health care facility
Nosocomial (as in nosocomial pneumonia). Current usage prefers the term Healthcare
Associated Infection (HAE).
A harm or injury caused by medical treatment administered by healthcare
Iatrogenic practitioners\.
The time elapsed between exposure to a pathogen and the development
Incubation period of signs and symptoms.
Idiopathic (or A disease or condition without an identifiable cause (medicine doesn’t
essential) know what made it happen, as in essential hypertension).

36
 Physics Terms Used In Respiratory Care 1
Mechanics, the study of force and matter, describes many of the processes of cardiopulmonary physiology.
Air and blood are two fluids that are essential to life. Mechanics describes the physical interactions between
these fluids and the biological structures that contain them (the airways, alveoli, and chest wall, and the heart
and blood vessels). Critical care practitioners encounter the concepts of work, resistance, pressure,
volume, and flow on a daily basis as they assess and treat patients with abnormal patterns of lung and
cardiovascular mechanics.
• Work is the application of energy to matter in order to overcome resistance and cause movement (flow).
– In physics work is the amount of force needed to move an object multiplied by the distance the object is
moved. The equation: Work = Force X Distance.
– In the body, the respiratory muscles apply energy to air (a gaseous fluid) to overcome the physiological
resistances of the airways, alveoli, and chest wall to move air into the lungs while passive elastic recoil
moves the air out. This is called the Work of Breathing (WOB).
– The heart applies energy to the blood (a liquid fluid) to overcome vascular resistance and move (pump)
blood through the blood vessels. This is called the myocardial work or heart work.
– Applying the work equation to cardiopulmonary physiology, FORCE is stated as the pressure needed to
move the fluid and DISTANCE is stated as the volume (amount) of fluid moved.
• Force is the energy that starts or stops movement, a force can best be described as:
– Any push or pull that causes something to move or to change its speed or direction.
• When a force is applied to an object, the velocity (speed) of that object changes and the object moves.
• This change in velocity is called an acceleration.
– When the respiratory muscles impart a force (pull) to a mass (air) the mass accelerates in the direction
of the force and we inspire (inhale).
– When stored energy in the elastic alveoli and chest wall impart a force (push) to the air in the lungs, we
expire (exhale).
• Force has both magnitude and direction making it a vector quantity .
• Pressure has magnitude but lacks direction (since it exerts its force equally in all directions) therefore
pressure is a scalar quantity..
– Vectors and Scalars will be very important when you study ventilator and cardiac waveforms
37
 Physics Terms Used In Respiratory Care 2
• Pressure: Is the effect that occurs when a force is applied to a surface. The classical formula
is P= F/A. (P= pressure, F= force, A= area).
– In cardiopulmonary physiology pressure is the result of muscle energy applied to a fluid to move it
against a resistance (remember work of breathing & myocardial work).
– Increases in resistance (airway and elastic resistance in the lungs and vascular resistance in the
circulatory system) increase the workload (or simply load) of the respiratory muscles and the heart.
• Placing a patient on a mechanical ventilator unloads the respiratory muscles.
• Treating a congestive heart failure patient with inotropic diuretics helps to unload the heart muscle.
• In homeostasis (normal physiological states), pressure can be thought of as a form of energy
produced by muscle activity to move air in and out of the lungs and to pump blood through the
vascular system.
• In pathological (disease states) the muscle energy available may not be sufficient to move
enough air or blood to keep the body alive.
– Without mechanical and/or pharmaceutical support to unload the muscles, the patient will die.
• Pressure is also exerted when compressed gas such as oxygen is used to power devices like
nebulizers.
– Energy in the form of pressure from a powered machine (a compressor) forces the gas into rigid
cylinders or through piping systems into medical gas delivery devices and mechanical ventilators.
• Resistance: Is any force that opposes movement.
– For fluid to flow through tubes (like airways & blood vessels) enough energy (pressure) must be applied
to overcome the tube resistance.
– Airway resistance (RAW) and vascular resistance are usually measured indirectly as the pressure needed
to overcome the resistance. The classical formula measures resistance of a tube by dividing flow rate
into the pressure drop across the tube (P1 - P2).
(𝐏𝟏−𝐏𝟐)
R= (note that the V has a dot over it)
𝐕
– Conditions like asthma, bronchitis and pneumonia increase airway resistance and Work of Breathing
which requires the respiratory muscles work harder.
– Narrowing of blood vessels increases their resistance and is a major cause of hypertension
Reference: Text pg. 123 38
 Physics Terms Used In Respiratory Care 3
• Volume: In physics volume is defined as the amount of three dimensional space that an object
occupies.
– In clinical practice we talk about the volume of gas in the lungs and the volume of blood in
the vascular system.
– A quantity of gas or blood in a confined space (for example gas in a cylinder or in the alveoli
and blood in the vasculature) will generate a pressure.
• The greater the volume (quantity) of fluid flowing or the tighter the enclosure the fluid is
flowing through (asthmatic airways or plaque lined blood vessels) the more energy
(pressure) the muscles will have to generate.
• Flow: Is defined as the quantity of fluid (liquids and gases) that pass a given point in a unit of
time. The classical formula is:
𝐐 F= flow rate Note: The letter Q by itself means quantity (the units of volume for fluids
F= Q= volume of fluid such as blood and gas are liters and milliliters). A “Q” with a dot over it
𝐓 T= time means flow (the movement of a quantity of fluid per unit of time).

• Resistance: Is any force that opposes movement.

– For fluid to flow through tubes (like airways & blood vessels) enough energy (pressure)
must be applied to overcome the tube resistance.
– Airway resistance (RAW ) and vascular resistance are usually measured indirectly as the
pressure needed to overcome the resistance. The classical formula measures resistance of
a tube by dividing the flow rate into the pressure drop across the tube (P1 - P2).
(𝐏𝟏−𝐏𝟐)
R= (note that the V has a dot over it)
𝐕
– Conditions like asthma, bronchitis and pneumonia increase airway resistance and Work of
Breathing (make the respiratory muscles to work harder).
– Narrowing of blood vessels increases their resistance and is a major cause of hypertension
Reference: Text pg. 122-3 39
 Introduction to Medical
Terminology
For Respiratory Care
Abbreviations & Symbols Used in Pulmonary Medicine

RTT 100
Professor Michael Nazzaro

40
 Greek Letters: Used in Physics & Mechanics
Lower Capital English Common meanings in Physics (primarily mechanics and physiology).
case name
α А alpha Solubility coefficient (see Henry’s law). Alpha particle (helium nucleus)
β B beta The intensity (amplitude) of sound. Beta particle (a high energy electron)..

Surface tension. Ratio of heat capacities in an ideal gas,

Г gamma
Gamma ray (a high energy electromagnetic wave).
∆ = Change in a numerical value (or change in a patient’s condition).
б ∆ delta
Б = Infinitesimal (a small, hardly noticeable) change in a value.
η H eta Viscosity coefficient of a fluid.

θ Θ theta Temperature.
λ Λ lambda Wavelength.

μ M mu In statistics (lower case μ) indicates the arithmetic average or mean of the population. It
is aso the SI symbol for micro.
π Π pi Circle number π: = 3.14159...

p Ρ rho Density (per unit of volume).

ό Σ sigma Sum (in statistics). Uncertainty (in measurement). Surface density.

х χ chi Susceptibility (to a disease in epidemiology).

ω Ω omega Ohms (the unit of electrical resistance

Many of these Greek letters are used as symbols in physics & clinical equations that you may see in
books and scientific journal articles. While it isn’t necessary to memorize them, having them
available as a reference will help you to understand what you read in sources beyond the textbook.

41
 Medical Abbreviations: Introduction
• Abbreviations are often used in
written communication, especially The American Thoracic Society
charting. and the American College of
• However, in many cases Chest Physicians have
abbreviations can be confusing and standardized a number of
even dangerous. abbreviations for use in
– The Joint Commission (TJC) and the pulmonary medicine. The
U.S. Food and Drug Administration standardized list includes:
(FDA) recommend that abbreviations 1. General Abbreviations.
be limited to those that are generally
agreed upon, standardized, and well 2. Abbreviations related to
understood across science and measurements made in the
medicine. gas phase.
– Many hospitals have lists of 3. Abbreviations related
accepted abbreviations used in the measurements made in the
facility. blood phase.
• Since charting is about clear 4. Abbreviations related to
communication, it is a good idea to pulmonary physiology and
avoid abbreviations unless you are pulmonary mechanics (the
absolutely sure they will be physics of breathing).
understood by whoever reads your
notes.
Reference: Taber’s pg. 2575, Egan Inside Front Cover
42
 Medical Abbreviations: Introduction
• Abbreviations are often used in written communication, especially charting.
• Generally, abbreviations can be confusing and even dangerous.
– JCAHO and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) recommend that
abbreviations be limited to those that are generally agreed upon and well
understood across science and medicine.
– Many hospitals have lists of accepted abbreviations used in the facility.
• Since charting is about clear communication, it is a good idea to avoid abbreviations
unless you are absolutely sure they will be understood by whoever reads your notes.
• Many standardized, well understood abbreviations are simply shorthand for Latin
words:

Abbreviation Meaning
BID Latin for bis in die (Twice a Day).
T.I.D. Latin for ter in die (Three Times a Day).
Q.I.D. Latin for quarter in die (Four Times a Day).
QD Latin for quaque die (Every Day or Once a Day)
Qn H Every number (n) of Hours, as in Q4H (Every Four Hours).
PRN Latin for pro re nata, “for the thing born” (means Give As Needed).
STAT Latin statim “immediately.” (means Do At Once or Immediately)

43
 Symbols and Abbreviations: General Symbols
Symbol Definition

P Pressure in general (Blood Pressure is BP, etc.).

V Volume in general (Tidal Volume is VT, etc.).
A dot over a symbol (called “X dot”) indicates time, for example: V
X means flow (volume moved per unit of time). With flow rates time is
measured either in minutes or seconds.
A dash over a symbol (called “X bar”) indicates a mean value: 𝐏 means
X average (or mean) pressure.
% sign in front of a value means the percentage of the predicted normal
%X
value (usually used when reporting laboratory test results).
A ratio between two values expressed as a percent (in pulmonary function
X/Y%
testing the FEV1/FVC ratio is expressed as a percent).
f Frequency, the rate at which an event occurs (Respiratory Rate: f 14/min).
t Time: Inspiratory and expiratory times are TI and TE
anat Abbreviation for anatomic (VDanat means anatomic dead space).
max Abbreviation for maximum (Pmax means the maximum pressure reached).
Reference: Egan Inside Front Cover 44
 Gas & Blood Phase: Primary Symbols
Gas Definition
Phase Blood Definition
Phase
P Gas pressure
Q Quantity (Blood volume)1
V Gas volume 1

Gas flow (volume flow Q Fluid flow (Blood flow)

V rate)
F Fractional concentration C Content of gas in blood
Respiratory Exchange Saturation of hemoglobin
R S with oxygen
Ratio2
1 The body constantly regulates the cardiovascular system and the respiratory
system to maintain the ratio of air inhaled into the alveoli of the lungs and the blood
perfusing the alveolar capillaries as close even as possible. This is called the V/Q
ratio and ideally, it should be as close to 1 as possible.
2 R is a constant (1.25) used in the ideal alveolar gas equation to correct for the
movement of oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2) in and out of the pulmonary
capillary blood during breathing.

Reference: Egan Inside Front Cover 45

 Gas & Blood Phase: Secondary (Qualifying) Symbols
Gas Definition Blood Definition
Phase Phase
I Inspired or Inspiratory a Arterial
E Expired or Expiratory c Capillary
A Alveolar v Venous
B barometric Mixed venous (blood)
D or DS Deadspace p Pulmonary
L Lung
s Shunt
T Tidal
Secondary Symbols are used to qualify a primary symbol and are usually written
either as small capitals or in subscript (as in VT or VT).
E PB Barometric pressure.
x
a FIO2 Fractional concentration of inspired oxygen.
m V CO2 Carbon dioxide production per minute.
p
l Qs
e Ratio between shunted cardiac output and total cardiac output.
Qt
s
Reference: Egan Inside Front Cover 46
Pressure, Temperature & Humidity: Gas Phase
Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP) are the standard conditions used in physics
and chemistry when studying chemicals and gases to allow comparisons between data from
different labs and experiments.
• STP is 0 °C (32 °F or 273 Kelvin) and 1 atmosphere (atm.) of pressure.
– These values represent the temperature at which water freezes and the average level
of atmospheric pressure at sea level.
• 1 atm. equals: 760 mmHg, it also equals 101.335 kPa, and 14.7 PSIG1.
• STPD Standard Temperature and Pressure Dry (the conditions of a volume of gas at 0o c,
760 mmHg pressure and containing no water vapor – dry).
• BTPS Body Temperature and Pressure Saturated (the conditions of a volume of gas at
body temperature 370 c, ambient pressure, and saturated with water vapor).
• ATPD Ambient Temperature and Pressure, Dry).
• ATPS Ambient Temperature and Pressure, Saturated).
The Gas Laws describe how gas volumes change according to temperature and pressure.
When gas in the lungs (BTPS) is exhaled into a spirometer (a device to measure inhaled or
exhaled gas) the spirometer is at ATPS and a conversion must be performed. This is another
reason why physics is so important in cardiopulmonary medicine and respiratory care.
1kPa = kilopascals, the SI unit for pressure..
mmHg = millimeters of mercury, the Metric (CGS) System unit for pressure.
Torr = abbreviation for Torricelli, the inventor of the barometer (used interchangeably with
mmHg).
PSIG = pounds per square inch, the FPS System unit for pressure.

Reference: Text pg. 114-5 47

 Abbreviations: Used in Pulmonary Physiology
There are 4 lung capacities and 4 lung volumes. Each capacity consists of 2 or more of
the lung volumes:
• TLC: Total Lung Capacity
– The total amount of air in the lungs after a maximal inspiration (the maximum amount of air
that a person can inhale).
– TLC is equal to the sum of all the lung volumes.
• VC: Vital Capacity
– The maximum amount of air that can be exhaled after a maximal inspiration.
– VC is equal to the sum of the inspiratory reserve volume, the tidal volume, and the
expiratory reserve volume..
• VT: Tidal Volume:
– The amount of air that is inhaled or exhaled during each normal, resting (non-exercise)
breath.
• IC: Inspiratory Capacity:
– The maximum amount of air that can be inhaled from the resting end-expiratory level (the
FRC).
– IC is equal to the sum of the tidal volume and the inspiratory reserve volume.
• IRV: Inspiratory Reserve Volume:
– The maximum volume of air air that can be inhaled after a normal inspiration (without first
exhaling any of the tidal volume air).
• ERV: Expiratory Reserve Volume:
– The maximum volume of air that can be exhaled after a normal exhalation (without first
inhaling any more air).
• FRC: Functional Residual Capacity:
– The total amount of air left in the lung after a normal exhalation.
– FRC equals the sum of the expiratory reserve volume and the residual volume.
• RV: Residual Volume:
– The amount of air left in the lungs after a maximal exhalation.
– The RV cannot be expelled from the lungs even with a forceful exhalation.
Reference: Note, Text pg. 414-15 and Fig. 20-10 48
 Introduction to Systems OF
Measurement
For Respiratory Care

Systems of Measurement Used in Pulmonary Medicine

RTT 100
Professor Michael Nazzaro

49
 Measurement Systems: Introduction
Measurement is at the heart of science and clinical
medicine. Without measurements to test a
hypothesis, science and medicine are simply
guesswork.
Any object can be assessed by measuring its:
Mass, temperature, volume, length, density, color,
charge, melting point, boiling point, hardness,
molecular weight, pressure, frequency, etc.
• Measured quantities have units attached to them.
• Unfortunately, different units are often used to
describe the same measured quantity, for example,
length can be described in terms of inches,
centimeters, meters, yards, kilometers, miles etc.).
There are three basic measurement systems in use :
1. The Imperial System ; the Foot, Pound, Second
(FPS) system originated in ancient times.
• It is scaled to the dimensions and needs of the
human body and people in small agricultural
communities.
2. The Metric System; the Centimeter, Gram, Second
(CGS) system was developed during the French
Revolution in the 18th Century.
•It was designed to make measurement rational
and systematized.
•The system also allowed technical measurements
of both very large (cosmic) and very small
quantities.
3. The International System (SI) is a modernized
version of the Metric System.
Antoine Lavoisier named (discovered) oxygen and • It was established in 1960 with new base units
hydrogen and helped design the Metric System. named to honor great (mostly French) scientists
He was beheaded by the French Revolution in 1794 and to provide for measurement of quantities that
were unknown in the 18th century.
50
Measurement Systems: Base Units & Subdivisions
There are three measurement systems in common use:
1. The British or Imperial system (also called the FPS System) used in the United States.
– The FPS system uses familiar units of feet, inches, miles, pounds, ounces, etc.
2. The Metric System (also called the CGS System) used in most other countries.
3. The International System (also called the SI System of the MKS System) is an updated
version of the Metric System largely used in science.
• All three systems use base units for length, mass, and time:
– The FPS base units are the foot, the pound, and the second (FPS)
– The Metric base units are the centimeter, the gram, and the second (CGS).
– The SI base units are the meter, the kilogram, and the second (MKS).
• The FPS System is a fractional system where the base units are divided into halves, quarters,
eights, sixteenths, thirty seconds, sixty fourths, etc.
• The Metric and SI systems are decimal systems where the base units are multiplied or divided
by 10.
– Whether the base unit is multiplied or divided depends on the prefix used.
– Greek prefixes indicate a smaller value of the base unit, so division is required.
– Latin prefixes indicate a larger value of the base unit, so multiplication is required.
– In either case all that is needed is to move the decimal point and fill in with zeroes as
necessary:
– For example, to convert 12.54 kilometers to centimeters
1. There are 5 prefixes from, kilo to centi (kilo, hecto, deca, deci, centi).
2. 12.54 kilometers becomes 1,254,000 centimeters (the decimal is moved 5 places to
the right and the three spaces are filled in with zeroes).
– Convert 500 milliliters (mL) to Liters (L):
1. There are three prefixes from Liters to milliliters (milli, centi, and deci).
2. 500 mL becomes 0.5 L (the decimal is moved three places to the left).
51
 Decimal Base Units: Manipulation
The metric prefixes are based on powers of 10, each prefix is:
• 10 times larger than the prefix to its right
• 10 times Smaller than the prefix to its left

Converting between units within a system that uses decimal base units and
positive and negative exponents is simply a matter of moving the decimal point to
the right or to the left.

Positive Exponent (Greek Base

Negative Exponent (Latin prefix)
prefix) Unit
deca meter deci centi milli
kilo hecto
X 10 1/10 1/100 1/1,000
X 1000 X 100 gram
(103) (102) 0.1 0.01 0.001
(101) liter (10−1) (10−2) (10−3)
--For Example--
Centimeters are 10 times larger than millimeters:
1 centimeter = 10 millimeters (30 cm = 300 mm).
Millimeters are 10 times smaller than centimeters:
1 millimeter = 0.001 meter or 0.1 centimeter (30 mm = 3.0 cm)
1 Liter = 1,000 milliliters
1 deciliter = 100 milliliters or 0.1 Liter

Reference: Note
52
 Decimal Systems: Base Units & Subdivisions
1 centimeter is divided into 10 millimeters
Centimeters are ten times larger than millimeters so
it takes ten millimeters to make one centimeter.

40 41
1 cm

40 41
1 mm 1 mm 1 mm 1 mm 1 mm 1 mm 1 mm 1 mm 1 mm 1 mm

53
 Decimal (CGS & SI) Systems: Prefixes
The key to understanding the Metric System is knowing (memorizing)
the prefixes used with each base unit.
Highlighted prefixes are the ones most frequently used in clinical practice

Greek Prefixes denote multiplication of Latin Prefixes denote multiplication of the

the base unit by a positive exponent base unit by a negative exponent
PREFIX ABBREVIATION POWER
PREFIX ABBREVIATION POWER

deca da 101 deci d 10-1

hecto h 102 centi c 10-2

kilo k 103 milli m 10-3

micro μ 10-6
mega M 106
nano n 10-9
giga G 109
pico p 10-12
tera T 1012
femto f 10-15
Note: Only the prefixes M, G, and
T are capitalized atto a 10-18

54
 Decimal Systems: Micro & Macro Prefixes
For most every-day measurements the prefixes milli, centi, deci, deka,
hecto, and kilo work fine. But sometimes we need much smaller (micro) or
larger (macro) multiples:

Micro Measures Fraction or Multiple

Prefix Fraction
Micro 10-6 (1 millionth)
Nano 10-9 (1 billionth)
Pico 10-12 (1 trillionth)
Femto 10-15 (1 quadrillionth)
Atto 10-18 (1 quintillionth)
Macro Measures Multiple
Mega 106 (1 million)
Giga 109 (1 billion)
Tera 1012 (1 trillion)
Peta 1015 (1 quadrillion)

55
 Conversion Factors: You Should Know
Conversion Factors allow us to multiply the known value by a pre-calculated factor to get the
unknown value. Conversion factors are convenient but they usually don’t give an exact conversion.

To Convert Multiply by Conversion Factor Example

Kilograms to pounds: Kg x 2.202 (2.2) 70 kg x 2.2 ≈ 154 lbs.
Pounds to kg: lb x 0.4536 (0.454) 150 lbs. x 0.454 ≈ 68 kg.
Inches to cm: in x 2.540 60 x 2.540 = 152.4 cm
cm to inches: cm x 0.3937 152 cm x 0.3937 = 59.8 in.
Inches to mm: In x 25.40 60 x 25.40 = 1524.0 mm
ft3 to liters: ft3 x 28.32 30 ft3 x 28.32 ≈ 850 L
ft3 to gallons: ft3 x 7.48 30 ft3 x 7.48 ≈ 224 gal.
cmH2O to kPa: cmH2O x 0.09806 1033.6 cmH2O x 0.09806 = 101.35 kPa.
psi to kPa: psi x 6.895 14.689 psi x 6.895 ≈ 101.28 kPa.
psi to cmH2O: psi x 70.31 14.689 psi x 70.31 ≈ 1032.7 cmH2O
cmh2O to mmHg cmH2O x 0.7355 1033.6 cmH2O x 0.7355 ≈ 760.21 mmHg.
mmHg to cmH2O mmHg x 1.36 760 mmHg = 1033.6 cmH2O
mmHg to kPa mmHg x 0.1333 760 mmHg x 0.1333 ≈ 101.08 kPa.

Highlighted conversions represent ambient (atmospheric) pressure at sea level expressed in

`The FPS, CGS, and SI system units.

Reference: Note, Text, pg. 115, Medical Terminology Slide 50 & its Note. 56
 Converting Pressures: Unit Factor Analysis
• Respiratory Care Practitioners (RCPs) often have to convert clinical pressure measurements.
− Commonly, we have to convert the following pressures:
• Centimeters of water (cmH2O) to millimeters of mercury (mmHg also called torr),
• Pounds per square inch (psig) to cmH2O,
• mmHg to kilopascals (kPa). Note: the Pascal is a tiny unit, so we use kilopascals (kPa).
• One approach to this problem would be to memorize the conversion factors (on Slide 3).
• An easier and more accurate approach is to memorize the value for one atmosphere (1 atm.)
in each of the four systems we have to use:
• 1 atm = 760 mmHg.
• 1 atm = 1,034 cmH2O. All of these numbers mean the same thing, they
• 1 atm = 14.7 (≈ 15 psig). are unit factors for 1 atmosphere of pressure.
• 1 atm = 101.325 (≈101) kPa.
• Next we use some simple algebra to perform unit factor analysis to convert between systems.
− “Unit factor analysis” (aka dimensional analysis)is a fancy way of saying that we are
comparing two values that have different names and different numbers but actually have
the same value and MEAN THE SAME THING.
− A simple algebra equation will let us convert between these unit factors.

1 atm (in the units we want to convert 𝐓𝐎) 𝐱 the value we want to 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡 𝑭𝑹𝑶𝑴
1 atm in the units we want to convert 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎

For example: To convert 590 torr to cmH2O:

1034 cmH2O X 590 torr 610060 cmH2O The torr units cancel out leaving
= = 807.71 cmH2O just the desired units of cmH2O
760 torr 760

Reference: Note, Text pg. 105, Medical Terminology Slide 51 4

 Decimal Systems: Practice Problems
1. 100 mg = _________ g 13. 2000 mg = _________ g
2. 160 cm = _________ mm 14. 160 mm = _________ cm
3. 109 g = _________ kg 15. 65 g = _________ kg
4. 14 L = _________ mL 16. 1 L = _________ mL
5. 100 g = _________ kg 17. 1000 g = _________ mg
6. 14 km = _________ m 18. 14 km = _________ m
7. 250 m = _________ km 19. 250 km = _________ m
8. 100 mg = _________ g 20. 100 mg = _________ g
9. 160 cm = _________ mm 21. 160 cm = _________ mm
10. 109 g = _________ kg 22. 109 g = _________ kg
11. 100 mL = _________ L 23. 25 µL = _________ mL
12. 250 m = _________ km 24. 5.6 m = _________ km

56