BIOLOGY – 2ND SEMESTER

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
- A complex network of glands and organs
- Uses hormones to control and coordinate the body’s metabolism, energy level,
reproduction, growth and development, and response to injury, stress, and
mood.
PARTS

 HYPOTHALAMUS
– located at the base of the brain, near the optic chiasm (where the optic
nerves behind each eye cross and meet).
– Secretes hormones that stimulate
– OR suppress the release of hormones in the pituitary gland, in addition to
controlling water balance, sleep, temperature, appetite, and blood
pressure.
 PINEAL GLAND
– located below the corpus callosum (middle of the brain).
– Produces the hormone melatonin, which helps the body know when it’s
time to sleep.

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 PITUITARY GLAND
– located below the brain.
– no larger than a pea, controls many functions of the other endocrine
glands.
 THRYROID AND PARATHYROID GLANDS
– are located in front of the neck, below the larynx (voice box).
– THYROID GLAND plays an important role in the body’s metabolism.
– PARATHYROID GLANDS play an important role in the regulation of the
body’s calcium balance.
 THYMUS
– located in the upper part of the chest
– produces white blood cells that fight infections and destroy abnormal cells.
 ADRENAL GLAND
– located on top of each kidney
– work hand-in-hand with the hypothalamus and pituitary gland
– makes and releases corticosteroid hormones and epinephrine that
maintain blood pressure and regulate metabolism.
 PANCREAS
– located across the back of the abdomen, behind the stomach.
– Plays a role in digestion, as well as hormone production.
– These hormones produced include insulin and glucagon, regulate levels of
sugar.
 OVARY AND TESTIS
– ovaries are located on both sides of the uterus, below the opening of the
fallopian tubes. It contains the egg cells and produces estrogen and
progesterone.
– Testis are located in a pouch that hangs suspended outside the male
body. I produces testosterone and sperm.

MAIN FUNCTIONS OF ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

The endocrine hormones help…

1. Control mood
2. Control growth and development
3. Control the way our organs work (metabolism and reproduction)

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DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
- It is made up of organs that are important for digesting food and liquids.
- Includes the mouth, pharynx (throat), esophagus, stomach, small intestine,
rectum, and anus.
- It also includes the salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas

PARTS

1. MOUTH
– the beginning of the digestive tract.

2. SALIVARY GLANDS

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– it gets active as you see food.
– The saliva mixes with the food to begin to break it down into a form that
the body can absorb and use.
3. THROAT
– the passage which leads from the back of the mouth.
– When swallowing, the food passes through it and into the esophagus.
4. ESOPHAGUS
– located in the throat, near the trachea (windpipe)
– it receives food from the mouth.
– the epiglottis is a small flap that folds over the windpipe as you swallow
to prevent choking (when food goes into the windpipe)
– peristalsis, a series of muscular contractions within the esophagus,
delivers food to the stomach.
– the lower esophageal sphincter, a ring-like muscle at the bottom of the
esophagus, has to relax to let the food in.
– the sphincter then contracts and prevents the contents of the stomach
from flowing back into the esophagus (when it doesn’t and these contents
flow back into the esophagus, you may experience acid reflux or
heartburn.)

5. STOMACH
– a hollow organ (or container) that holds food while it is being mixed with
stomach enzymes. These enzymes continue the process of breaking
down food into a usable form.
– Cells in the lining of the stomach secrete a strong acid and powerful
enzymes that are responsible for the breakdown process.
– When the contents of the stomach are processed enough, they’re
released into the small intestine.
6. SMALL INTESTINE
– Made up of 3 segments; duodenum, jejunum, and ileum
– A 22-foot long muscular tube that breaks down food using enzymes
released by the pancreas and bile from the liver.
– Peristalsis also works in this organ, moving food through and mixing it with
digestive juices from the pancreas and liver.

6.1) DUODENUM
– largely responsible for the continuous breaking-down process.
6.2 & 6.3) JEJUNUM AND ILEUM
– lower in the intestine, are mainly responsible for the absorption of
nutrients into the bloodstream.

– contents of the small intestine start out semi-solid and end in a liquid form
after passing through the organ.

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– Once the nutrients have been absorbed and the leftover-food residue
liquid has passed through the small intestine, it then moves on to the large
intestine (colon).
7. PANCREAS
– secretes digestive enzymes into the duodenum that break down protein,
fats and carbohydrates.
– also makes insulin, passing it directly into the bloodstream. Insulin is the
chief hormone in your body for metabolizing sugar.
8. LIVER
– its main job within the digestive system is to process the nutrients
absorbed from the small intestine.
– It takes the raw materials absorbed by the intestine and makes all the
various chemicals your body needs to function.
– also detoxifies potentially harmful chemicals. It breaks down and secretes
many drugs that can be toxic to your body.
9. GALLBLADDER
– stores and concentrates bile from the liver, and then releases it into the
duodenum in the small intestine to help absorb and digest fats.
10. LARGE INSTESTINE (COLON)
– responsible for processing waste so that emptying your bowels is easy
and convenient.
– a 6-foot long muscular tube that connects the small intestine to the
rectum.
– made up of the cecum, the ascending (right) colon, the transverse
(across) colon, the descending (left) colon, and the sigmoid colon, which
connects to the rectum.
– Stool, or waste left over from the digestive process, is passed through the
colon by means of peristalsis, first in a liquid state and ultimately in a solid
form. As stool passes through the colon, water is removed. Stool is stored
in the sigmoid (S-shaped) colon until a "mass movement" empties it into
the rectum once or twice a day.
– When the descending colon becomes full of stool, or feces, it empties its
contents into the rectum to begin the process of elimination (a bowel
movement).
11. RECTUM
– a straight, 8-inch chamber that connects the colon to the anus.
– Its job is to receive stool from the colon, let you know that there is stool to
be evacuated (pooped out) and to hold the stool until evacuation happens.
When anything (gas or stool) comes into the rectum, sensors send a
message to the brain. The brain then decides if the rectal contents can be
released or not.

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– If they can, the sphincters relax and the rectum contracts, disposing its
contents. If the contents cannot be disposed, the sphincter contracts and
the rectum accommodate so that the sensation temporarily goes away.
12. ANUS
– is the last part of the digestive tract. It is a 2-inch long canal consisting of
the pelvic floor muscles and the two anal sphincters (internal and
external).
– The lining of the upper anus is able to detect rectal contents. It lets you
know whether the contents are liquid, gas or solid.
– is surrounded by sphincter muscles that are important in allowing control
of stool. The pelvic floor muscle creates an angle between the rectum and
the anus that stops stool from coming out when it’s not supposed to. The
internal sphincter is always tight, except when stool enters the rectum.
This keeps us continent (prevents us from pooping involuntarily) when we
are asleep or otherwise unaware of the presence of stool.

FUNCTIONS OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

The digestive system functions to provide…
1. Mechanical processing
2. Digestion
3. Absorption of food
4. Secretion of water, acids, enzymes, buffer, salt
5. Excretion of waste products.

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SKELETAL SYSTEM
– It is your body’s central framework. It consists of bones and connective
tissue, including cartilage, tendons, and ligaments. It’s also called the
musculoskeletal system.
– Its main parts are the bones, hard structures that create your body’s
framework — the skeleton.
– There are 206 bones in an adult human skeleton. A baby's body has about
300 bones at birth.

3 MAIN LAYERS OF A BONE

1. PERIOSTEUM
– it is a tough membrane that covers and protects the outside of the bone.
2. COMPACT BONE
– located Below the periosteum.
– is white, hard, and smooth. It provides structural support and protection.
3. SPONGY BONE
– the core, inner layer of the bone is softer than compact bone. It has small
holes called pores to store marrow.

The other components of the skeletal system include:

 CARTILAGE
– a smooth and flexible substance covers the tips of your bones where they
meet. It enables bones to move without friction (rubbing against each
other). When cartilage wears away, as in arthritis, it can be painful and
cause movement problems.
 JOINTS
– it is where two or more bones in the body come together. There are three
different joint types. The types of joints are:
 IMMOVABLE JOINTS
– these are the bones move at all, like the joints between your skull bones.
 PARTLY MOVABLE JOINTS
– these joints allow limited movement. The joints in your rib cage are partly
movable joints.
 MOVABLE JOINTS
– these allow a wide range of motion. Your elbow, shoulder, and knee are
movable joints.
 LIGAMENTS
– are bands of strong connective tissue that hold bones together.
 TENDONS
– are bands of tissue that connect the ends of a muscle to your bone.
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FUNCTIONS OF SKELETAL SYSTEM
1. ALLOWS MOVEMENT Your skeleton supports your body weight to help you
stand and move. Joints, connective tissue and muscles work together to make
your body parts mobile.
2. PRODUCES BLOOD CELLS Bones contain bone marrow. Red and white blood
cells are produced in the bone marrow.
3. PROTECTS AND SUPPORTS ORGANS Your skull shields your brain, your ribs
protect your heart and lungs, and your backbone protects your spine.
4. STORES MINERALS Bones hold your body’s supply of minerals like calcium
and vitamin D.