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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 OVERVIEW
1.1.1 Fiber Reinforced Concrete

Fiber-reinforced concrete or fiber-reinforced concrete (FRC) is concrete containing
fibrous material which increases its structural integrity. It contains short discrete fibers that
are uniformly distributed and randomly oriented. Fibers include steel fibers, glass fibers,
synthetic fibers and natural fibers – each of which lend varying properties to the concrete.
In addition, the character of fiber-reinforced concrete changes with varying concretes, fiber
materials, geometries, distribution, orientation, and densities.
Glass fiber Steel fiber Aramid fiber
Coir fiber Sugarcane fiber Bamboo fiber
Figure 1.1: Different types of fibers
1.1.2 Advantages of Fiber-reinforced concrete

1) Fiber reinforced concrete may be useful where high tensile strength and
reduced cracking are desirable or when conventional reinforcement cannot be
placed.
2) It improves the impact strength of concrete, limits the crack growth and leads
to a greater strain capacity of the composite material.
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3) For industrial projects, macro-synthetic fibers are used to improve concrete’s
durability. Made from synthetic materials, these fibers are long and thick in
size and may be used as a replacement for bar or fabric reinforcement.
4) Adding fibers to the concrete will improve its freeze-thaw resistance and help
keep the concrete strong and attractive for extended periods.
5) Improve mix cohesion, improving pumpability over long distances.
Increase resistance to plastic shrinkage during curing.
6) Minimizes steel reinforcement requirements.
7) Controls the crack widths tightly, thus improving durability.
8) Reduces segregation and bleed-water.
9) FRC, toughness is about 10 to 40 times that of plain concrete.
10) The addition of fibers increases fatigue strength.
11) Fibers increase the shear capacity of reinforced concrete beams.
1.1.3 Disadvantages of Fiber-reinforced concrete

1) Aspect ratios of steel fibers are 30 to 250. It has high structural strength. The
diameter of steel fibers varies from 0.25 to 0.75 mm. Steel fibers control the
crack widths tightly and hence improves the durability of the concrete. It is used
in airport and highway pavement, structural and precast applications, bridge
decks, industrial flooring, etc.
2) Glass fibers have a tensile strength of 1020 to 4080 N/mm2. The length of the
fibers that are used in this type of fibers are generally 25 mm. It has high
flexural strength, ductility, and also resistance to thermal shock. Glass fiber has
a variety of uses in swimming pools, sewer lining, formwork, ducts, and roofs,
etc.
3) Synthetic Fibers are man-made fibers from textile and petrochemical industries.
It has high chemical resistance. The melting point of synthetic fibers is high
and the modulus of elasticity is low.There are different types of synthetic fibers
like aramid, carbon, nylon, polyester, etc. Synthetic fibers are used in shotcrete
and cladding panels.
4) Natural fibers obtain by using local manpower and technology. Examples are
jute, coir, bamboo, etc. There may be organic decay in these fibers. It has a high
impact strength and low modulus of elasticity.
5) Carbon fibers are carbon atoms and are about 5–10 micrometers in diameter.
Carbon fibers have many advantages including high-temperature tolerance, low
thermal expansion, high chemical resistance, low weight, high stiffness, high
tensile strength, etc. Carbon fibers are usually combined with other materials
to form a composite, such as graphite, to form reinforced carbon composites,
which have a very high heat tolerance.
6) Macro synthetic fibers were developed as an alternative to steel fibers in some
applications fibers and are made of by blending of polymers.
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1.1.4 Special concretes
Over the years, several types of concretes have been developed to suit specific
applications. Some of the well-known types of concretes are as follows:
1) High strength concrete: Concrete giving strength above 60 MPa and up to

150MPa with the introduction of condensed silica fumes and by the use of
plasticizers to limit water cement ratio in the range of 0.25 to 0.35.
2) Ferro-cement concrete: Ordinary Portland cement is mixed with fine and coarse
sand, and 10 mm (maximum) coarse aggregate. It is used with thin mesh of
reinforcement or welded wire fabric sheets to prepare very thin sections.
3) Heavy weight concrete: Concretes made with specially selected heavy weight
aggregate to obtain a density higher than 300 kg/m 3
4) Light weight concrete: Concretes made with artificially produced aggregate to
obtain a density less than 1800 kg/m3. Its strength can be high as 50MPa.
5) Polymer concrete: This type of concrete is impregnated with a polymer
compound to improve certain properties.
6) Foam concrete: It is also referred to as aerated concrete. It is a very light weight
concrete consisting of cellular structure with bubbles of gas made with the help
of a suitable admixture.
7) Fiber reinforced concrete: Concrete made with fibers of steel having a specific
size and aspect ratio or any other suitable material to improve certain
properties. It is generally used to prevent surface cracking.
1.2 Objectives of the study
In this project, fiber reinforced concrete was prepared for evaluating the fresh and
hardened state properties. Following are the objectives that have been prepared on studying
the past works on fiber reinforced concrete: -
1) To prepare mix proportion of Portland Pozzolana Cement concrete and fiber

reinforced concrete.
2) To cast concrete specimens for various mixes in the laboratory to evaluate the
fresh and hardened state properties of concrete.
3) To carry out slump test to evaluate the workability of various mixes.
4) To carry out compressive strength test of various mixes.
5) To compare the results from the tests on the various mixes and arrive at suitable
conclusions.
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1.3 Scope of work
According to the present state-of-the-art, concrete has bypassed the stage of mere four
components system i.e., water, coarse aggregate, fine aggregate and cement. It can be a
combination of far more number of ingredients. In the recent era, apart from the four
ingredients mentioned above, fly ash, ground granulated blast furnace slag, silica fume,
rice husk ash, etc. are used in preparation of concrete. Various types of fibers such as, steel,
coconut, jute, textile fibers are also used to prepare concrete which are termed as fiber
reinforced concrete. However, the preparation of such concrete requires certain skills so
that the desired properties of concrete are achieved. Moreover, the fresh and hardened state
properties of such fiber reinforced concrete are yet to be explored in extensive manner to
understand the behavior and use the fiber reinforced concrete in construction field.
1.4 Summary
The usefulness of fiber reinforced concrete (FRC) in various civil engineering applications
is indisputable. Fiber reinforced concrete has so far been successfully used in slabs on
grade, architectural panels, precast products, offshore structures, structures in seismic
regions, thin and thick repairs, crash barriers, footings, hydraulic structures and many other
applications. Fiber Reinforced Concrete (FRC) is gaining attention as an effective way to
improve the performance of concrete. Fibers are currently being specified in tunneling,
bridge decks, pavements, loading docks, thin unbonded overlays, concrete pads, and
concretes slabs. These applications of fiber reinforced concrete are becoming increasingly
popular and are exhibiting excellent performance. Fiber-reinforced concrete (FRC) is
concrete containing fibrous material which increases its structural integrity. It contains
short discrete fibers that are uniformly distributed and randomly oriented. Fibers include
steel fibers, glass fibers, synthetic fibers and natural fibers This study presents
understanding srength of fiber reinforced concrete. Mechanical properties and durability
of fiber reinforced concrete.
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CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.1 REVIEW OF PAPERS PUBLISHED ON FIBER

REINFORCEMENT CONCRETE
Many researchers have carried out studies relating to the effect of various types of
fibers on the strengthening properties of concrete:
(a) Ali.M et al.(2012) conducted the research, according to their research, the
mechanical and dynamic properties of coconut fiber reinforced members were well
examined. A comparison between the static and dynamic moduli was conducted.
They found out influence of 1%, 2%, 3% and 5% fiber contents by mass of cement
and fiber lengths of 2.5, 5 and 7.5 cm is investigated. To evaluate the effect of
coconut fibers in improving the properties of concrete, the properties of plain
concrete are used as a reference. Damping of CFRC beams increases while their
fundamental frequency decreases with structural damage. CFRC with higher fiber
content has a higher damping but lower dynamic and static modulus of elasticity.
It is found that CFRC with a fiber length of 5 cm and a fiber content of 5% has the
best properties
(b) Ruben J and Dr. Baskar G. (2014) in their paper Experimental Study of coir Fiber
Ashes investigated the behavioural study of natural fiber in concrete structure .The
Coir fiber recently attracted an interest as a sustainable fiber composite material,
due to some specific mechanical property which can be compared to artificial fiber
.The coir fiber is treated using natural latex before using a concrete ,so that it is not
be affected by moisture concrete presented in concrete.
In this experimental study 28 days the compressive strength and split tensile
strength are carried out using different coir fiber length of 20mm, 25mm, 30mm
respectively of different percentage as 0.5%,075%,and 1%.Encouragement should
be given for the use of natural fibers which are locally available materials ,in the
field of civil engineering.
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Figure 2.1 - 20mm coir Fiber Figure 2.2 - 25mm coir Fiber
Figure. 2.3 – 30 mm coir Fiber
(c) S.Sharmila et al.(2013) studied the compressive strength of fiber reinforced

concrete they casted moulds with steel ,glass, and recron-3s fibers under cyclic
loading .The companion specimens were cast and to study strength properties
and the result was compared .In general ,it is concluded that the effect of adding
hybrid fibers influence the behaviour of beams by increasing the ductility
characterstics by more than 80%. And energy absorption characteristics by more
than 160 %.Instead of adding simple fibers ,the combination of different fibers
(Hybrid fibers )increase the energy absorption capacity substantially .This
phenomenon is particularly advantageous in case of structures located
Earthquake prone areas:-
The study indicated that:-
 The effect of adding hybrid fibers influence the behaviour of the beams by
increasing the ductility characterized by 80% and energy absorption
characterized by more than 16%
 Instead of adding single fiber, the combination of different types of fibers

(Hybrid fibers) increases the energy absorption capacity substantially.
(d) Utkarsh R et al (2017) in their paper ‘Experimental studies on fiber reinforced

concrete’ comparision of compressive strength of 3, 7 and 28 days of aramid
fibers to the ordinary concrete and fiber reinforced concrete i.e. glass fibers and
steel fibers. The concrete is design for M20 grade of concrete. According to
various research papers, it has been found that steel fibers give the maximum
strength in comparison and glass fiber is used for crack resistance but aramid
simultaneously gives strength and can be used for crack resistance.
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In their study they found that for glass and steel reinforcement, strength of concrete
increased with, increased in fiber dosage up to 0.5 % as compared to glass fiber,
aramid fiber gives 48% more compressive strength, whereas when comparing
aramid and steel fiber, aramid gives 66% increased compressive strength. Aramid
reinforced concrete produce massive compressive strength as here, the aramid
reinforced concrete is introducing compressive strength as equal to M35 grade in
design of M20 grade.
Figure 2.4:Compressive strength of Figure 2.5:Compressive strength of

0.3% fiber 0.5% fiber
Figure 2.6: Compressive strength of 0.7% fiber
(e) Rai Amit and Dr. Joshi Y, studied ‘Application and Properties of Fiber
Reinforced Concrete’ Fiber reinforced concrete (FRC) is cementing concrete
reinforced mixture with more or less randomly distributed small fibers. In the
FRC, a numbers of small fibers are dispersed and distributed randomly in the
concrete at the time of mixing, and thus improve concrete properties in all
directions. The fibers help to transfer load to the internal micro cracks. FRC is
cement based composite material that has been developed in recent years. It has
been successfully used in construction with its excellent flexural-tensile strength,
resistance to spitting, impact resistance and excellent permeability and frost
resistance. It is an effective way to increase toughness, shock resistance and
resistance to plastic shrinkage cracking of the mortar. These fibers have many
benefits. Steel fibers can improve the structural strength to reduce in the heavy
steel reinforcement requirement. Freeze thaw resistance of the concrete is
improved. Durability of the concrete is improved to reduce in the crack widths.
Polypropylene and Nylon fibers are used to improve the impact resistance. Many
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developments have been made in the fiber reinforced concrete. They found that
using Steel Fiber the compressive strength was increased, for Glass Fiber the
compressive strength increased about 20-30%, for Natural Fiber compressive
strength increased about 10% and for Polymer Fiber the compressive strength
increased about 16%.
(f) Ghugal Y.M et al (2010), Studied ‘Effect of different sizes of aggregate on steel
fiber reinforced concrete’. This paper deals with the results of an experimental
investigation of the flexural strength with steel fiber blended with the high
strength concrete (M60). The fiber content varied from 0.5 to 5 % by weight of
cement at the interval of 0.5 %. Beams of 150mm x 150mm x 700 mm were
casted. All the specimens were water cured and tested at the age of 7 and 28days.
Workability of wet mix is found to be reduced with increased fiber content for
increasing the workability super plasticizer were used. Ductility of concrete is
found to be increased in Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete (SFRC). Results and
expressions by regression analysis are obtained. A significant improvement in
the flexural strengths is observed due to inclusion of steel fibers in the concrete.
Keywords - High Strength Concrete, Metakaolin, Steel Fiber, Volume Fraction
of Fibers, SFRC, Bond.
They have found by using short and randomly distributed fiber in
concrete arrests the propagating of micro cracks and results in better strength of
concrete. He considers the variables as different sizes of aggregates. Concrete mix
design for M20 grade is carried out with giber. Beams of size 500x100x100 mm
were cast for flexural strength. The maximum flexural strength, compressive
strength, split tensile strength in case of M20 grade concrete is found to be
maximum at 1 % steel fiber.
The graphs and data of their research paper is shown below –
Figure 2.7 Variation of flexural strength Figure 2.8 Percentage variation of

with respect to fiber content strength with respect to
fiber content
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(g) Kumar Nitin et al (2015) ‘A Review study on use of Steel Fiber as Reinforcement
Material with Concrete’ presented the use of steel fibers as reinforcement
material with concrete. In this study, the mixing of various materials weather
chemicals natural or official for improving the strength and durability of parent
substance. Critical investigation for M 40 grade of concrete having mix
proportion 1:4:3 with water cement ratio 0.35 to study the compressive strength
flexural strength, split tensile strength of steel fibers reinforced concrete
containing fibers of 0%, 1%, 2% and 3% volume fraction of hooks the result
shown that steel fiber reinforced concrete increase strength toughness ductility
and flexural strength of concrete.
(h) Rao J and Navya G on their study of ‘Experimental Investigation on Properties
Concrete Paver Block with the Inclusion of Natural Fibers’ the compressive
strength, water absorption and flexural strength of paver blocks were determined
by adding Coconut fibers in the top 20mm thickness. Coconut fibers were added
in proportions of 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3%, 0.4% and 0.5% in volume of concrete. The
compressive strength, flexural strength and water absorption were determined at
the end of 7 and 28 days. Test results indicate that addition of coconut fiber by
0.3% paver block attains maximum compressive strength. Test results indicate
that addition of coconut fiber gradually increases flexural strengths and water
absorption at 7 and 28 days. In this investigation at 0.3% of coconut fiber content
effect of top layer thickness on compressive strength and flexural strength is also
determined. Results show that inclusion of fibers even up to 50% of top layer
thickness compressive and flexural strengths are increasing. The paper also
shows the cost comparison per each block.
Figure 2.9: Compressive strength of paver Figure 2.10: Flexural strength of paver
block at 0.3% fiber by changing top layer block at 0.3% fiber by changing top layer
thickness thickness
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(i) Thakare N and Nishane U conducted a study on ‘Experimental studies on fiber
reinforced concrete’ they found the concepts of using fibers in order to reinforce
matrices weak in tension is more than 4500 years old. Since Portland cement
concrete started to be used widely as a construction material attempts were made
to use fibers for arresting cracks enhance the strength etc. The development of
fiber reinforcement for concrete was very slow before 1960’s. Fibers are
generally used as resistance of cracking and strengthening of concrete. In this
project we are going to compare the compressive strength of 3, 7 and 28 days of
aramid fibers to the ordinary concrete and fiber reinforced concrete i.e. glass
fibers and steel fibers. The concrete is design for M20 grade of concrete.
According to various research papers, it has been found that steel fibers give the
maximum strength in comparison and glass fiber is used for crack resistance but
aramid simultaneously gives strength and can be used for crack resistance. Now
a days there exists many reinforcement techniques for improving the strength of
those materials which lacks load carrying and less durable capacity. Fiber
reinforced concrete has been successfully used in slabs on grade, shotcrete,
architectural panels, precast products, offshore structures, structures in seismic
regions, thin and thick repairs, crash barriers, footings, hydraulic structures and
many other applications. This review study is a trial of giving some highlights
for inclusion of aramid fibers especially in terms of using them with new types
of concrete. According to their study for glass and steel reinforcement, strength
of concrete increased with, increased in fiber dosage up to 0.5 % as compared to
glass fiber, aramid fiber gives 48% more compressive strength, whereas when
comparing aramid and steel fiber, aramid gives 66% increased compressive
strength. Aramid reinforced concrete produce massive compressive strength as
here, the aramid reinforced concrete is introducing compressive strength as equal
to M35 grade in design of M20 grade.
Figure 2.11:Bar graph of compressive Figure 2.12:Bar graph of compressive

strength vs no. of days using strength vs no. of days
0.3% of fiber 0.5% of fiber
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Figure 2.13:Bar graph of compressive strength
vs no. of days using 0.7% coir fiber
(j) Kumar D and Vikranth J did a study on ‘Experimental Study on Strength and
Durability Characteristics of Fiber Reinforced Recyled Aggregate Concrete’ and
found that the recycled aggregates in concrete opens a whole new range of
possibilities in the reuse of materials in the building industry. This could be an
important breakthrough for our society in our endeavours towards sustainable
development. The trend of the utilisation of recycled aggregates is the solution
to the problem of an excess of waste material, not forgetting the parallel trend of
improvement of final product quality. The utilisation of waste construction
materials has to be related to the application of quality guarantee systems in order
to achieve suitable product properties. Therefore, the complete understanding of
the characteristics of new material becomes so important in order to point out its
real possibilities. My thesis aimed to focus on the possibility of structural use of
recycled aggregate concrete by studying the mechanical properties and durability
aspects of conventional aggregate concrete, recycled aggregate concrete and
fiber reinforced recycled aggregate concrete.
(k) Raghvendra S et al on their research paper Fiber Reinforced Concrete – A Case

Study and the usefulness of fiber reinforced concrete (FRC) in various civil
engineering applications is indisputable. Fiber reinforced concrete has so far
been successfully used in slabs on grade, architectural panels, precast products,
offshore structures, structures in seismic regions, thin and thick repairs, crash
barriers, footings, hydraulic structures and many other applications. Fiber
Reinforced Concrete (FRC) is gaining attention as an effective way to improve
the performance of concrete. Fibers are currently being specified in tunneling,
bridge decks, pavements, loading docks, thin unbonded overlays, concrete pads,
and concretes slabs. These applications of fiber reinforced concrete are becoming
increasingly popular and are exhibiting excellent performance. Fiber-reinforced
concrete (FRC) is concrete containing fibrous material which increases its
structural integrity. It contains short discrete fibers that are uniformly distributed
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and randomly oriented. Fibers include steel fibers, glass fibers , synthetic fibers
and natural fibers This study presents understanding srength of fiber reinforced
concerete. Mechanical properties and durability of fiber reinforced
concrete.Their result showed that Fiber Reinforced concrete pavements prove to
be more efficient than conventional RC pavements, in several aspects
Compressive strength for fiber reinforced concrete is seen to be improved. It can
be clearly seen that strength at 28 days for CSFRC 1% is better than other cases
hence recommended. Tensile strength for fiber reinforced concrete is increased.
Strength at 28 days for HSFRC is better than other cases when compared.
HSFRC seen to given better strength at 3rd day and 7th day as well.
Figure 2.14:Graphical representation of Figure 2.15:Graphical representation of

compressive strength of fiber reinforced tensile strength of fiber reinforced
concrete concrete
Figure 2.16: Bar chart for compressive strength Figure 2.17:Bar chart for split tensile
strength
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CHAPTER 3
PRESENT STUDY
3.1 BACKGROUND
Portland cement concrete and fiber reinforced concrete were prepared in this project work.
The first concrete mix was prepared using Portland pozzolana cement. And the other
concrete mixes were prepared using fiber reinforced concrete. The specimens prepared
were tested to evaluate the fresh and hardened state properties of the concrete. The
ingredients which are used to prepare the concrete mixes are mentioned in the succeeding
sections.
3.2 THEORETICAL OVERVIEW

The concept of using fibers as reinforcement is not new. Fibers have been used as
reinforcement since ancient times. Historically horse hair was used in mortar and straw in
mudbricks. In the 1900s, asbestos fibers were used in concrete. In the 1950s the concept
of composite materials came into being and fiber reinforced concrete was one of the topics
of interest. Once the health risks associated with asbestos were discovered, there was a
need to find a replacement for the substance in concrete and other building materials. By
the 1960s steel, glass (GFRC), and synthetic such as (polypropylene) fibers were used in
concrete. Research into new fiber reinforced concrete continues today. In the recent years,
an emerging technology termed as Fiber Reinforced Concrete has become popular in the
construction industry. The introduction of short discrete fibers into the concrete can be
used to counteract and prevent the propagation of cracks.
3.2.1 Compressive Strength
Concrete mixtures can be designed to provide a wide range of mechanical and durability
properties to meet the design requirement of a structure. The compressive strength of
concrete is the most common performance attribute used by the engineer when designing
structures. In this test, the push force applied on the both faces of concrete specimen and
the maximum compression that concrete bears without failure is noted.
Concrete testing helps us to majorly focus on the compressive strength of concrete because
it helps us to quantify the ability of concrete to resists compressive stresses among
structures where-as other stresses such as axial stresses and tensile stresses are catered by
reinforcement and other means. Compressive Strength of concrete is defined as the
Characteristic strength of 150 mm size concrete cubes @ 28 days.
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3.2.1.1 Compressive strength of concrete and its importance:
Concrete is a mixture of sand, cement and aggregate. The strength of the concrete depends
upon many factors like individual compressive strength of its constituents (Cement, Sand,
aggregate), quality of materials used, air entrainment mix proportions, water-cement ratio,
curing methods and temperature effects. Compressive strength gives an idea of the overall
strength and above-mentioned factors. Through conducting this test, one can easily judge
the concrete strength psi and quality of concrete produced.
Compressive Strength = Load / Cross-sectional Area
3.2.1.2 Factors affecting compressive strength of concrete:
1) Coarse aggregate: Concrete is made homogenous by combining aggregates,

cement, sand, water and various other admixtures. But even with proper mixing,
there may arise some micro cracks due to differences in thermal and mechanical
properties of coarse aggregates and cement matrix, which leads to failure of
concrete. Concrete technologists came up with theoretical concepts regarding size
of aggregates, which as the size of aggregate being the major contributor of
compressive strength. So if the size of aggregate is increased, then it would lead
increased compressive strength.
2) Air-entrainment: Air entrainment in concrete was one of the concepts developed
by cold countries in order to prevent damages due to freezing and thawing. Later
on, as experimentation’s proved multidimensional benefits of air entrainment along
with improved the workability of concrete at lower water/cement ratio. As the
achievement of the desired workability at lower water content helped one to
achieve concrete with the greater compressive strength which in turn, leads to light
concrete with greater compressive strength.
3) Water-cement ratio: We are all very aware of how excess water can be harmful
to the strength of concrete. Cement being the major binding material in concrete
needs water for hydration process, but that is only limited to about (0.20 to 0.25)
% of cement content. The excess water turns out to be beneficial in contributing to
workability and finishing of concrete. The very aspect where excess water is
considered harmful because as the water in the concrete matrix dries, it leaves large
interstitial spaces among aggregate and cement grains. This interstitial space
becomes primary cracks during compressive strength testing of concrete.
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3.3 MATERIALS
3.3.1 Concrete
Plain concrete is made by mixing cement, fine aggregate (sand), coarse aggregate and
water. There is a recent trend to add admixtures to improve certain properties of concrete.
When reinforcing steel is placed in the forms and fresh concrete is placed around it, the
solidified mass is called reinforced concrete. The properties of concreter depend on several
factors such as properties and relative proportions of the ingredients, temperature,
humidity under which it is placed and cured. The behavior of reinforced concrete is still
not clearly understood. The building codes that give strength of different materials and
design procedures are continuously updated reflecting the latest developments.
3.3.1.1 Properties of concrete
Concrete must be strong enough to bear the desired stresses within the permissible factor
of safety. It will be uneconomical to make the concrete stronger than required, but at the
same time its minimum required strength must be ensured. The factors influencing the
strength are as follows: quality of cement, water-cement ratio, grading of aggregate, degree
of compaction, efficiency of curing, temperature during curing, age at the time of testing,
impact and fatigue. However, water-cement ratio is the most critical factor which affects
the strength of concrete. It has generally been found that greater the 7 days strength of
cement, greater is the compressive strength of concrete at 28 days for similar mix
proportions. Variation of compressive strength of concrete with water-cement ratios for
ordinary Portland cement and rapid hardening Portland cement is shown. It can be seen
that compressive strength of concrete decreases with the increase in the water-cement ratio.
The reason is that quantity of water required for chemical reaction is very small compared
with that required for workability; therefore, the excess water evaporates which results in
increased porosity of the paste. Hence higher the water-cement ratio, lower is the strength
of concrete.
In this regard, Abrams stated, “With given materials and conditions of test, the ratio
of quantity of mixing water to the quantity of cement alone determines the strength of
concrete and is independent of aggregate: cement ratio so long as the mix is of workable
plasticity.” This became known as water-cement law, and expressed as:
C=A/Bx
LogC = LogA – xLogB
Where,
C= compressive strength of concrete
A and B = constants (which depend on quality of cement, type and quality of aggregate,
and age of concrete)
x = water cement ratio by weight.
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Figure 3.1:Strength of concrete for different water-cement ratio
The strength of concrete will not increase merely by increasing the quantity of
cement unless the water-cement ratio is decreased. But as the same time, the amount of
water directly controls the workability which increases with the increase in water. Thus,
an optimum water-cement ratio is required that will give maximum strength and
workability.
3.3.1.2 Workability
In compacting concrete, the energy is spent in two ways:

(1) Firstly, to overcome the internal friction between individual particles of the
mix.
(2) Secondly, to overcome the friction between concrete and the form surface of
the reinforcements.
A part of the energy is spent in shock. The amount of energy spent in overcoming the
internal friction depends on physical characteristics of the concrete mix. The workability
of freshly mixed concrete is that property which determines the ease and homogeneity with
which it can be mixed, placed, necessarily mean that it is workable. A workable concrete
should not show any segregation or bleeding. Segregation occurs when coarse aggregate
try to separate out from the paste and get accumulated at one side resulting in large voids,
less strength and less durability. Bleeding occurs when excess water comes up at the
surface of concrete resulting in several small pores and less durability.
The factors influencing the workability are water-cement ratio, type and grading of
aggregate, ratio of fine and coarse aggregate, and use of admixtures. In general,
workability depend water-cement ratio and aggregate-cement ratio for a given type and
grading of aggregate. workability increases with the increase in maximum size of
aggregate because total surface area will be lower, and consequently, lesser water is
required to wet the surface of aggregate because total surface area will be lower, and
consequently lesser later is required to wet the surface of aggregate and more water is
available as lubricant. Workability further increases with the use of aggregate which are
sound and have smooth texture. A concrete may not be workable when compacted by hand
but may be satisfactory when mechanical vibration is used.
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It is very difficult to measure workability.IS:456 and IS: 1199 recommend use of
any of the three tests which are slump test, compacting factor test or veebee consistometer
test. In this project we have done the slump test method for workability check.
Workability of a particular concrete mix measured by each of these test procedures
may not give consistent results. It is because some factors, for example, type and grading
of aggregate, may have more influence in one test procedure than on the other. Clause 6
of IS: 456-1978 gives consistent results. It is because some factors, for example, type and
grading of aggregate, may have more influence in one test procedure than on the other.
3.3.1.3 Durability
Concrete must be durable with respect to the weather conditions, for example, temperature
and humidity variations, chemical attack and action of atmospheric gases. It should not
disintegrate or show sign of wearing under adverse conditions. The factors influencing the
durability are: quality of cement, water and aggregate, water cement ratio, and
temperature. Use of unsound cement and higher water-cement ratio will lead to a porous
concrete. This concrete is more exposed to freezing of water in its pores, atmospheric
harmful gases and salts that can cause its disintegration. Thus durability depends
essentially on its porosity. The water-cement ratio should be as low as possible to reduce
pores and hence to increase durability.
Table.3.1: Workability for different placing conditions
Degree of workability Placing Compacting Vee-Bee time Slump

condition factor seconds
mm
Very low Concreting of 0.75-0.80 20-10 _
shallow sections
with vibration
Low Concreting of 0.80-0.85 10-5 _
lightly reinforced
sections with
vibration
Medium Concreting of 0.85-0.92 5-2 25-75
lightly reinforced
sections without
or vibration or
heavily
reinforced
sections with
vibrations
High Concreting of >0.92 _ 75-125
heavy reinforced
sections without
vibration
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3.3.2 Cement
Cement is a material that has cohesive and adhesive properties in the presence of water.
Such cements are called hydraulic cements. These consist primarily of silicates and
aluminates of lime obtained from limestone and clay. This mixture is ground, blended,
fused in a kiln at about 1400o C and a product called clinker is obtained. The clinker is
cooled and ground to get cement. Such cements combine chemically with water to form a
hardened mass. The hydraulic cement is usually known as Portland cement because of its
resemblance upon hardening to the Portland stone found near Dorset, England. This name
was first used by Joseph Aspdin of Leeds, England in 1824 in his patent.
3.3.2.1. Portland Pozzolana Cement
The Portland Pozzolana Cement is a kind of Blended Cement which is produced by either
inter-grinding of OPC clinker along with gypsum and pozzolanic materials in certain
proportions or grinding the OPC clinker, gypsum and Pozzolanic materials separately and
thoroughly blending them in certain proportions. Pozzolana such as fly ash is essentially a
siliceous material which while in itself possessing little or no cementitious properties will,
in finely divided form and in the presence of water, react with calcium hydroxide at
ambient temperature to form compounds possessing cementitious properties. The
manufacture, physical and chemical requirements of Portland pozzolana cement using
only fly ash pozzolana shall conform to the IS: 1489-1 (1991) as given below.
1) Raw Materials:
 Pozzolana: Fly ash used in the manufacture of Portland-pozzolana cement shall
conform to IS 3812: 1981
 Portland Cement Clinker: The Portland cement clinker used in the manufacture
Portland-pozzolana cement shall comply in all respects with the chemical
requirements of IS 269: 1989
 Portland Cement: Portland cement for blending with fly ash shall conform to IS
269: 1989
 Other admixtures: Not more than 1 percent may be added.
2) Manufacture:
Portland-pozzolana cement shall be manufactured either by intimately inter-grinding
Portland cement clinker and fly ash or by intimately and uniformly blending Portland
cement and fine fly ash. The fly ash constituent shall not be less than 10 percent and not
more than 25 percent by mass of Portland-pozzolana cement.
3) Chemical Requirements:
Portland-pozzolana cement shall comply with the chemical requirements given in Table3.2
18
Table 3.2: Chemical requirement as per IS: 1489-1 (1991)
4) Physical Requirements:
 Fineness: When tested by the air permeability method described in IS 4031
(Part 2): 1988, the specific surface of Portland-pozzolana cement shall be not
less than 300 m2/kg.
 Soundness: When tested by ‘Le Chatelier’ method and autoclave test described
in IS 4031 (Part 3): 1988, unaerated Portland-pozzolana cement The average
drying shrinkage of mortar bars shall not have an expansion of more than 10
mm and 0.8 percent respectively.
 Setting Time: The setting time of Portland-pozzolana cement, when tested by
the Vicat apparatus method described in IS 4031 (Part 5): 1988, shall be 30min
(Minimum) for initial setting time and 600min (Maximum) for final setting
time
 Compressive strength: The average compressive strength tested in the manner
as described in IS 4031 (Part 6): 1988 shall be as follows:
At 72 ±1hr 16 MPa, Min
At 168 ± 2hrs 22 MPa, Min
At 672 ±4hrs 33 MPa, Min
 Drying shrinkage: The average drying shrinkage of mortar bars prepared and
tested in accordance with IS 4031 (Part 10): 1988 shall not be more than 0.15
percent.
3.3.2.2 Ordinary Portland Cement

Ordinary Portland cement (simply called ordinary cement) refers to the hydraulic
binding material ground by mixing Portland cement clinker, 6% ~ 15% blended
materials, and appropriate amount of gypsum, code-named P• O.
19
The maximum amount of active blended materials mixed in cement should not
exceed 15% of the total mass. They are allowed to be replaced by kiln ash and
inactive blended materials which should be no more than 5% and 10% of the
cement mass respectively.
The maximum amount of inactive blended materials mixed in cement should not
exceed 10% of the total mass.
According to Portland Cement, Ordinary Portland Cement (GB175-1999), the

national standard, the strength grades of ordinary cement can be divided into: 32.5,
32.5 R, 42.5, 42.5 R, 52.5, 52.5 R, and their ages should be no less than the
numerical value in Table 4.3. The initial setting time of ordinary cement should not
be earlier than 45 min, and final setting time should not be later than 10 h. The
screenings left on the square-hole sieve of 0.08 mm should not exceed 10%. And
boiling stability must be qualified. The ignition loss of cement should be less than
5.0%.
Table 3.3: Requirements for the Strength of Ordinary Portland Cement at Various
Ages (GB175-1999)
The majority of ordinary Portland cement is Portland cement clinker whose

performance is similar to Portland cement. Due to the mixture of a few blended
materials, however, the early hardening rate of the Portland cement linker is slow,
3d compressive strength is low, and the frost-resistance and wear-resistance are
relatively poor, compared with Portland cement.
3.3.2.3 Rapid hardening Portland cement
The cement is manufactured by intimately mixing together calcareous and argillaceous

and other silica, alumina or iron oxide bearing materials. This cement has same chemical
composition as for ordinary Portland cement after 3 days. The use of this cement permits
early removal of shuttering thus directly affecting saving in time and money. It is generally
used in road work and bridge construction where time factor is very important.
20
Figure 3.2: Rigid pavement construction using Rapid hardening Portland cement
3.3.2.4 Portland slag cement
Blast furnace slag is non-metallic product consisting essentially of glass containing

silicates and alumina silicates of lime and other bases, and is developed simultaneously
with iron in blast furnace or electric pig iron furnace. Granulated slag is obtained by further
processing it with water or steam and air. This cement is prepared by intimately grinding
Portland cement clinker and granulated blast furnace slag with addition of gypsum and
permitted additives. IS: 455-1976 requires that proportion of the slag should not be less
than 25% and not more than 65% of the Portland slag cement. The slag contains oxides of
lime, alumina and silica and easily replaces clay or shale used in the manufacture of
ordinary Portland cement. Portland slag cement can be used for all purposes for which
ordinary Portland cement is used. However, the former has certain advantages: it has lower
heat evolution and is more durable. Thus, it can be used in mass concrete structures such
as retaining walls, foundation and dams.
Figure 3.3: Physical appearance of Portland slag cement
21
3.3.2.5 Hydrophobic cement
Hydrophobic cement is prepared from ordinary Portland cement clinker by adding certain
water repellant chemicals during the grinding process. A water repellant coating is forming
over each particle of cement that prevents water or moisture from the air being absorbed
by the cement. This film is broken during the mixing of concrete and normal hydration
process takes place in the same manner as with the ordinary Portland cement. This cement
is ideal for storage for longer periods in extremely wet conditions. The hydrophobic agents
can be oleic acid, stearic acid, naphthalene acid etc. this cement is different than
waterproofing cement.
3.3.2.6 High alumina cement
This cement is obtained by grinding high alumina clinker consisting mainly of mono
calcium aluminates. The clinker is obtained by complete or partial fusion of a
predetermined mixture of materials mainly containing alumina (Al2O3) and lime (CaO)
with smaller proportion of iron oxides silica (SiO2) and other oxides. It is black in color.
Its rapid hardening properties are due to higher percentage of calcium aluminates in place
of calcium silicate as found in ordinary Portland cement. Rapid development of heat of
this cement is of great advantage when concreting is to be done in freezing weather.
Figure 3.4: Physical appearance of High alumina cement
3.3.2.7 Super-sulphated cement
It is hydraulic cement having sulphuric anhydride (SO 3) content not more than 5% and
made by inter grinding a mixture of at least 7% granulated blast furnace slag, calcium
sulphate and a small amount of lime or Portland clinker. This cement is used in very
aggressive conditions such as marine works, mass concrete jobs to resist the attack of
22
aggressive waters, reinforced concrete pipes in ground waters, concrete construction in
sulphate bearing soils, and in chemical works exposed to high concentration of sulphates
of weak solutions of mineral acids. It can also be used for the underside of bridges over
railways and sewer pipes.
Figure 3.5: Physical appearance of Super-sulphated cement
3.3.2.8 Masonry cement
This cement is obtained by intergrinding a mixture of Portland cement clinker with inert
materials (non-pozzolanic), such as limestone, conglomerates, dolomite, limestone and
gypsum, and air entraining plasticizer in suitable proportions. Masonry cement is slow
hardening, has high workability and high water retentivity that make it suitable for
masonry work.
3.3.2.9 Oil well cement
Hydraulic cement suitable for use in high pressure and temperature in sealing water and
gas pockets and setting casting during the drilling and repairing of oil wells, often contains
retarders to meet the requirements of such use in addition to coarser grinding or reduced
tricalcium aluminates (C3A) content of clinker. Slurries of such cement have to remain
pump able at high temperatures and pressures for a sufficient length of time and then
garden very rapidly. IS : 8229-1985 classifies the oil cement under six categories : Class
E, Class F, Class G, Class H, Class J, and a special class.
3.3.3 Aggregates
The aggregates like sand, brick and stone are inert materials. Their properties greatly
influence the behavior of concrete since they occupy about 80% of the total volume of
concrete. It is logical to use maximum of aggregate since they are less expensive then
cement and are freely available in nature. The aggregate are classified as fine aggregate
and coarse aggregate and comply with the requirements of IS: 383-1970. Fine aggregate
23
are materials passing through IS sieve that is less than 4.75 mm gauge beyond which they
are known as coarse aggregate.
For maximum strength and durability, the aggregate should be packed and
cemented as compactly as possible. For this reason the gradation of particles sizes in the
aggregate to produce close packing is of considerable importance. It is also necessary that
the aggregate have good strength, durability and water resistance, their surface be free
from impurities such as loam, silt and organic matter which may weaken the bond with the
cement paste, and that no unfavorable chemical reaction take place between them and the
cement.
Figure3.6: Fine aggregate (sand)
Figure3.7: Coarse aggregate
24
3.3.4 Coir fibers
Coconut fiber is one of the natural fibers abundantly available in tropical regions, and is
extracted from the husk of coconut fruit. It is also called coir fiber. Coconut fiber is
extracted from the outer shell of a coconut. Respectively. According to official website of
International Year for Natural Fibers 2009, approximately, 500 000 tons of coconut fibers
are produced annually worldwide, mainly in India and Sri-Lanka. Its total value is
estimated at $100 million. India and Sri-Lanka is also the main Exporters, followed by
Thailand, Vietnam, the Philippines and Indonesia. Around half of the coconut fibers
produced is exported in the form of raw fiber. The common name, scientific name and
plant family of coconut fiber is Coir, Cocos nucifera and Arecaceae (Palm).
Coconut fibers are commercially available in three forms:-
1) Bristle fiber: These are long fibers.
Figure 3.8: Bristle fiber
2) Mattress fiber: These are relatively short fibers.
Figure 3.9: Mattress fiber
25
3) Decorticated fibers: These are mixed fibers.
Figure3.10: Decorticated fibers
3.3.4.1 Types of coir fiber
There are generally two types of coconut fiber. These types are categorized on the basis of
age.
1) Brown fiber: Brown fibers are extracted from matured coconuts. Brown fibers are
thick, strong and have high abrasion resistance.
Figure3.11: Brown Coir fiber
2) White fiber: White fibers extracted from immature coconuts. White fibers are
smoother and finer, but also weaker.
Figure 3.12: White Coir fiber
26
3.3.4.2 Characteristics of coir fiber
Coconut fibers with strength of 21.51 MPa are strongest one among all natural fibers. It is
able to take strains 4 to 6 times higher than other fibers. Coconut fibers has examined by
many researchers to various purposes. There are significant variations some of
characteristics are, for example the diameter of the coco-nut fibers is almost identical and
the amounts of tensile strength are relatively different, for example the fibroblasts of
different individual cells were depends on type of plant, its location and puberty. Elasticity
and rupture of fibers was affected by length to diameter ratio of fibers it also determine the
product from which they are manufactured. Shape and size of hollow central cavity. The
cavity depend upon (1) Thickness of cell wall (2) Source of fibers. Hollow cavity acts as
a acoustic and thermal insulation due to existence reduces bulk density of fibers. Coconut
fiber contains cellulose, cellulose sugar and lignin as a main composition. These
formulations effects dissimilar properties in coconut fibers. Pre-treatment of fibers led to
a change in composition and ultimate changes occur due to their properties and also their
properties of composite materials. Sometimes it improve behaviour of fibers. But,
sometimes it effect was unfavourable.
3.4 DESIGN OF CONCRETE MIX

The design of concrete mix involves the determination of the mix involves the
determination of the most rational proportions of ingredients of concrete to achieve it
concrete which is workable in its plastic state and will develop the required qualities when
hardened. A properly designed concrete mix should have minimum possible cement
content without sacrificing the concrete quality in order to make it an economical mix. It
is essential to known the complete details under which fresh and hardened concrete must
be durable and have the desired strength and appearance. If fresh concrete is not properly
workable, it will not be possible to achieve full compaction with the result strength and
durability of the hardened concrete will be cement ratio is the most critical factor in
concrete mix design. Other important factors are: aggregate-cement ratio, grading of
aggregate, aggregate particle shape and texture, and amount of entrained air. During the
past few decades, considerable efforts have been made to examine the effects of these
factors on the properties of concrete. However, precise relationships have not been
established so far. Thus, design of a concrete mix remains more of an art rather than
science. Mix design is a process of selecting suitable ingredients of concrete and
determining their relative quantities with the object of producing an economical concrete
having certain minimum properties, that is, workability, strength and durability.
Concrete is graded according to its compressive strength. The various grades of
concrete as stipulated in IS: 456-1978 and IS: 1343-1980 are shown. In this classification
f a concrete mix, letter M refers to the mix and the number to the specified characteristic
compressive strength of 15 cm cubes at 28 days expressed in N/mm 2.The characteristic
strength is defined as the strength is defined as the strength of material which not more
than 5% of the test results are expected to fall. Grades lower than M15 cannot be used in
27
reinforced concrete, lower than M 40 cannot be used in pre-tensioned prestressed concrete
and lower than M30 cannot be used in post-tensioned prestressed concrete.
Design mix concrete obtained by properly designing the concrete mix, and
Nominal mix concrete obtained by adopting a concrete mix. Design mix concrete is
preferred to nominal mix concrete. Nominal mix concrete may be used for grades of M20
or lower if design mix concrete cannot be used for some reason.
The following information is required for the design of a concrete mix:-
a) Type of mix, that is, nominal mix concrete mix or design mix concrete.
b) Grade of concrete that is M15, M20 etc.
c) Minimum cement content kg/m3 (for design mix concrete).
d) Type of mixing and curing water, that is, potable water, sea water etc.
e) Maximum water-cement ratio by weight from durability and/or strength
considerations.
f) Degree of workability.
g) Mix proportion.
h) Entrained air content.
i) Type of admixture.
j) Density of concrete.
k) Temperature of fresh concrete.
In the mix design of concrete, the basic state of the aggregate is generally assumed
to be saturated and surface dry (SSD). It is because the water contained in all the pores in
the aggregate does not participate in the chemical reaction of cement. This water is
essentially considered as part of the aggregate. If the aggregate is batched in a dry
condition it is assumed that sufficient water will be absorbed from the concrete mix by the
dry aggregate to bring it to a saturated condition. Consequently, the effective water cement
ratio is higher than would be the case with the aggregate in the saturated and surface dry
condition. On the other hand, any water on the surface of the aggregate will contribute to
the water in the mix and will occupy a volume in excess of that of the aggregate particles.
The free moisture should be allowed for in the calculation by reducing the water cement
ratio and increasing the amount of aggregate by the corresponding amount.
28
Table.3.4: Characteristic compressive strength of different grades of concrete
Designation Characteristics
compressive
strength N/mm2
M5 5
M 7.5 7.5
M 10 10
M 15 15
M 20 20
M 25 25
M 30 30
M 35 35
M 40 40
M 45 45
M 50 50
M 55 55
M 60 60
3.5 MIX PROPORTIONING

3.5.1 Data required for a mix
The following data are required for mix proportioning of a particular grade of concrete:
a) Grade designation
b) Type of cement
c) Maximum nominal size of aggregate
d) Minimum cement content
e) Maximum water-cement ratio
f) Workability
g) Exposure conditions as per Table 4 and Table 5 of IS 456:2000
h) Maximum temperature of concrete at the time of placing
i) Method of transporting and placing
j) Early age strength requirements, if required
k) Type of aggregate
l) Maximum cement content.
m) Whether an admixture shall or shall not be used and the type of admixture and the
condition of use.
3.5.2 Target strength
For mix proportioning in order not more than the specified proportion of test results are
likely to fall below the characteristic strength, the concrete mix has to be proportioned for
29
higher target mean compressive strength at the end of 56 days. The standard deviation for
each grade of concrete is practically taken.
3.6 SELECTION OF WATER-CEMENT RATIO

Different cements, supplementary cementitious materials and aggregates of different
maximum size, grading, surface texture, shape and other characteristics may produce
concretes of different compressive strength for the same free water-cement ratio.
Therefore, the relationship between strength and free water cement ratio should preferably
be established for the materials to be used. In the absence of such data, the preliminary
free water-cement ratio corresponding to the target strength at 28 days may be selected
from the established relationship if available otherwise the water cement ratio given in
Table 5 of IS 456:2000 for respective environment exposure conditions is used.
Figure 3.13: Table 5 of IS 456:2000
3.7 CONCRETE MIX DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR M30 GRADE OF

CONCRETE
We have, Cement: sand: coarse aggregate = 1:0.75:1.5
1) Stipulations of proportioning:
a) Grade of designation: M30
b) Type of cement: PPC (IS 1489-1 (1991))
c) Maximum nominal size of aggregate: 20mm
d) Minimum cement content: 320 kg/m3
e) Maximum water/cement ratio: 0.45
f) Workability: 25-50mm slump (clause 7.1; IS 456:2000)
g) Exposure condition: severe (Table3; IS 456:2000)
30
h) Degree of supervision: good
i) Type of aggregate: crushed angular aggregate
j) Method of concrete placing: using hand
k) Maximum cement content: 450 kg/m3
l) Chemical admixture type: not used
2) Test data for materials:

a) Cement used: PPC (IS 1489-1 (1991))
b) Chemical admixture: nil
c) Specific gravity of cement: 3.15
d) Specific gravity of coarse aggregate: 2.72
e) Specific gravity of fine aggregate: 2.68
f) Water absorption:
i. Coarse aggregate: 0.5% (IS 2386:1983)
ii. Fine aggregate: 1.0% (IS 2386:1983)
g) Free (surface) moisture:
i. Coarse aggregate: nil
ii. Fine aggregate: nil
h) Sieve analysis:
i. Coarse aggregate: conforming to table 7; IS 383:2016
ii. Fine aggregate: conforming to grading zone 2 of table 9; IS 383:2016
3) Procedure for concrete mix design:

a) Target strength for mix proportioning:
f′ck = fck + 1.65×s
= 30 + 1.65×5 (s= standard deviation from table 2: IS 10262:2019)
= 38.25 N/mm2
Or f′ck = fck + X= 30+6.5= 36.5 N/mm2
The higher value is to be adopted. Therefore, target strength will be 38.23 N/mm 2
b) Selection of water-cement ratio:
From Figure1,(IS 10262:2019) the free water cement ratio required for the target
strength of 38.25 N/mm2 is 0.43 (from curve 2). This is lower than the maximum
value of 0.45 prescribed for ‘severe’ exposure for reinforced concrete as per Table3
of IS 456:2000.
0.43< 0.45, hence OK.
31
Figure 3.14: Figure1 of IS 10262:2019
c) Selection of water content:

From Table 4, (IS 10262:2019) water content = 186 kg (for 50 mm slump) for
20mm aggregate.
Estimated water content for 75 mm slump = 186 + (3×186)/100 = 191.58 kg
32
d) Calculation of cement content:
Water cement ratio = 0.43
Cement content = 191.58/0.43 = 445.53≈ 446 kg/m3 > 320 kg/m3 , hence OK.
e) Proportion of volume of coarse aggregate and fine aggregate content:
From table 5,(IS 10262:2019) the proportionate volume of coarse aggregate
corresponding to 20mm size aggregate and fine aggregate (Zone II) for water-cement
ratio of 0.50 = 0.62.
In the present case water-cement ratio is 0.43. Therefore, volume of coarse
aggregate is required to be increased to decrease the fine aggregate content. As the
water-cement ratio is lower by 0.07, the proportion of volume of coarse aggregate is
increased by 0.014 (at the rate of ±0.01 for every ±0.05 change in water-cement
ratio).
Therefore, corrected proportion of volume of coarse aggregate for the water-
cement ratio of 0.43= 0.62+0.014= 0.634.
Volume of fine aggregate content = 1- 0.634 = 0.366
f) Mix calculations:
The mix calculations per unit volume of concrete shall be as follows:

i. Total volume = 1 m3
ii. Volume of entrapped air in wet concrete = 0.01 m3
iii. Volume of cement = (446/3.15) × (1/1000) = 0.141 m3
iv. Volume of water = (191.58/1) × (1/1000) = 0.191 m3
33
v. Volume of all in aggregate = 1- (0.141 + 0.191 + 0.01) = 0.658 m3
vi. Mass of coarse aggregate = 0.658 × 0.634 × 2.72 × 1000 = 1134.707 kg
vii. Mass of fine aggregate = 0.658 × 0.366 × 2.68×1000 = 645.419 kg
g) Mix proportions for trial:
Cement 446 kg/m3

Water 191.58 kg/m3
Coarse Aggregate 1134.707 kg/m3
Fine Aggregate 645.419 kg/m3
Chemical admixture nil
Water cement ratio 0
Proportion obtained 1:1.45:2.54:0.43
(cement: fine aggregate: coarse
aggregate: water)
h) Volume of ingredients:
No. of cubes to cast = 4
Volume of 1 cube = 0.150 m× 0.150 m× 0.150 m = 0.003375 m 3
Volume of 4 cubes = 0.003375×4 = 0.0135 m 3
(Adding 20% extra volume for losses)
Total volume of 4 cubes = 0.0162 m3
i) Weight of ingredients:
Amount of ingredients for the 4 cubes are,
Cement = 446 × 0.0162 = 7.22 kg
Coarse aggregate = 1134.707 × 0.0162 = 18.38 kg
Fine aggregate (sand) = 645.419 × 0.012 = 10.45 kg
Water cement ratio = 0.43 × 446 × 0.0162 = 3.10 litre
Coir fiber:
(1) When 0.25% is taken = 0.0025×7.22 = 0.01805kg = 18.05gm
(4) When 1% is taken = 0.01×7.22 = 0.0722kg = 72.2gm
34
3.8 FIBER REINFORCED CONCRETE CHARACTERISTICS
In this project, we have used coir fibers of different lengths i.e. 1inch, 1.5inch, 2inch inside
the concrete cubes of size 150 mm× 150 mm× 150 mm in different percentages with
respect to the amount of cement in the concrete mix i.e. 0.25%, 0.50%, 0.75% and 1% then
casted. And the fresh state property of the mix design as well as the hardened state
properties is studied with certain proceedings and concrete laboratory test calculations.
Factors affecting the Properties of fiber reinforced concrete:
1. Volume of fibers: They have low modulus of elasticity and high impact strength.
Moderate volume fraction of use (between 0.5 to 2 percent), used in slab and
pavement that have large, exposed surface leading to high shrinkage cracking. Low
volume fraction (less than 1%) in structures which requires improved capacity
against delaminating, spalling and fatigue. High volume fraction (greater than 2%)
used in making high performance fiber reinforced composites.
2. Aspect ratio of fiber: It is defined as ratio of the length of fiber to its diameter
(Length of fiber/diameter of fiber). In this project, we have taken fibers of three
different lengths i.e., 1 inch, 1.5 inch & 2 inch and their aspect ratios are 51,76 &
102 respectively. Increase in the aspect ratio up to 75, there is increase in relative
strength and toughness. Beyond 75 of aspect ratio, there is decrease in aspect ratio
and toughness.
Table 3.5: Aspect ratio properties
Figure 3.17: Curve of tensile strength v/s aspect ratio
35
3. Orientation of fiber: Inside the cube the fibers can be aligned or oriented in three
ways, firstly, aligned in the direction perpendicular to load, secondly, aligned in
the direction of load or random distribution of fibers. It is observed that fibers
aligned parallel to applied load offered more tensile strength and toughness than
randomly distributed or perpendicular fibers.
Figure 3.18: Orientation of fiber
4. Relative fiber matrix stiffness: Modulus of elasticity of matrix must be less than of
fibers for efficient stress transfer. Low modulus of fibers (e.g. coir) imparts more
energy absorption while high modulus fibers (e.g. steel) imparts strength and
stiffness.
3.9 COCONUT FIBER REINFORCED CUBE CASTING

For all the mix proportioning works M30 grade of concrete (1:0.75:1) is taken under
consideration. To understand the effect in strength by the insertion of coconut fibers or
coir fibers of 1inch, 1.5inch and 2inch lengths of 0.25%, 0.50%, 0.75% and 1% of the
amount of cement (obtained from calculation) in the dry ingredients for the M30 grade
concrete mix giving water with respect to prescribed water-cement ratio is the working
purpose.
Figure3.19: Coconut fiber
36
Figure3.20: Fiber insertion in the concrete mix
3.10 METHODOLOGY
3.10.1 Portland Pozzolana Cement
Portland pozzolana cement was used for casting the specimens. The cement was tested in
the laboratory for evaluation of physical properties. The specific gravity was 3.15. The
laboratory tests conducted are as follows:
3.10.1.1 Standard Consistency test (IS 4031-Part 4, 1988)
The standard consistency of a cement paste is defined as that consistency which will permit
the vicat plunger to penetrate to a point 5 to 7mm from the bottom of the vicat mould. The
purpose of conducting this test is to find the amount of water to be added to the cement to
get a normal consistency. The result obtained from this test is used to fix the quantity of
water to be mixed in cement before conforming test for tensile strength, sitting time and
soundness.
Figure 3.21: Vicat apparatus with vicat mould
3.10.1.2 Initial setting Time (IS 4031- Part 5, 1988)
Initial setting time is the time when the paste starts losing its plasticity. And setting time
is the time required for stiffening of cement paste to a defined consistency. It is the time
37
taken for the cement paste or cement concrete to harden sufficiently and attain the shape
of the sculpt in which it is cast. It is the stage in the process of hardening after which any
crack that may reappear will not unite.
Figure 3.22: Vicat apparatus with vicat mould
3.10.1.3 Final setting time (IS 4031-Part 5,1988)
Final setting time is that time period between the time water is added to cement and the
time at which 1mm needle makes an impression on the paste in the mould but 5mm
attachment does not make any impression.
3.10.1.4 Fineness of cement (IS 4031-Part 1,1996)

Fineness is a measure of total surface area of cement. For finer cements surface area will
be more. Fineness influences the rate of hydration, rate of strength development, shrinkage
and rate of evolution of heat.
Table 3.6: Specification of cement
Particulars Test results Requirements as per

IS 1489:1991
Normal consistency 33% --------
Initial setting time (in 95 30 (min)
minutes)
Final setting time (in 560 600(max)
minutes)
Fineness (m2/kg) 230 225 (min)
3 days compressive 16.2 16 (min)
strength, in MPa
strength, in MPa
strength, in MPa
38
3.10.2 Fine aggregate
Alluvial sand extracted from locally available source was used as fine aggregate. The
specific gravity was found to be 2.68. Sieve analysis of sand was done to find the zone of
the sand.
3.10.2.1 Sieve analysis of sand (IS 2386(Part 1 )1963, IS 383-1970)
Sieve analysis is used in the engineering classification of soil. It is the distribution of

particle sizes expressed as a percentage of the total dry weight. It is determined by passing
the material through a series of sieves stacked with progressively smaller openings from
top to bottom and weighing the material retained on each sieve.
Total weight of sample taken = 500 gm
Table 3.7: Sieve analysis
Sl IS Sieve Wt. Cumulative % wt. Cumulative % wt.

no. Size retained(gm) Wt. retained % retained passing(finer)
retained
1 4.75mm 13.5 13.5 2.71 2.71 97.28
2 2.36mm 12.5 26 2.51 5.23 94.78
3 1.18mm 85.5 111.5 17.17 22.4 77.61
4 600𝜇 105 216.5 21.08 43.48 56.53
5 425𝜇 46.5 263 9.33 52.81 47.18
6 300𝜇 102.5 365.5 20.58 73.39 26.60
7 150𝜇 105 470.5 21.08 94.47 5.52
8 75𝜇 22.5 493 4.51 98.98 1.004
9 Pan 5 498 1.02 100 0
39
Figure 3.23: Particle size distribution curve
Specification of fine aggregates:
 As per IS 383:2016 the sand sample belongs to Zone II.

 Specific gravity = 2.68
3.10.3 Coarse aggregate
Well graded crushed coarse aggregate extracted from locally available source was used for
preparation of the concrete mixes. The maximum nominal size of coarse aggregates was
20mm.
Specification of coarse aggregates:
 Specific gravity = 2.72

 Bulk density = 1529 kg/m3
3.10.4 Water
Portable water available in the Concrete Technology laboratory was used for the
preparation of the concrete mixes.
40
3.10.5 Fibers
Coconut fibers were used in the preparation of the fiber reinforced concrete mixes. The
commercially available coconut fibers were used. The aspect ratio was decided based on
the available theory related to the strength and workability of concrete. Detailed
explanation regarding the aspect ratio and its selection is mentioned in the succeeding
sections.
However, to achieve the desired aspect ratio the coconut fibers were cut into specified
length manually in the laboratory.
3.10.6 Mixing, placing, compaction and curing of concrete
The main purpose of mixing is to produce an intimate mixture of cement, water, fine and
coarse aggregate and possible admixtures of uniform consistency throughout each batch.
The materials are mixed preferably in a mechanical mixer of revolving drum type.
Maximum time is 90 seconds for each additional 400 liters of capacity or fraction thereof.
This period should be counted after all the materials are in the drum. The mixer should be
operated at speed recommended by its manufacturer. Conveying of concrete from the
mixture to the form is done manually in small buckets, wheel burrows or buggies or
horizontal runways or by pumping through steel pipes. The main danger during conveying
is of segregation. The individual components of concrete tend to segregate because of their
dissimilarity. In overly wet concrete standing in containers or forms, the heavier gravel
components tend to settle and the lighter materials tend to rise. Precautions must be taken
to avoid the segregation.
Placing of concrete is the process is the process of transferring the fresh concrete
from the conveying device to its final place in the forms. Prior to placing, loose rust must
be removed from reinforcement, forms must be cleaned, and hardened surfaces of previous
concrete lifts must be cleaned and treated appropriately. The method of placing should be
such that segregation, displacement of forms or of reinforcement in the forms is avoided.
Occasionally, concrete has to be placed under adverse weather conditions must conform
to specifications covered in clause 13 of IS: 456-1978.
Immediately upon placing, the concrete should be compacted by means of hand
tools or vibrators. The compaction by tamping rods requires the adoption of high water-
cement ratio to enable the concrete to flow readily around the reinforcement. The
compaction by high frequency power driven vibrators has the advantage that they allow
the use of stiff mixes and consequently of leaner mixes for the same strength. Such
compaction prevents honeycombing, ensures more impermeable and dense concrete,
better bond between concrete and reinforcement and a better finish. These vibrators may
be of internal type or external type. The internal vibrator or the needle vibrator is immersed
in concrete whereas the external vibrator is attached to the forms.
Fresh concrete gains strength most rapidly during the first few days due to
hydration of cement which can take place only in the presence of water. Design of
reinforced concrete structures is based on 28 days strength of 15cm cubes about 70% of
which is attained at the end of the first week after placing. The final strength of concrete
41
depends greatly on the conditions of moisture and temperature during this initial period.
The maintenance of proper conditions during this period is known as curing. The purpose
of curing is to prevent the loss of water in concrete from evaporation and to supplement
water consumed in hydration of cement.
About 30% of the strength can be lost by premature drying out of the concrete and
similar amount may be lost by permitting concrete temperature to drop to 2oC or lower
during the first few days. To prevent such damage, concrete should be protected from loss
of moisture for at least 7 days. Curing can be done in several ways such as:
a) Moist curing which consists of the application of water directly to the concrete or
by means of continuously saturated coverings of sand, straw of hessian etc.
b) Surface application of calcium chloride which not only absorbs moisture from the
atmosphere but also prevents the evaporation of a part of the mixing water.
c) Membrane curing in which certain chemicals are sprayed to form an impervious
film on the surface of the concrete which prevents the evaporation of moisture.
The chemical reaction of hydration of cement can be achieved by resorting to steam curing
at atmospheric pressure. An efficient steam curing cycle depends on the pre-curing period,
the rate of increase and decrease of pre-curing period, the rate of increase and decrease of
temperature, and the level and duration of constant temperature. The object of steam curing
is to develop high early strength of concrete so that concrete products may be removed
from the formwork and handled as early as possible. It is mainly used in precast or precast
or prestressed concrete works.
For the purpose of understanding the strength of concrete compressive strength
test has been performed. Different sets of samples of varying lengths and varying
compositions of coir fibers are prepared and tested in the compression testing machine
after 7 days, 28 days and 56 days of curing. A total of 52 cubes of concrete were prepared
for performing the compressive strength test. The process of preparation of cubes for
compression testing has been discussed below.
Figure 3.24: 150 mm× 150 mm× 150 mm size cube
42
3.10.7 Casting of cubes with 0% fiber
1. Hand Mixing:
Hand mixing is the process of mixing the ingredients of the concrete manually without a
mixer machine. Mixing concrete without a mixer is used only for small works where the
concrete requirement is less.
In this method the cement is mixed with the fine aggregates on a water tight none-
absorbent platform until the mixture is thoroughly blended and is of uniform color. Next
the coarse aggregates are added with cement and fine aggregate until the coarse aggregate
is uniformly distributed throughout the batch. After that weighted amount of water is added
to the mix until the concrete appears to be homogeneous and achieves the desired
consistency
Figure 3.25: Mixture of ingredients
2. Slump test (for the fresh state):

By placing the cone next to the mound of wet concrete and putting the steel bar level on
top of it, extended over the top of the mound. It is needed to immediately measure the
distance between the bottom of the steel bar and the top of the concrete mound. The
distance, measured to the nearest 1/4 inch is the concrete slump. The concrete slump test
measures the consistency of fresh concrete before it sets. It is performed to check the
workability of freshly made concrete, and therefore the ease with which concrete flows. It
can also be used as an indicator of an improperly mixed batch.
Figure 3.26: Slump test
The slump test value is found to be 85 mm .
43
3. Placing of concrete in the cubes:
Concrete is placed in the four cubes after completing slump test. The moulds are made of
cast iron. The cube mould is made in two halves to facilitate removal of the concrete cube
without damage. When assembled, all the internal angles of the mould must be right
angles. An oil film provided between the contact surfaces of the bottom of the mould and
the base. The inside of the mould is oiled to prevent the concrete from sticking to it.
Initially the moulds are cleaned and oil is applied thoroughly inside the mould. Next
concrete is filled in the mould in layers approximately of 5cm thick. Following that next
layer is compacted with not less than 25 strokes per layer using a tamping rod (steel bar
16mm diameter and 60cm long, bullet pointed at lower end). The top surface is leveled
and the cubes are placed on vibrator machine so that no voids remain in cubes.
Figure3.27: Cube casting
4. Compaction of the concrete:

The mould is placed on top starting the vibrating table with leveling the mix off using a
trowel. This gives a smooth and level base for a professional finish. After finishing, mould
is left to set.
Figure3.28: Compaction and casting
44
5. Curing:
In this stage, the test specimens are stored in moist air for 24 hours and after this period
the specimens are marked and removed from the moulds and kept submerged in water
until taken out prior to test.
Figure3.29: Curing of concrete cubes inside water
6. Procedure for compressive strength test (for the hardened state):

a) To conduct the compressive strength test, first the specimens are removed from
water after 7, 28 and 56 days of curing and then they are left to dry for a few hours.
b) Next, the bearing surface of the testing machine is cleaned.
c) Then, the specimen is placed in the machine in such a manner that the load shall
be applied to the opposite sides of the cube cast.
d) Next, the specimen is aligned centrally on the base plate of the machine.
e) After that, the movable portion is rotated gently by hand so that it touches the top
surface of the specimen.
f) Then, load is applied gradually without shock and continuously at the rate of
7KN/sec till the specimen fails.
g) Finally, the maximum load is recorded.
Figure 3.30: Crushing of cube.
45
Figure 3.31: Data screen of compressive testing machine.
3.10.8 Casting of cubes by adding 0.25% coir fiber of varying lengths
1. Hand Mixing
Hand mixing is the process of mixing the ingredients of the concrete manually without a
mixer machine. Mixing concrete without a mixer is used only for small works where the
concrete requirement is less.
In this method the cement is mixed with the fine aggregates on a water tight none-
absorbent platform until the mixture is thoroughly blended and is of uniform color. Next
the coarse aggregates are added with cement and fine aggregate until the coarse aggregate
is uniformly distributed throughout the batch. Then coir fibers of varying lengths(1inch,
1.5inch and 2inch) of 0.25% of the amount of cement (18.05gm) is added in the mixture
and mixed properly. After that weighted amount of water is added to the mix until the
concrete appears to be homogeneous and achieves the desired consistency.
The casting of cubes using different lengths of fiber are done separately in three sets (set
1: using 0.25% of 1inch, set 2: using 0.25% of 1.5inch fiber, set 3: using 0.25% of 2inch).
Each set contains four cubes.
Figure 3.32: Mixing of ingredients
46
2. Slump test (for the fresh state):
It is needed to immediately measure the distance between the bottom of the steel bar and
the top of the concrete mound. Slump test measures the consistency of
fresh concrete before it sets. It is performed to check the workability of freshly
made concrete, and therefore the ease with which concrete flows.
The slump test values are:
SAMPLE (0.25% of coir SLUMP VALUE

fiber)
Set 1 (1 inch) 80mm
Set 2 (1.5 inch) 70mm
Set 3 (2 inch) 65mm
Figure3.33: Slump test
3. Placing of concrete in the cubes:

Concrete is placed in the four cubes after completing slump test. Initially the moulds are
cleaned and oil is applied thoroughly inside the mould. Next concrete is filled in the mould
in layers approximately of 5cm thick. Following that next layer is compacted with not less
than 25 strokes per layer using a tamping rod (steel bar 16mm diameter and 60cm long,
bullet pointed at lower end). The top surface is leveled and the cubes are placed on vibrator
machine so that no voids remain in cubes.
Figure3.34: Casting of cube
47
4. Compaction of the concrete:
The mould is placed on top starting the vibrating table with leveling the mix off using a
trowel. This gives a smooth and level base for a professional finish. After finishing, mould
is left to set.
Figure3.35: Vibrating table

5. Curing:
In this stage, the test specimens are stored in moist air for 24 hours and after this period
the specimens are marked and removed from the moulds and kept submerged in water
until taken out prior to test.
Figure3.36: Curing of cubes
6. Procedure for compressive strength test (for the hardened state):

a) To conduct the compressive strength test, first the specimens are removed from
water after 7, 28 and 56 days of curing and then they are left to dry for a few hours.
b) Next, the bearing surface of the testing machine is cleaned.
c) Then, the specimen is placed in the machine in such a manner that the load shall
be applied to the opposite sides of the cube cast.
d) Next, the specimen is aligned centrally on the base plate of the machine.
e) After that, the movable portion is rotated gently by hand so that it touches the top
surface of the specimen.
f) Then, load is applied gradually without shock and continuously at the rate of
7KN/sec till the specimen fails.
g) Finally, the maximum load is recorded.
48
Figure 3.37: Crushing of cube
Figure 3.38: Data screen of compressive testing machine.
3.10.9 Casting of cubes by adding 0.50% of coir fiber of varying lengths
For casting of cubes by adding 0.50% of coir fibers of varying lengths, the same procedure
can be followed as done in the casting of cubes by adding 0.25% coir fiber.
SAMPLE(0.50% of coir fiber) SLUMP VALUE

Set 1 (1 inch) 80 mm
Set 2 (1.5 inch) 70 mm
49
3.10.10 Casting of cubes by adding 0.75% of coir fiber of varying lengths

For casting of cubes by adding 0.75% of coir fibers of varying lengths, the same procedure
SAMPLE(0.75% of coir fiber) SLUMP VALUE

50
3.10.11 Casting of cubes by adding 1% of coir fiber of varying lengths
For casting of cubes by adding 1% of coir fibers of varying lengths, the same procedure
SAMPLE(1% of coir fiber) SLUMP VALUE

Figure 3.41: Slump test
51
CHAPTER 4
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 OVERVIEW
The fresh and hardened state properties of concrete were evaluated by conducting slump
test for workability and compressive strength test at 7,28 and 56 days for strength. The
observations from the laboratory experiments are presented elaborately in this chapter.
The results from the tests are presented in tabular and graphical form for comparison of
the properties of the various mixes with various compositions of fibers and arrive at
suitable conclusion.
4.1.1 Comparison of Compressive Strength of cubes (with varying percentage of

1inch fiber)
Table 4.1-Compressive Strength of Cubes (1inch fiber).
Compositions 0% 0.25% 0.5% 0.75% 1%

7 Days 19.5 19.9 20.6 21.7 16.7
28 Days 30.1 30.5 33.1 32.1 26.1
30.3 30.7 32.1 32.3 25.8
Average 30.2 30.6 32.6 32.2 25.95
56 days 30.5 31.2 33.5 34.1 27.2
Figure 4.1: Compressive Strength of Cubes (1inch fiber).
52
From the above graphical representation, it can be observed that compressive strength of
concrete increases as the number of days increases. Also, by adding coir (of 1 inch fiber)
to the concrete at 0.25% ,0.5% & 0.75% of the cement content, it gives more compressive
strength but adding coir at 1% of the cement content the compressive strength is found to
be decreased.
4.1.2 Comparison of Compressive Strength of cubes (with varying percentage of

1.5inch fiber)
Table 4.2: Compressive Strength of Cubes (1.5inch fiber)
Compositions 0% 0.25% 0.5% 0.75% 1%

7 Days 19.5 19.6 20.1 20.3 14.5
28 Days 30.1 32.5 34.3 34.2 26
30.3 32.4 32.1 33.2 25.9
Average 30.2 32.45 33.2 33.7 25.95
56 days 30.5 33.1 34.6 35.3 28.3
Figure 4.2: Compressive Strength of Cubes (1.5inch fiber)

From the above graphical representation, it can be observed that the compressive strength
of concrete increases as the number of days increases. Also, by adding coir to the concrete
(of 1.5inch fiber) at 0.25% ,0.5% & 0.75% of the cement content, the concrete gives more
53
compressive strength but adding coir at 1% of the cement content the compressive strength
is observed to be decreased.
4.1.3 Comparison of compressive strength of cubes (with varying percentage of

2inch fiber)
Table 4.3: Compressive Strength of Cubes (2inch fiber).
Compositions 0% 0.25% 0.5% 0.75% 1%

7 Days 19.5 21 21.5 22.4 15.3
28 Days 30.1 33.3 34.2 33.1 27.6
30.3 33.7 33.6 35.8 26.3
Average 30.2 33.5 33.9 34.45 27.6
56 days 30.5 34.5 35.6 36.1 28.4
Figure 4.3: Comparison Compressive Strength of Cubes (2inch fiber).
of concrete increases as the number of days increases. Also, by adding coir to the concrete
(of 2inch fiber) at 0.25% ,0.50% & 0.75% of the cement content, concrete gives more
compressive strength but adding coir at 1% of the cement content the compressive strength
is observed to be decreased.
54
4.1.4. Comparison of compressive strength of cubes (with varying percentage of
varying lengths at 7 days)
Table 4.4: Comparison of compressive strength at 7 days
Compositions 0.25% 0.50% 0.75% 1.00%

1 inch 19.9 20.6 21.7 16.7
1.5 inch 19.6 20.1 20.3 14.5
2 inch 21 21.5 22.4 15.3
Figure 4.4: Comparison of compressive strength at 7 days
From the above graphical representation, it can be seen that at 7 days when 0.25%, 0.50%
and 0.75% of coir fibers of different lengths (1inch, 1.5inch and 2inch) are added then the
compressive strength increases gradually but at 1% the compressive strength decreases.
55
Compositions 0.25% 0.50% 0.75% 1.00%

1 inch 30.6 32.6 32.2 25.95
1.5 inch 32.45 33.2 33.7 25.9
2 inch 33.5 33.9 34.45 27.6
56
Compositions 0.25% 0.50% 0.75% 1.00%

1 inch 31.6 33.5 34.1 27.2
1.5 inch 33.1 34.6 35.3 28.3
2 inch 34.5 35.6 36.1 28.4
57
4.1.7. Comparison of compressive strength of cubes (with varying lengths at 0.25%
composition)
Table 4.7: Comparison of compressive strength at 0.25% of coir fiber
Fiber length 7 Days 28 Days 56 Days

1 inch 19.9 30.6 31.6
1.5 inch 19.6 32.6 33.1
2 inch 21 33.5 34.5
Figure 4.7: Comparison of compressive strength at 0.25% of coir fiber
of concrete increases gradually with time when 0.25% of coir fiber of different lengths i.e.,
1inch, 1,5inch and 2inch is added.
58
composition)
Table 4.8: Comparison of compressive strength at 0.50% fiber content

1 inch 20.6 32.6 33.5
1.5 inch 20.1 33.2 34.6
2 inch 21.5 33.9 35.6
Figure 4.8: Comparison of compressive strength at 0.50% fiber content
From the above graphical representation, it can be observed that the compressive
strength of concrete increases gradually with time when 0.50% of coir fiber of different
lengths i.e., 1inch, 1,5inch and 2inch is added.
59
composition)
Table 4.9: Comparison of compressive strength at 0.75% fiber content

1 inch 21.7 32.2 34.1
1.5 inch 20.3 33.7 35.3
2 inch 22.4 34.45 36.1
Figure 4.9: Comparison of compressive strength at 0.75% fiber content
of concrete increases gradually with time when 0.75% of coir fiber of different lengths i.e.,
1inch, 1,5inch and 2inch is added.
60
composition)
Table 4.10: Comparison of compressive strength at 1% fiber content

1 inch 16.7 25.95 27.2
1.5 inch 14.5 25.95 28.3
2 inch 15.3 27.6 28.4
Figure 4.10: Comparison of compressive strength at 1% fiber content
From the above graphical representation, it can be observed that the compressive
strength of concrete increases gradually with time when 1% of coir fiber of different
lengths i.e., 1inch, 1,5inch and 2inch is added.
61
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION
Coconut fiber is available in abundance at the test site, which makes it quite viable as a
reinforcement material in concrete. In this project fibers (of coconut) were used to prepare
concrete. Total fiftytwo numbers of concrete mixes were prepared which included four
Portland cement concrete mix and fortyeight numbers of fiber concrete mixes. Following
are the significant observations made from the study:
1. Coconut Fiber concrete is a promising construction material which can be used in the
modern construction world because of its superior properties compared to Portland cement
concrete.
2. The addition of fibers in concrete influences the workability. The slump value
decreases due to the addition of fibers in concrete.
3. The slump value reduction due to the addition of coconut fibers in concrete is
prominent.
4. The compressive strength of the concrete monotonously increases due to the addition
of fibers.
5. The crack width in fiber reinforced concrete is usually smaller than the Portland cement
concrete.
6. Coconut fiber being low in density reduces the weight of the fiber reinforced concrete.
7. The compressive strength and Split Tensile Strength of concrete gets the maximum
value at the mix.
8. Since by addition of fibers in the concrete the strengths of the specimens get decreased
when fiber used at 1% of cement content. Hence, it can be conclude that the fiber should
not be used beyond 1% of Cement content.
Various other types of fibers can be used to prepare fiber concrete and study the
properties. Durability study of the fiber concrete can be carried out. Bond strength of fiber
reinforced concrete can also be evaluated by conducting laboratory test. Numerical
analysis of fiber reinforced concrete can be carried out to understand the behaviour due to
different loadings. From the addition of coir fibers in concrete, on the basis of different
test it is evident that there is a significant improvement in the quality of the modified
concrete. The use of fibers with cement composite is potentially an encouraging technique
for developing sustainable materials to be applied in the concrete industry. Hence concrete
with fiber’s incorporation is not only a successful eco-friendly step but also a proper
answer to the need of a sustainable as well as an economic process of construction.
62
Due to its relatively higher strength and ductility. It can be a good replacement for
asbestos fiber in roofing sheets, which being natural in origin pose zero threat to the
environment. Since concrete attains higher strength it can be used to manufacture building
blocks at a relatively lower cost as compared to plain concrete blocks thus making it
suitable for also rural buildings.
63
REFERENCE
[1] Ali M et al. Construction and Building Materials 30 (2012) 814–8 (2012); mechanical
and dynamic properties of coconut fiber reinforced concrete.
[2] Ruben J et al Int. Journal of Engineering Research and Applications ISSN : 2248-9622,
Vol. 4, Issue 1( Version 3), January 2014, pp.128-131
[3] S. Sharmila and Dr. Thirugnana G; Behaviour of Reinforced Concrete Flexural

Member with hybrid fiber under Cyclic Loading; International Journal of Science,
Environment ISSN 2278-3687 (O) and Technology, Vol. 2, No 4, 2013, 725 – 734.
[4] Nishane U and Dr. Thakare N Int. Journal of Engineering Research and Application
ISSN : 2248-9622, Vol. 7, Issue 5, ( Part -2) May 2017, pp.40-44.
[5] Rai A et al Int. Journal of Engineering Research and Applications ISSN : 2248-9622,
Vol. 4, Issue 5( Version 1), May 2014, pp.123-131.
[6] Sawant R and Ghugal Y; Study of High Strength Fiber Reinforced Concrete under
Flexure; INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL FOR RESEARCH IN EMERGING SCIENCE
AND TECHNOLOGY, VOLUME-2, ISSUE-11, NOV-2015.
[7] Kumar N and Sharma S; A Review study on use of Steel Fiber as Reinforcement
Material with Concrete; IOSR Journal of Mechanical and Civil Engineering (IOSR-JMCE)
e-ISSN: 2278-1684,p-ISSN: 2320-334X, Volume 12, Issue 4 Ver. III (Jul. - Aug. 2015),
PP 95-98.
[8] Navya G and Rao J; Experimental Investigation on Properties Concrete Paver Block
with the Inclusion of Natural Fibers; Int. Journal of Engineering Research and Applications
ISSN : 2248-9622, Vol. 4, Issue 8( Version 6), August 2014, pp.34-38.
[9] Utkarsh R et al. Experimental studies on fiber reinforced concrete; e. Int. Journal of
Engineering Research and Application; ISSN : 2248-9622, Vol. 7, Issue 5, ( Part -2) May
2017, pp.40-44.
[10] Kumar D and Vikranth J; Experimental Study on Strength and Durability

Characteristics of Fibre Reinforced Recyled Aggregate Concrete; Journal of Engineering
Research and Applications , ISSN : 2248-9622, Vol. 3, Issue 6, Nov-Dec 2013, pp.1883-
1892.
[11] Ragavendra S et al. Fiber Reinforced Concrete – A Case Study, Published 20

December 2017; pp.80-89.
[12] IS 4031- Part 4, 1988 – Standard Consistency Test
64
[13] IS 4031- Part 5, 1988 – Initial Setting Time and Final Setting Time.
[14] IS 4031- Part 1, 1996 – Fineness of cement.
[15] IS 2386- Part 1, 1963 – IS 383 – 1970 – Sieve Analysis of Sand.
[16] IS 1489 (Part 1): 1991 – Portland Pozzolana Cement Specification.
[17] 10262: 2019 – Concrete Mix Proportioning – Guidelines
[18] IS 383: 2016 Coarse and Fine Aggregate For Concrete - Specification
65

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CHAPTER 1

1.1.1 Fiber Reinforced Concrete

Glass fiber Steel fiber Aramid fiber

Coir fiber Sugarcane fiber Bamboo fiber

Figure 1.1: Different types of fibers

1.1.2 Advantages of Fiber-reinforced concrete

1.1.3 Disadvantages of Fiber-reinforced concrete

1) High strength concrete: Concrete giving strength above 60 MPa and up to

1.2 Objectives of the study

1) To prepare mix proportion of Portland Pozzolana Cement concrete and fiber

2.1 REVIEW OF PAPERS PUBLISHED ON FIBER

Figure. 2.3 – 30 mm coir Fiber

(c) S.Sharmila et al.(2013) studied the compressive strength of fiber reinforced

 Instead of adding single fiber, the combination of different types of fibers

(d) Utkarsh R et al (2017) in their paper ‘Experimental studies on fiber reinforced

Figure 2.4:Compressive strength of Figure 2.5:Compressive strength of

Figure 2.6: Compressive strength of 0.7% fiber

Figure 2.7 Variation of flexural strength Figure 2.8 Percentage variation of

Figure 2.11:Bar graph of compressive Figure 2.12:Bar graph of compressive

(k) Raghvendra S et al on their research paper Fiber Reinforced Concrete – A Case

Figure 2.14:Graphical representation of Figure 2.15:Graphical representation of

3.2 THEORETICAL OVERVIEW

3.2.1 Compressive Strength

Compressive Strength = Load / Cross-sectional Area

3.2.1.2 Factors affecting compressive strength of concrete:

1) Coarse aggregate: Concrete is made homogenous by combining aggregates,

3.3.1.1 Properties of concrete

LogC = LogA – xLogB

In compacting concrete, the energy is spent in two ways:

Table.3.1: Workability for different placing conditions

Degree of workability Placing Compacting Vee-Bee time Slump

3.3.2.1. Portland Pozzolana Cement

3.3.2.2 Ordinary Portland Cement

According to Portland Cement, Ordinary Portland Cement (GB175-1999), the

The majority of ordinary Portland cement is Portland cement clinker whose

3.3.2.3 Rapid hardening Portland cement

The cement is manufactured by intimately mixing together calcareous and argillaceous

3.3.2.4 Portland slag cement

Blast furnace slag is non-metallic product consisting essentially of glass containing

Figure 3.3: Physical appearance of Portland slag cement

3.3.2.6 High alumina cement

Figure 3.4: Physical appearance of High alumina cement

3.3.2.7 Super-sulphated cement

Figure 3.5: Physical appearance of Super-sulphated cement

3.3.2.8 Masonry cement

3.3.2.9 Oil well cement

Figure3.6: Fine aggregate (sand)

Figure3.7: Coarse aggregate

Coconut fibers are commercially available in three forms:-

1) Bristle fiber: These are long fibers.

Figure 3.8: Bristle fiber

2) Mattress fiber: These are relatively short fibers.

Figure 3.9: Mattress fiber

Figure3.10: Decorticated fibers

3.3.4.1 Types of coir fiber

Figure3.11: Brown Coir fiber

Figure 3.12: White Coir fiber

3.4 DESIGN OF CONCRETE MIX

3.5 MIX PROPORTIONING

3.5.2 Target strength

3.6 SELECTION OF WATER-CEMENT RATIO

Figure 3.13: Table 5 of IS 456:2000

3.7 CONCRETE MIX DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR M30 GRADE OF