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complete.
Literature review current through: Sep 2022. | This topic last updated: Apr 26, 2022.
EPIDEMIOLOGY
● It accounts for at least 2.5 percent of all clinician visits, 2 million lost
school days, 6 million lost work days, and 28 million restricted work days
per year.
RISK FACTORS
The following are proposed or identified risk factors for allergic rhinitis [27-
29]:
CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS
Young children typically do not blow their noses, and instead, they may
repeatedly snort, sniff, cough, and clear their throats. Some scratch their itchy
palates with their tongues, producing a clicking sound (palatal click).
● Persistent – Symptoms are present more than four days per week and for
more than four weeks
● Mild – None of the items listed below for "moderate-severe" are present
• Sleep disturbance
• Troublesome symptoms
Other commonly used terms are "seasonal," which is allergic rhinitis that
occurs at a particular time of the year (figure 1) and "perennial," which
describes symptoms to allergens that are present year-round [43]. This
system of classification is preferred by the US Food and Drug Administration
(FDA).
Patients whose symptoms occur episodically are often more aware of the
disability caused by allergic rhinitis, whereas patients with chronic symptoms
often adapt to significant impairment over time and may not seek medical
care until symptoms become severe [36,37,44,45]. Children, in particular, will
endure significant disability.
Seasonal allergy rhinitis is usually caused by pollen from trees, grasses, and
weeds. Depending upon the geographic area, pollination periods for certain
types of plants are well known (figure 1). Colloquial names sometimes
correctly identify the triggering pollen (eg, cedar fever), although in other
cases, a plant that is not causing symptoms but is very visible at the same
time is implicated by the name (eg, rose fever, which refers to allergic rhinitis
caused by grasses that pollinate at the same time that roses bloom or
hayfever, which occurs in the fall when hay is being gathered, but is caused
by weed pollens or from mold growing in the hay). Symptoms of seasonal
allergic rhinitis are predictable and reproducible from year to year.
Perennial allergic rhinitis usually reflects allergy to indoor allergens like dust
mites, cockroaches, mold spores, or animal dander, although aeroallergens
may cause perennial rhinitis in tropical or subtropical climates. Perennial
rhinitis due to outdoor allergens is common in subtropical regions with long
pollinating seasons and ubiquitous mold and dust mite allergens. Perennial
symptoms are also seen with occupational allergen exposure [47]. (See
"Occupational rhinitis".)
● The nasal mucosa of patients with active allergic rhinitis frequently has a
pale bluish hue or pallor along with turbinate edema
After the age of two, the prevalence of allergic rhinitis steadily increases,
demonstrating a bimodal peak in the early school and early adult years. In a
prospective study of 2024 children, the prevalence of allergic rhinitis
increased from 5 percent at the age of four years to 14 percent at age eight
years [52]. The prevalence then gradually increases, peaking in early
adulthood. The condition is usually persistent throughout adulthood, with
some improvement in older age [19,55-60].
Allergic rhinitis uncommonly presents for the first time in older adults, unless
there is a significant change in exposures (eg, a new pet or a move to a
different climate). Thus, in an older adult with new nasal symptoms, other
causes of rhinitis should be considered. A change in response to treatment in
older adults may indicate the development of vasomotor or atrophic rhinitis.
(See "Atrophic rhinosinusitis".)
ASSOCIATED CONDITIONS
DIAGNOSIS
If the patient's symptoms prove difficult to manage or the trigger(s) for the
symptoms are not apparent, then further evaluation is indicated to
demonstrate that the patient is sensitized to aeroallergens and that
symptoms occur when expected for the allergens in question. Sensitization
can be demonstrated with either allergy skin testing or in vitro tests for
allergen-specific immunoglobulin E (IgE). (See 'When to refer' below.)
A British study of 143 adult subjects evaluated the ability of specific questions
to identify patients in whom subsequent skin testing for common
aeroallergens was likely to be negative. Among patients who answered "no"
to all four of the below questions, 88 percent had negative results on skin
prick testing to house dust mite, mixed grass pollen, and cat and dog
aeroallergens [67].
For populations living in similar temperate regions of the world, this may be a
useful tool for identifying patients who are less likely to benefit from an
allergic diagnostic evaluation, although it may not apply to all ages and
populations (eg, geographic, climatic, and phenotypic/genotypic
heterogeneity) and should be validated in larger numbers of people.
The internal structures of the nose and the nasal mucosa can be visualized
using a standard office otoscope with a disposable tip. Stabilizing the tip
against the patient's upper nares prevents painful prodding of the mucosa,
which is normally exquisitely sensitive to touch.
Despite the above, the use of diagnostic testing to identify culprit allergens
has been associated with improved patient outcomes [68]. Identifying the
allergens that are important to an individual facilitates avoidance of the
allergen and identifies candidates for allergen immunotherapy, which can
eventually reduce reliance on chronic medications.
● A patient's expressed desire to try to avoid the allergen rather than take
medications to control symptoms
WHEN TO REFER
DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS
Various other disorders can mimic allergic rhinitis or coexist with it in older
children and adults.
• Nasal obstruction
UpToDate offers two types of patient education materials, "The Basics" and
"Beyond the Basics." The Basics patient education pieces are written in plain
language, at the 5th to 6th grade reading level, and they answer the four or
five key questions a patient might have about a given condition. These
articles are best for patients who want a general overview and who prefer
short, easy-to-read materials. Beyond the Basics patient education pieces are
longer, more sophisticated, and more detailed. These articles are written at
the 10th to 12th grade reading level and are best for patients who want in-
depth information and are comfortable with some medical jargon.
Here are the patient education articles that are relevant to this topic. We
encourage you to print or e-mail these topics to your patients. (You can also
locate patient education articles on a variety of subjects by searching on
"patient info" and the keyword(s) of interest.)
● Beyond the Basics topic (see "Patient education: Allergic rhinitis (Beyond
the Basics)")
SUMMARY
● Clinical manifestations – Allergic rhinitis is characterized by paroxysms
of sneezing, rhinorrhea, nasal obstruction, postnasal drainage, and
itching of the eyes, nose, and palate. More insidious effects of the
disorder include fatigue, irritability, reduced performance at school and
work, and depression. (See 'Introduction and terminology' above and
'Clinical manifestations' above.)
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